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Liu Y, Arjun AM, Webb S, Wolfe M, Chávez JL, Swami NS. Redox cycling-based signal amplification at alkanethiol modified nanoporous gold interdigitated microelectrodes. Anal Chim Acta 2024; 1316:342818. [PMID: 38969402 DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2024.342818] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2024] [Revised: 05/06/2024] [Accepted: 06/02/2024] [Indexed: 07/07/2024]
Abstract
Interdigitated electrodes (IDEs) enable electrochemical signal enhancement through repeated reduction and oxidation of the analyte molecule. Porosity on these electrodes is often used to lower the impedance background. However, their high capacitive current and signal interferences with oxygen reduction limit electrochemical detection ability. We present utilization of alkanethiol modification on nanoporous gold (NPG) electrodes to lower their background capacitance and chemically passivate them from interferences due to oxygen reduction, while maintaining their fast electron transfer rates, as validated by lower separation between anodic and cathodic peaks (ΔE) and lower charge transfer resistance (Rct) values in comparison to planar gold electrodes. Redox amplification based on this modification enables sensitive detection of various small molecules, including pyocyanin, p-aminophenol, and selective detection of dopamine in the presence of ascorbic acid. Alkanethiol NPG arrays are applied as a multiplexed sensor testbed within a well plate to screen binding of various peptide receptors to the SARS COV2 S-protein by using a sandwich assay for conversion of PAPP (4-aminophenyl phosphate) to PAP (p-aminophenol), by the action of AP (alkaline phosphatase), which is validated against optical ELISA screens of the peptides. Such arrays are especially of interest in small volume analytical settings with complex samples, wherein optical methods are unsuitable.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yi Liu
- Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA, 22904, USA
| | - Ajith Mohan Arjun
- Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA, 22904, USA
| | - Sean Webb
- 711th Human Performance Wing, Air Force Research Laboratory, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Dayton, OH, 45433, USA; UES, Inc, Dayton, OH, 45433, USA
| | - Monica Wolfe
- 711th Human Performance Wing, Air Force Research Laboratory, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Dayton, OH, 45433, USA; UES, Inc, Dayton, OH, 45433, USA
| | - Jorge L Chávez
- 711th Human Performance Wing, Air Force Research Laboratory, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Dayton, OH, 45433, USA
| | - Nathan S Swami
- Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA, 22904, USA; Chemistry, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA, 22904, USA.
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2
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Sun C, Huang H, Wang J, Liu W, Yang Z, Yu XF. Applications of electrochemical biosensors based on 2D materials and their hybrid composites in hematological malignancies diagnosis. Technol Cancer Res Treat 2022; 21:15330338221142996. [PMID: 36567603 PMCID: PMC9806386 DOI: 10.1177/15330338221142996] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Hematological malignancies encompass a wide variety of severe diseases that pose a serious threat to human health. Given the fact that hematological malignancies are difficult to treat due to their unpredictable and rapid deterioration and high rates of recurrence, growing attention has been paid to their early screening and diagnosis. However, developing a rapid and effective diagnostic tool featuring a noninvasive sampling technique is still extremely challenging. In recent years, novel nanomaterials-based electrochemical biosensors have attracted great interest because of such advantages as simple operation, low cost, fast response, etc. As a kind of rising nanomaterials, two-dimensional materials have excellent electronic and chemical properties, which have been proven to improve the performance of electrochemical biosensors. This review summarizes the applications of different types of electrochemical biosensors (nucleic acid sensors, immunosensors, aptamer biosensors, and cytosensors) based on two-dimensional materials in the detection of biological molecules related to hematological malignancies. Two-dimensional materials-based electrochemical biosensors designed for the diagnosis of leukemia could rapidly detect the target biomolecules at a trace level and show great merits such as wide linear range, low detection limit, high sensitivity, excellent selectivity, and cost-effectiveness. In addition, these biosensors have also achieved satisfactory results in the diagnosis of lymphoma and multiple myeloma. Thus, two-dimensional materials-based electrochemical biosensors are attractive for the early diagnosis of hematological malignancies in clinical practice. Nevertheless, more efforts are still required to further improve the performance of electrochemical biosensors. In this review, we propose the possible main concerns in the design of future two-dimensional materials-based electrochemical biosensors, involving the development of sensors for synchronous detection of diverse target biomolecules, the exploration of other superior two-dimensional materials, the simplification of the sensors fabrication process, the construction of new hybrid structures and how to avoid possible environmental issues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caixia Sun
- Department of Hematology, Zhanjiang Central Hospital, Guangdong
Medical University, Zhanjiang, China,Shenzhen Institute of Advanced Technology, Chinese Academy of
Sciences, Shenzhen, China
| | - Hao Huang
- Shenzhen Institute of Advanced Technology, Chinese Academy of
Sciences, Shenzhen, China
| | - Jiahong Wang
- Shenzhen Institute of Advanced Technology, Chinese Academy of
Sciences, Shenzhen, China
| | - Wenxin Liu
- Department of Hematology, Zhanjiang Central Hospital, Guangdong
Medical University, Zhanjiang, China
| | - Zhigang Yang
- Department of Hematology, Zhanjiang Central Hospital, Guangdong
Medical University, Zhanjiang, China,Zhigang Yang and Wenxin Liu, Department of
Hematology, Zhanjiang Central Hospital, Guangdong Medical University, Yuanzhu
Road, Chikan District, Zhanjiang 524045, Guangdong, China. Emails:
; Hao
Huang, Shenzhen Institute of Advanced Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences,
No. 1068 Xueyuan Avenue, Shenzhen University Town, Nanshan District, Shenzhen
518055, China.
