Two-Photon Excitation/Red Emission, Ratiometric Fluorescent Nanoprobe for Intracellular pH Imaging

Ternary recognition fluorescent probe for lysosome acidification counter-ion studies via Cl-, K+, and pH

Lysosomal acidity relies on H+ inflow, which requires counter-ion flows (Cl- and K+) to balance charge. A lysosome targeting ternary recognition fluorescent probe for Cl-, K+, and pH was developed for lysosome acidification counter-ion research. The probe was used to study counter-ion changes when the Cl- channel was blocked and under oxidative pressure.

Cy5 Dye Cassettes Exhibit Through-Bond Energy Transfer and Enable Ratiometric Fluorescence Sensing

The chemosensor literature contains many reports of fluorescence sensing using polyaromatic hydrocarbon fluorophores such as pyrene, tetraphenylethylene, or polyaryl(ethynylene), where the fluorophore is excited with ultraviolet light (<400 nm) and emits in the visible region of 400-500 nm. There is a need for general methods that convert these "turn-on" hydrocarbon fluorescent sensors into ratiometric sensing paradigms. One simple strategy is to mix the responsive hydrocarbon sensor with a second non-responsive dye that is excited by ultraviolet light but emits at a distinctly longer wavelength and thus acts as a reference signal. Five new cyanine dye cassettes were created by covalently attaching a pyrene, tetraphenylethylene, or biphenyl(ethynylene) component as the ultraviolet-absorbing energy donor directly to the pentamethine chain of a deep-red cyanine (Cy5) energy acceptor. Fluorescence emission studies showed that these Cy5-cassettes exhibited large pseudo-Stokes shifts and high through-bond energy transfer efficiencies upon excitation with ultraviolet light. Practical potential was demonstrated with two examples of ratiometric fluorescence sensing using a single ultraviolet excitation wavelength. One example mixed a Cy5-cassette with a pyrene-based fluorescent indicator that responded to changes in Cu2+ concentration, and the other example mixed a Cy5-cassette with the fluorescent pH sensing dye, pyranine.

Recent advances in the design of intracellular pH sensing nanoprobes based on organic and inorganic materials

In the biological system, the intracellular pH (pHi) plays an important role in regulating diverse physiological activities, including enzymatic action, ion transport, cell proliferation, metabolism, and programmed cell death. The monitoring of pH inside living cells is also crucial for studying cellular events such as phagocytosis, endocytosis, and receptor-ligand internalization. Furthermore, some organelles, viz., endosomes and lysosomes, have intracompartmental pH, which is critical for maintaining the stability of protein structure and function. The dysfunction and abnormal pH regulation can result in terminal diseases such as cancer, Alzheimer, and so forth. Therefore, the accuracy of intracellular pH measurement is always the top priority and demands cutting-edge research and analysis. Such techniques, such as Raman spectroscopy and fluorescence imaging, preferably use nanotechnology due to their remarkable advantages, such as a non-invasive approach and providing accuracy, repeatability, and reproducibility. In the past decades, there have been numerous attempts to design and construct non-invasive organic and inorganic materials-based nanoprobes for pHi sensing. For Raman-based techniques, metal nanostructures such as Au/Ag/Cu nanoparticles are utilized to enhance the signal intensity. As for the fluorescence-based studies, the organic-based small molecules, such as dyes, show higher sensitivity toward pH. However, they possess several drawbacks, including high photobleaching rate, and autofluorescence background signals. To this end, there are alternative nanomaterials proposed, including semiconductor quantum dots (QDs), carbon QDs, upconversion nanoparticles, and so forth. Moreover, the fluorescence technique allows for ratiometric measurement of pHi, which as a result, offers a reliable calibration curve. This timely review will critically examine the current progression in the existing nanoprobes. In addition, based on our knowledge and available research findings, we provide a brief future outlook that may advance the state-of-the-art methodologies for pHi sensing.

