Evaluating Combined Precursor Isotopic Labeling and Isobaric Tagging Performance on Orbitraps To Study the Peripheral Proteome of Alzheimer's Disease

Alzheimer's disease CSF biomarkers correlate with early pathology and alterations in neuronal and glial gene expression

INTRODUCTION

Normal pressure hydrocephalus (NPH) patients undergoing cortical shunting frequently show early Alzheimer's disease (AD) pathology on cortical biopsy, which is predictive of progression to clinical AD. The objective of this study was to use samples from this cohort to identify cerebrospinal fluid  (CSF) biomarkers for AD-related central nervous system (CNS) pathophysiologic changes using tissue and fluids with early pathology, free of post mortem artifact.

METHODS

We analyzed Simoa, proteomic, and metabolomic CSF data from 81 patients with previously documented pathologic and transcriptomic changes.

RESULTS

AD pathology on biopsy correlates with CSF β-amyloid-42/40, neurofilament light chain (NfL), and phospho-tau-181(p-tau181)/β-amyloid-42, while several gene expression modules correlate with NfL. Proteomic analysis highlights seven core proteins that correlate with pathology and gene expression changes on biopsy, and metabolomic analysis of CSF identifies disease-relevant groups that correlate with biopsy data.

DISCUSSION

As additional biomarkers are added to AD diagnostic panels, our work provides insight into the CNS pathophysiology these markers are tracking.

HIGHLIGHTS

AD CSF biomarkers correlate with CNS pathology and transcriptomic changes. Seven proteins correlate with CNS pathology and gene expression changes. Inflammatory and neuronal gene expression changes correlate with YKL-40 and NPTXR, respectively. CSF metabolomic analysis identifies pathways that correlate with biopsy data. Fatty acid metabolic pathways correlate with β-amyloid pathology.

Alzheimer's disease CSF biomarkers correlate with early pathology and alterations in neuronal and glial gene expression

INTRODUCTION

Normal pressure hydrocephalus (NPH) patients undergoing cortical shunting frequently show early AD pathology on cortical biopsy, which is predictive of progression to clinical AD. The objective of this study was to use samples from this cohort to identify CSF biomarkers for AD-related CNS pathophysiologic changes using tissue and fluids with early pathology, free of post-mortem artifact.

METHODS

We analyzed Simoa, proteomic, and metabolomic CSF data from 81 patients with previously documented pathologic and transcriptomic changes.

RESULTS

AD pathology on biopsy correlates with CSF β-amyloid-40/42, neurofilament light chain (NfL), and phospho-tau-181(p-tau181)/β-amyloid-42, while several gene expression modules correlate with NfL. Proteomic analysis highlights 7 core proteins that correlate with pathology and gene expression changes on biopsy, and metabolomic analysis of CSF identifies disease-relevant groups that correlate with biopsy data..

DISCUSSION

As additional biomarkers are added to AD diagnostic panels, our work provides insight into the CNS pathophysiology these markers are tracking.

Spatial Proteomics toward Subcellular Resolution by Coupling Deep Ultraviolet Laser Ablation with Nanodroplet Sample Preparation

Multiplexed molecular profiling of tissue microenvironments, or spatial omics, can provide critical insights into cellular functions and disease pathology. The coupling of laser microdissection with mass spectrometry-based proteomics has enabled deep and unbiased mapping of >1000 proteins. However, the throughput of laser microdissection is often limited due to tedious two-step procedures, sequential laser cutting, and sample collection. The two-step procedure also hinders the further improvement of spatial resolution to <10 μm as needed for subcellular proteomics. Herein, we developed a high-throughput and high-resolution spatial proteomics platform by seamlessly coupling deep ultraviolet (DUV) laser ablation (LA) with nanoPOTS (Nanodroplet Processing in One pot for Trace Samples)-based sample preparation. We demonstrated the DUV-LA system can quickly isolate and collect tissue samples at a throughput of ∼30 spots/min and a spatial resolution down to 2 μm from a 10 μm thick human pancreas tissue section. To improve sample recovery, we developed a proximity aerosol collection approach by placing DMSO droplets close to LA spots. We demonstrated the DUV-LA-nanoPOTS platform can detect an average of 1312, 1533, and 1966 proteins from ablation spots with diameters of 7, 13, and 19 μm, respectively. In a proof-of-concept study, we isolated and profiled two distinct subcellular regions of the pancreas tissue revealed by hematoxylin and eosin (H&E) staining. Quantitative proteomics revealed proteins specifically enriched to subcellular compartments.