| | - Xue-Feng Yu
- Shenzhen Institute of Advanced Technology, Chinese Academy of
Sciences, Shenzhen, China
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3
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Sondhi P, Neupane D, Bhattarai JK, Demchenko AV, Stine KJ. Facile fabrication of hierarchically nanostructured gold electrode for bio-electrochemical applications. J Electroanal Chem (Lausanne) 2022; 924:116865. [PMID: 36405880 PMCID: PMC9673609 DOI: 10.1016/j.jelechem.2022.116865] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/31/2022]
Abstract
Nanoporous gold (NPG) is one of the most extensively investigated nanomaterials owing to its tunable pore size, ease of surface modification, and range of applications from catalysis, actuation, and molecular release to the development of electrochemical sensors. In an effort to improve the usefulness of NPG, a simple and robust method for the fabrication of hierarchical and bimodal nanoporous gold electrodes (hb-NPG) containing both macro-and mesopores is reported using electrochemical alloying and dealloying processes to engineer a bicontinuous solid/void morphology. Scanning electron microscopy (color SEM) images depict the hierarchical pore structure created after the multistep synthesis with an ensemble of tiny pores below 100 nm in size located in ligaments spanning larger pores of several hundred nanometers. Smaller-sized pores are exploited for surface modification, and the network of larger pores aids in molecular transport. Cyclic voltammetry (CV) was used to compare the electrochemically active surface area of the hierarchical bimodal structure with that of the regular unimodal NPG with an emphasis on the critical role of both dealloying and annealing in creating the desired structure. The adsorption of different proteins was followed using UV-vis absorbance measurements of solution depletion revealing the high loading capacity of hb-NPG. The surface coverage of lipoic acid on the hb-NPG was analyzed using thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) and reductive desorption. The roughness factor determinations suggest that the fabricated hb-NPG electrode has tremendous potential for biosensor development by changing the scaling relations between volume and surface area which may lead to improved analytical performance. We have chosen to take advantage of the surface architectures of hb-NPG due to the presence of a large specific surface area for functionalization and rapid transport pathways for faster response. It is shown that the hb-NPG electrode has a higher sensitivity for the amperometric detection of glucose than does an NPG electrode of the same geometric surface area.