Lysosome-targeted fluorescent probes: Design mechanism and biological applications

As an integral organelle in the eukaryote, the lysosome is the degradation center and metabolic signal center in living cells, and partakes in significant physiological processes such as autophagy, cell death and cellular senescence. Fluorescent probe has become a favorite tool for studying organelles and their chemical microenvironments because of its high specificity and non-destructive merits. Over recent years, it has been reported that increasingly new lysosome-targeted probes play a major role in the diagnosis and monitor of diseases, in particular cancer and neurodegenerative diseases. In order to deepen the relevant research on lysosome, it is challenging and inevitability to design novel lysosomal targeting probes. This review first introduces the concepts of lysosome and its closely related biological activities, and then introduces the fluorescent probes for lysosome in detail according to different detection targets, including targeting mechanism, biological imaging, and application in diseases. Finally, we summarize the specific challenges and discuss the future development direction facing the current lysosome-targeted fluorescent probes. We hope that this review can help biologists grasp the application of fluorescent probes and broaden the research ideas of researchers targeting fluorescent probes so as to design more accurate and functional probes for application in diseases.

Ratiometric and visual determination of copper ions with fluorescent nanohybrids of semiconducting polymer nanoparticles and carbon dots

Developing nanohybrid composition based fluorescent carbon dots (CDs) for ratiometric detection of copper ions is highly appealing. Herein, a ratiometric sensing platform (GCDs@RSPN) for copper ions detection has been developed by loaded green fluorescence carbon dots (GCDs) on the surface of red emission semiconducting polymer nanoparticles (RSPN) through electrostatic adsorption. The GCDs, featuring abundant amino groups, can selectively bind copper ions to induce the photoinduced electron transfer, leading to fluorescence quenching. A good linearity within the range of 0-100 μM is obtained, and the limit of detection (LOD) is 0.577 μM by using obtained GCDs@RSPN as ratiometric probe to detect copper ion. Moreover, the paper-based sensor derived from GCDs@RSPN was successfully applied for the visual detection of Cu²⁺.

Ratiometric upconversion luminescence nanoprobes from construction to sensing, imaging, and phototherapeutics

In terms of the combined advantages of upconversion luminescence (UCL) properties and dual-signal ratiometric outputs toward specific targets, the ratiometric UCL nanoprobes exhibit significant applications. This review summarizes and discusses the recent advances in ratiometric UCL nanoprobes, mainly including the construction of nanoprobe systems for sensing, imaging, and phototherapeutics. First, the construction strategies are introduced, involving different types of nanoprobe systems, construction methods, and ratiometric dual-signal modes. Then, the sensing applications are summarized, involving types of targets, sensing mechanisms, sensing targets, and naked-eye visual detection of UCL colors. Afterward, the phototherapeutic applications are discussed, including bio-toxicity, bio-distribution, biosensing, and bioimaging at the level of living cells and small animals, and biomedicine therapy. Particularly, each section is commented on by discussing the state-of-the-art relevant studies on ratiometric UCL nanoprobe systems. Moreover, the current status, challenges, and perspectives in the forthcoming studies are discussed. This review facilitates the exploration of functionally luminescent nanoprobes for excellent sensing, imaging, biomedicine, and multiple applications in significant fields.

Covalent organic framework-based fluorescent nanoprobe for intracellular pH sensing and imaging

Lysosomes are the acidic organelles in the cells that play an important role in intracellular degradation and other various cellular functions. The pH disturbance of lysosomes will result in the lysosomal dysfunction and many lysosomal related diseases. In this work, we reported a methoxy-based covalent organic framework (TAPB-DMTP-COF) that a novel pH-responsive fluorescent probe for lysosomal pH imaging in cells. The prepared TAPB-DMTP-COF presented regular crystal structure, low toxicity and good pH responsive property. The rich imine structure in the material enabled pH-responsive properties of the TAPB-DMTP-COF and made it exhibited pH-dependent fluorescence response. Good detection linearity for pH measurements in aqueous solution was achieved by this probe. Moreover, the TAPB-DMTP-COF can be used for the selective lysosomal pH imaging. Confocal fluorescence imaging results demonstrated that the pH fluctuations (from 4.0 to 7.4) and the pH changes in lysosomes can be effectively monitored in situ by the developed probe. This study may provide a new avenue for the intracellular pH sensing, deep study and understanding about the mechanism of diseases related to abnormal lysosomal pH.