Evaluating cPILOT Data toward Quality Control Implementation

Multiplexing enables the monitoring of hundreds to thousands of proteins in quantitative proteomics analyses and increases sample throughput. In most mass-spectrometry-based proteomics workflows, multiplexing is achieved by labeling biological samples with heavy isotopes via precursor isotopic labeling or isobaric tagging. Enhanced multiplexing strategies, such as combined precursor isotopic labeling and isobaric tagging (cPILOT), combine multiple technologies to afford an even higher sample throughput. Critical to enhanced multiplexing analyses is ensuring that analytical performance is optimal and that missingness of sample channels is minimized. Automation of sample preparation steps and use of quality control (QC) metrics can be incorporated into multiplexing analyses and reduce the likelihood of missing information, thus maximizing the amount of usable quantitative data. Here, we implemented QC metrics previously developed in our laboratory to evaluate a 36-plex cPILOT experiment that encompassed 144 mouse samples of various tissue types, time points, genotypes, and biological replicates. The evaluation focuses on the use of a sample pool generated from all samples in the experiment to monitor the daily instrument performance and to provide a means for data normalization across sample batches. Our results show that tracking QC metrics enabled the quantification of ∼7000 proteins in each sample batch, of which ∼70% had minimal missing values across up to 36 sample channels. Implementation of QC metrics for future cPILOT studies as well as other enhanced multiplexing strategies will help yield high-quality data sets.

Enhanced Multiplexing Technology for Proteomics

The identification of thousands of proteins and their relative levels of expression has furthered understanding of biological processes and disease and stimulated new systems biology hypotheses. Quantitative proteomics workflows that rely on analytical assays such as mass spectrometry have facilitated high-throughput measurements of proteins partially due to multiplexing. Multiplexing allows proteome differences across multiple samples to be measured simultaneously, resulting in more accurate quantitation, increased statistical robustness, reduced analysis times, and lower experimental costs. The number of samples that can be multiplexed has evolved from as few as two to more than 50, with studies involving more than 10 samples being denoted as enhanced multiplexing or hyperplexing. In this review, we give an update on emerging multiplexing proteomics techniques and highlight advantages and limitations for enhanced multiplexing strategies.

HyperSCP: Combining Isotopic and Isobaric Labeling for Higher Throughput Single-Cell Proteomics

Recent developments in mass spectrometry-based single-cell proteomics (SCP) have resulted in dramatically improved sensitivity, yet the relatively low measurement throughput remains a limitation. Isobaric and isotopic labeling methods have been separately applied to SCP to increase throughput through multiplexing. Here we combined both forms of labeling to achieve multiplicative scaling for higher throughput. Two-plex stable isotope labeling of amino acids in cell culture (SILAC) and isobaric tandem mass tag (TMT) labeling enabled up to 28 single cells to be analyzed in a single liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS) analysis, in addition to carrier, reference, and negative control channels. A custom nested nanowell chip was used for nanoliter sample processing to minimize sample losses. Using a 145-min total LC-MS cycle time, ∼280 single cells were analyzed per day. This measurement throughput could be increased to ∼700 samples per day with a high-duty-cycle multicolumn LC system producing the same active gradient. The labeling efficiency and achievable proteome coverage were characterized for multiple analysis conditions.