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Affiliation(s)
- Palak Sondhi
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Missouri–St. Louis, Saint Louis, MO 63121, USA
| | - Dharmendra Neupane
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Missouri–St. Louis, Saint Louis, MO 63121, USA
| | - Jay K. Bhattarai
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Missouri–St. Louis, Saint Louis, MO 63121, USA
| | | | - Keith J. Stine
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Missouri–St. Louis, Saint Louis, MO 63121, USA
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4
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Henkelmann G, Waldow D, Liu M, Lührs L, Li Y, Weissmüller J. Self-Detachment and Subsurface Densification of Dealloyed Nanoporous Thin Films. NANO LETTERS 2022; 22:6787-6793. [PMID: 35952308 PMCID: PMC9413411 DOI: 10.1021/acs.nanolett.2c02666] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/10/2023]
Abstract
Experiment shows thin films of dealloyed nanoporous gold (NPG) spontaneously detaching from massive gold base layers. NPG can also densify near its external surface. This is naturally reproduced by kinetic Monte Carlo (KMC) simulation of dealloying and coarsening and so appears generic for nanoscale network materials evolving by surface diffusion. Near the porous layer's external surface and near its interface with the base layer, gradients in the depth-profile of a laterally averaged mean surface curvature provide driving forces for diffusion and cause divergences of the net fluxes of matter, leading to accretion/densification or to erosion/disconnection. As a toy model, the morphology evolution of substrate-supported nanopillars by surface diffusion illustrates and confirms our considerations. Contrary to cylindrical nanowires, the ligaments in nanoporous materials exhibit pre-existing gradients in the mean curvature. The Plateau-Rayleigh long-wavelength stability criterion is then not applicable and the disconnection accelerated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gideon Henkelmann
- Institute
of Materials Physics and Technology, Hamburg
University of Technology, 21073 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Diana Waldow
- Institute
of Materials Physics and Technology, Hamburg
University of Technology, 21073 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Maowen Liu
- Institute
of Materials Physics and Technology, Hamburg
University of Technology, 21073 Hamburg, Germany
- Institute
of Materials Mechanics, Helmholtz-Zentrum
Hereon, 21502 Geesthacht, Germany
| | - Lukas Lührs
- Institute
of Materials Physics and Technology, Hamburg
University of Technology, 21073 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Yong Li
- Institute
of Materials Physics and Technology, Hamburg
University of Technology, 21073 Hamburg, Germany
- Institute
of Materials Mechanics, Helmholtz-Zentrum
Hereon, 21502 Geesthacht, Germany
| | - Jörg Weissmüller
- Institute
of Materials Physics and Technology, Hamburg
University of Technology, 21073 Hamburg, Germany
- Institute
of Materials Mechanics, Helmholtz-Zentrum
Hereon, 21502 Geesthacht, Germany
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5
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Koster HJ, O’Toole HJ, Chiu KL, Rojalin T, Carney RP. Homogenous high enhancement surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) substrates by simple hierarchical tuning of gold nanofoams. COLLOID AND INTERFACE SCIENCE COMMUNICATIONS 2022; 47:100596. [PMID: 36397833 PMCID: PMC9668102 DOI: 10.1016/j.colcom.2022.100596] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
Surface enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) is a powerful tool for vibrational spectroscopy, providing orders of magnitude increase in chemical sensitivity compared to spontaneous Raman scattering. Yet it remains a challenge to synthesize robust, uniform SERS substrates quickly and easily. Lithographic approaches to produce substrates can achieve high, uniform sensitivity but are expensive and complex, thus difficult to scale. Facile solution-phase chemical approaches often result in unreliable SERS substrates due to heterogeneous arrangement of "hot spots" throughout the material. Here we demonstrate the synthesis and characterization of a homogeneous gold nanofoam (AuNF) substrate produced by a rapid, one-pot, four-ingredient synthetic approach. AuNFs are rapidly nucleated with macroscale porosity and then chemically roughened to produce nanoscale features that confer homogeneous and high signal enhancement (~109) across large areas, a comparable performance to lithographically produced substrates.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Randy P. Carney
- Corresponding author at: Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA 95616, USA. (R.P. Carney)
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6
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Zhang Y, Wang H, Shang K, Wang X, Xu P. Reliable detection of Listeria monocytogenes by a portable paper-based multi-biocatalyst platform integrating three biomarkers: Gene hly, acetoin, and listeriolysin O protein. J Electroanal Chem (Lausanne) 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jelechem.2021.115975] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
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7
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Chemically-Gated and Sustained Molecular Transport through Nanoporous Gold Thin Films in Biofouling Conditions. NANOMATERIALS 2021; 11:nano11020498. [PMID: 33669404 PMCID: PMC7920421 DOI: 10.3390/nano11020498] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2021] [Revised: 02/09/2021] [Accepted: 02/13/2021] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Sustained release and replenishment of the drug depot are essential for the long-term functionality of implantable drug-delivery devices. This study demonstrates the use nanoporous gold (np-Au) thin films for in-plane transport of fluorescein (a small-molecule drug surrogate) over large (mm-scale) distances from a distal reservoir to the site of delivery, thereby establishing a constant flux of molecular release. In the absence of halides, the fluorescein transport is negligible due to a strong non-specific interaction of fluorescein with the pore walls. However, in the presence of physiologically relevant concentration of ions, halides preferentially adsorb onto the gold surface, minimizing the fluorescein–gold interactions and thus enabling in-plane fluorescein transport. In addition, the nanoporous film serves as an intrinsic size-exclusion matrix and allows for sustained release in biofouling conditions (dilute serum). The molecular release is reproducibly controlled by gating it in response to the presence of halides at the reservoir (source) and the release site (sink) without external triggers (e.g., electrical and mechanical).
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8
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Silva Junior GJ, Selva JSG, Sukeri A, Gonçalves JM, Regiart M, Bertotti M. Fabrication of dendritic nanoporous gold via a two-step amperometric approach: Application for electrochemical detection of methyl parathion in river water samples. Talanta 2021; 226:122130. [PMID: 33676684 DOI: 10.1016/j.talanta.2021.122130] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2020] [Revised: 01/11/2021] [Accepted: 01/18/2021] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
In this work, nanoporous gold (NPG) was prepared according to three different approaches, such as (i) anodization-electrochemical reduction (A-ECR, NPGA), (ii) dynamic hydrogen bubble template (DHBT, NPGB), and (iii) the combination of both methods (NPGA+B). Field-emission scanning electron microscopy (FE-SEM) and cyclic voltammetry (CV) were used to investigate the structural morphology and the electrochemical behavior of the fabricated materials. The NPGA+B electrode showed a large amount of surface defects and/or edges, greater electrochemical surface area (2.5 cm2), and increased roughness factor (35.4). Such outstanding features of the NPGA+B platform were demonstrated by the sensitive detection of methyl parathion (MP) in river water samples. CV results indicated nearly 25-fold, 6-fold, and 2.5-fold higher sensitivity for NPGA+B compared to that of bare Au, NPGA, and NPGB, respectively. Differential pulse voltammetry (DPV) results show a linear behavior in the MP concentration range of 5-50 ng mL-1 with a limit of detection (LOD) of 0.6 ng mL-1 and limit of quantification (LOQ) of 2.0 ng mL-1. Besides, the NPGA+B sensor also revealed excellent selectivity towards MP detection in the presence of other interfering molecules or ions, reproducibility, and repeatability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gilberto J Silva Junior
- Department of Fundamental Chemistry, Institute of Chemistry, University of São Paulo, Av. Professor Lineu Prestes, 748, 05513-970, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Jéssica Soares Guimarães Selva
- Department of Fundamental Chemistry, Institute of Chemistry, University of São Paulo, Av. Professor Lineu Prestes, 748, 05513-970, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Anandhakumar Sukeri
- São Carlos Institute of Physics, University of São Paulo, Av. Trabalhador São-Carlense, 400 - Parque Arnold Schimidt, PO Box 369, CEP-13566-590, São Carlos, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Josué M Gonçalves
- Department of Fundamental Chemistry, Institute of Chemistry, University of São Paulo, Av. Professor Lineu Prestes, 748, 05513-970, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Matias Regiart
- Department of Fundamental Chemistry, Institute of Chemistry, University of São Paulo, Av. Professor Lineu Prestes, 748, 05513-970, São Paulo, SP, Brazil.
| | - Mauro Bertotti
- Department of Fundamental Chemistry, Institute of Chemistry, University of São Paulo, Av. Professor Lineu Prestes, 748, 05513-970, São Paulo, SP, Brazil.