Translational and post-translational dynamics in a model peptidergic system

The cell bodies of hypothalamic magnocellular neurones are densely packed in the hypothalamic supraoptic nucleus whereas their axons project to the anatomically discrete posterior pituitary gland. We have taken advantage of this unique anatomical structure to establish proteome and phosphoproteome dynamics in neuronal cell bodies and axonal terminals in response to physiological stimulation. We have found that proteome and phosphoproteome responses to neuronal stimulation are very different between somatic and axonal neuronal compartments, indicating the need of each cell domain to differentially adapt. In particular, changes in the phosphoproteome in the cell body are involved in the reorganisation of the cytoskeleton and in axonal terminals the regulation of synaptic and secretory processes. We have identified that prohormone precursors including vasopressin and oxytocin are phosphorylated in axonal terminals and are hyperphosphorylated following stimulation. By multi-omic integration of transcriptome and proteomic data we identify changes to proteins present in afferent inputs to this nucleus.

Evaluating Linear Ion Trap for MS3-Based Multiplexed Single-Cell Proteomics

There is a growing demand to develop high-throughput and high-sensitivity mass spectrometry methods for single-cell proteomics. The commonly used isobaric labeling-based multiplexed single-cell proteomics approach suffers from distorted protein quantification due to co-isolated interfering ions during MS/MS fragmentation, also known as ratio compression. We reasoned that the use of MS3-based quantification could mitigate ratio compression and provide better quantification. However, previous studies indicated reduced proteome coverages in the MS3 method, likely due to long duty cycle time and ion losses during multilevel ion selection and fragmentation. Herein, we described an improved MS acquisition method for MS3-based single-cell proteomics by employing a linear ion trap to measure reporter ions. We demonstrated that linear ion trap can increase the proteome coverages for single-cell-level peptides with even higher gain obtained via the MS3 method. The optimized real-time search MS3 method was further applied to study the immune activation of single macrophages. Among a total of 126 single cells studied, over 1200 and 1000 proteins were quantifiable when at least 50 and 75% nonmissing data were required, respectively. Our evaluation also revealed several limitations of the low-resolution ion trap detector for multiplexed single-cell proteomics and suggested experimental solutions to minimize their impacts on single-cell analysis.

Quantitative proteomics to study aging in rabbit spleen tissues

Aging is a process that occurs in tissues and across species, leading to the degradation of many biological processes. We previously demonstrated that rabbits are a feasible model for studying aging due to their genetic homology and relatively short lifespan in comparison to humans. We utilized a cPILOT multiplexing strategy to identify proteomic changes in spleen tissues of young, middle, and old aged rabbits. We identified 63 proteins that change significantly (p < 0.05) with age and notably these proteins relate to nucleotide and RNA binding, DNA repair, actin regulation, and immune system pathways. Here, we explore the implications of aging in the spleen and demonstrate the utility of a rabbit model to understand aging processes.

Isotopic N,N-dimethyl leucine tags for absolute quantification of clusterin and apolipoprotein E in Alzheimer's disease

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most common form of dementia and one of the leading causes of death in the United States. In the past decades, extensive efforts have been devoted to biomarker discovery for early diagnosis and treatment of AD. Herein, this study aims to quantify clusterin (CLU) and apolipoprotein E (APOE) in blood samples from AD patients and evaluate these two proteins as potential biomarkers in AD diagnosis. In-house synthesized 5-plex isotopic N,N-dimethyl leucine (iDiLeu) tags were used to label target peptide standards at different concentrations to construct standard curves. Our study revealed that the levels of CLU and APOE exhibited clear differences in male vs. female AD groups but not in male vs. female non-AD groups. In contrast, the levels of serum CLU and APOE did not show statistically significant differences in the AD groups and non-AD groups. Principal component analysis (PCA) with CLU and APOE showed some separation between the AD and non-AD participants. Significance: Dissecting CLU and APOE heterogeneity in AD pathogenesis may therefore facilitate delineating the pathological relevance for sex-related pathways, leading to personalized medicine in the future. Collectively, this study introduces a cost-effective absolute quantitative proteomics strategy for target protein quantitation and lays the foundation for future investigation of CLU and APOE as potential biomarkers for AD. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: As blood-based biomarkers for AD diagnosis are cost-effective and introduce less invasiveness, discovery and validation of biomarkers in the blood samples of AD patients have become a hot topic in Alzheimer's and dementia research. Thus far, amyloid β (Aβ), total-tau and phosphorylated tau (p-tau) in blood show great accuracy and specificity in diagnosis of AD. However, the underlying mechanism of AD pathology remains to be elusive and complex. Besides these well studied proteins, many other proteins, such as clusterin (CLU) and apolipoprotein E (APOE) have also been found to be related to AD development. It has been implicated that these two proteins are involved in Aβ clearance and deposition. In this study, we measure the absolute concentrations of these two proteins in blood and shed some light on the potential roles of CLU and APOE in AD pathology. Dissecting CLU and APOE heterogeneity in AD pathogenesis may therefore facilitate delineating the pathological relevance for specific pathways between different genders, leading to personalized medicine in the future. Collectively, this study introduces a cost-effective absolute quantitative proteomics strategy for target protein quantitation and lays the foundation for future investigation of CLU and APOE as potential biomarkers for AD.

13-Plex UHPLC-MS/MS Analysis of Hexanal and Heptanal Using Multiplex Tags Chemical Isotope Labeling Technology

In this work, a new series of chemical isotope labeling reagents, levofloxacin-hydrazide-based mass tags (LHMTs) named as LHMT359/360/361/362/363/364/365/366/373/375/376/378/379/381 were first designed and synthesized for the high-throughput analysis of potential biomarkers containing hexanal and heptanal of lung cancer. We exploited a new core structure of levofloxacin-d₃, which significantly enhanced the multiplexing capability. Among them, LHMT359 was used for labeling standard compounds as internal standards for quantification. Using LHMT373-heptanal as dummy template, dummy magnetic molecularly imprinted polymers (DMMIPs) were prepared for magnetic dispersive solid-phase extraction after derivatization procedure. Other 12 LHMTs were established for high-throughput labeling hexanal and heptanal in human serum samples. The presynthesized DMMIPs can selectively extract LHMTs-derivatives of hexanal and heptanal from equally mixed derivatization solutions. The enriched derivatives of hexanal and heptanal were quantified by ultrahigh-performance liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC-MS/MS). A single UHPLC-MS/MS run enabled simultaneously quantifying hexanal and heptanal from 12 serum samples only within 2 min. The limits of detection were all 0.5 pM for hexanal and heptanal. The accuracies from human serum samples ranged from -10.2% to +11.0% with the intra- and interday precisions less than 11.3%. Meanwhile, this method was successfully applied for the analysis of hexanal and heptanal in serum samples from healthy people and lung cancer patients. The results show that this method has the significant advantages of high sensitivity, accuracy, selectivity, and analysis-throughput. The method application indicates that the developed method is promising in the screening of suspected lung cancer patients.

In Vivo Fast Photochemical Oxidation of Proteins Using Enhanced Multiplexing Proteomics

In vivo fast photochemical oxidation of proteins (IV-FPOP) is a hydroxyl radical protein footprinting method used to study protein structure and protein–protein interactions. Oxidatively modified proteins by IV-FPOP are analyzed by mass spectrometry (MS), and the extent of oxidation is quantified by label-free MS. Peptide oxidation changes yield useful information about protein structure, due to changes in solvent accessibility. However, the sample size necessary for animal studies requires increased sample preparation and instrument time. Here, we report the combined application of IV-FPOP and the enhanced multiplexing strategy combined precursor isotopic labeling and isobaric tagging (cPILOT) for higher-throughput analysis of oxidative modifications in C. elegans. Key differences in the performance of label-free MS and cPILOT were identified. The addition of oxygen (+16) was the most abundant modification identified among all known possible FPOP modifications. This study presents IV-FPOP coupled with enhanced multiplexing strategies such as cPILOT to increase throughput of studies seeking to examine oxidative protein modifications.