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Ma Q, Liu T, Xu R, Du Q, Gao P, Xia F. Revealing the Critical Role of Probe Grafting Density in Nanometric Confinement in Ionic Signal via an Experimental and Theoretical Study. Anal Chem 2021; 93:1984-1990. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.0c03090] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Qun Ma
- Engineering Research Center of Nano-Geomaterials of Ministry of Education, Faculty of Materials Science and Chemistry, China University of Geosciences, Wuhan 430074, P. R. China
| | - Tianle Liu
- Engineering Research Center of Nano-Geomaterials of Ministry of Education, Faculty of Materials Science and Chemistry, China University of Geosciences, Wuhan 430074, P. R. China
| | - Ranhao Xu
- Engineering Research Center of Nano-Geomaterials of Ministry of Education, Faculty of Materials Science and Chemistry, China University of Geosciences, Wuhan 430074, P. R. China
| | - Qiujiao Du
- School of Mathematics and Physics, China University of Geosciences, Wuhan 430074, P. R. China
| | - Pengcheng Gao
- Engineering Research Center of Nano-Geomaterials of Ministry of Education, Faculty of Materials Science and Chemistry, China University of Geosciences, Wuhan 430074, P. R. China
| | - Fan Xia
- Engineering Research Center of Nano-Geomaterials of Ministry of Education, Faculty of Materials Science and Chemistry, China University of Geosciences, Wuhan 430074, P. R. China
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Veselinovic J, AlMashtoub S, Nagella S, Seker E. Interplay of Effective Surface Area, Mass Transport, and Electrochemical Features in Nanoporous Nucleic Acid Sensors. Anal Chem 2020; 92:10751-10758. [PMID: 32600033 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.0c02104] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
Electrochemical biosensors transduce biochemical events (e.g., DNA hybridization) to electrical signals and can be readily interfaced with electronic instrumentation for portability. Nanostructuring the working electrode enhances sensor performance via augmented effective surface area that increases the capture probability of an analyte. However, increasing the effective surface area via thicker nanostructured electrodes hinders the analyte's permeation into the nanostructured volume and limits its access to deeper electrode surfaces. Here, we use nanoporous gold (np-Au) with various thicknesses and pore morphologies coupled with a methylene blue (MB) reporter-tagged DNA probe for DNA target detection as a model system to study the influence of electrode features on electrochemical sensing performance. Independent of the DNA target concentration, the hybridization current (surrogate for detection sensitivity) increases with the surface enhancement factor (EF), until an EF of ∼5, after which the sensor performance deteriorates. Electrochemical and fluorometric quantification of a desorbed DNA probe suggest that DNA permeation is severely limited for higher EFs. In addition, undesirable capacitive currents disguise the faradaic currents from the MB reporter at larger EFs that require higher square wave voltammetry (SWV) frequencies. Finally, a real-time hybridization study reveals that expanding the effective surface area beyond EFs of ∼5 decreases sensor performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jovana Veselinovic
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of California-Davis, Davis, California 95616, United States
| | - Suzan AlMashtoub
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of California-Davis, Davis, California 95616, United States
| | - Sachit Nagella
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of California-Davis, Davis, California 95616, United States
| | - Erkin Seker
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of California-Davis, Davis, California 95616, United States
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11
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Liu Y, Moore JH, Kolling GL, McGrath JS, Papin JA, Swami NS. Minimum Bactericidal Concentration of Ciprofloxacin to Pseudomonas aeruginosa Determined Rapidly Based on Pyocyanin Secretion. SENSORS AND ACTUATORS. B, CHEMICAL 2020; 312:127936. [PMID: 32606491 PMCID: PMC7326315 DOI: 10.1016/j.snb.2020.127936] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
Infections due to Pseudomonas aeruginosa (P. aeruginosa) often exhibit broad-spectrum resistance and persistence to common antibiotics. Persistence is especially problematic with immune-compromised subjects who are unable to eliminate the inhibited bacteria. Hence, antibiotics must be used at the appropriate minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC) rather than at minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) levels. However, MBC determination by conventional methods requires a 24 h culture step in the antibiotic media to confirm inhibition, followed by a 24 h sub-culture step in antibiotic-free media to confirm the lack of bacterial growth. We show that electrochemical detection of pyocyanin (PYO), which is a redox-active bacterial metabolite secreted by P. aeruginosa, can be used to rapidly assess the critical ciprofloxacin level required for bactericidal deactivation of P. aeruginosa within just 2 hours in antibiotic-treated growth media. The detection sensitivity for PYO can be enhanced by using nanoporous gold that is modified with a self-assembled monolayer to lower interference from oxygen reduction, while maintaining a low charge transfer resistance level and preventing electrode fouling within biological sample matrices. In this manner, bactericidal efficacy of ciprofloxacin towards P. aeruginosa at the MBC level and bacterial persistence at the MIC level can be determined rapidly, as validated at later timepoints using bacterial subculture in antibiotic-free media.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yi Liu
- Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia 22904, USA
| | - John H. Moore
- Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia 22904, USA
| | - Glynis L. Kolling
- Biomedical Engineering, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22904, USA
| | - John S. McGrath
- Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia 22904, USA
| | - Jason A Papin
- Biomedical Engineering, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22904, USA
| | - Nathan S. Swami
- Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia 22904, USA
- Chemistry, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22904, USA
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