Influence on the Apparent Luminescent Lifetime of Rare-Earth Upconversion Nanoparticles by Quenching the Sensitizer's Excited State for Hypochlorous Acid Detection and Bioimaging

Lanthanide-ion-doped upconversion materials have been widely used in biological detection, bioimaging, displays, and anticounterfeiting due to their abilities of real-time readings, high spatial resolution, and deep tissue penetration. The typically long fluorescence lifetimes of rare-earth nanoparticles, in the microsecond to millisecond range, make them useful in interference-free lifetime detection imaging. Most detection systems are accompanied by fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET), in which the lifetime of the luminescence center can be used as a signal to reveal the degree of FRET. Due to the complex energy level structure and complex energy transfer processes, the apparent lifetimes of upconversion nanoparticles (UCNPs) do not simply equal the decay time of the corresponding energy level, inducing an insignificant lifetime change in the upconversion detection system. In this study, the relationship between the apparent luminescence lifetime of upconversion and the decay rate of each energy level was studied by numerical simulations. It was proved that the apparent lifetime of the emission at 540 nm was mainly affected by the decay rate of Yb³⁺. We then constructed a nanocomposite with Rh1000 fluorophores loaded onto the surface of UCNPs to quench the sensitizer Yb³⁺. We found that the lifetime of the emission at 540 nm from Er³⁺ was affected to a large extent by the number of attached Rh1000 molecules, proving the greater influence on the apparent luminescent lifetime of Er³⁺ at 540 nm caused by quenching the Yb³⁺ excited state. The qualitative detection of hypochlorous acid (HClO) in vivo was also achieved using the luminescent lifetime as the signal.

Carbon dots with aggregation induced quenching effect and solvatochromism for the detection of H2O in organic solvents

In this work, a type of carbon dots (CDs) which can be well dispersed in organic solvents but precipitated in neutral aqueous solution was synthesized by using one-step hydrothermal heating treatment of o-phenylenediamine in H₂SO₄ solution. Although the emissions of the CDs in different organic solvents are excitation independent, solvatochromism is observed for the CDs since the emission wavelength is red shifted with an increase in the polarity of solvents. The optical properties suggest that the emission of the CDs is controlled by molecular state. According to aggregation induced quenching effect and solvatochromism caused by an increase in the solvent polarity with the content of H₂O increasing, detection methods of H₂O in the organic solvents were developed by using the CDs as a probe. The spiked H₂O in acetone and methanol could be recovered in the range of 98.2% to 101.7%, which indicates that the as-proposed method has a high potential for the determination of H₂O in organic solvents.

Charge Neutralization Strategy to Construct Salt-Tolerant and Cell-Permeable Nanoprobes: Application in Ratiometric Sensing and Imaging of Intracellular pH

Intracellular pH homeostasis is essential for the survival and function of biological cells. Negatively charged molecular probes, such as pyranine (HPTS), tend to exhibit poor salt tolerance and unsatisfactory cell permeability, limiting their widespread use in intracellular assays. Herein, we explored a charge neutralization strategy using multicharged cationic nanocarriers for an efficient and stable assembly with the pH-sensitive HPTS. Through immobilization and neutralization with poly(allylamine hydrochloride)-stabilized red-emitting gold nanoclusters (PAH-AuNCs), the resulting nanoprobes (HPTS-PAH-AuNCs) offered improved salt tolerance, satisfactory cell permeability, and dual-emission properties. The fluorescence ratio exhibited a linear response over the pH range of 3.0-9.0. Moreover, the proposed HPTS-PAH-AuNCs were successfully applied to determine and visualize lysosomal pH variations in living cells, which indicated great potential for biosensing and bioimaging applications in living systems. Benefiting from the charge neutralization strategy, various types of probes can be expected to achieve broader analytical applications.

"Turn-on" ratiometric fluorescent probe: Naked-eye detection of acidic pH and citric acid (CA) by using fluorescence spectrum and its application in real food samples and zebrafish

Rapid, accurate and efficient detection of acidic pH and citric acid (CA) changes is of great significance for predicting environmental and food safety problems by fluorescence analysis technique. Herein, a small molecule ratiometric fluorescent probe (BICL) based on benzoindole derivatives is successfully synthesized and characterized and used for quantitatively and qualitatively "turn-on" detection acid pH and CA changes in solution and environment by ultraviolet spectrum and fluorescence emission spectrum. On the one hand, the probe has a good linear relation to acidic pH in the pH range 3.1-4.5 (I₆₀₄/I₅₅₀ = 13.088-2.3878pH, R² = 0.9986). On the other hand, the probe has a good linear relationship in the range of CA concentration of 14.0-23.0 μM (I₆₀₄/I₅₅₀ = 0.5324 [CA]-5.2628, R² = 0.9993) and a low detection limit of 2.967 μM. BICL has a good recovery rate in the range of 114.6 ~ 101.0% and a low relative standard deviation (RSD) (0.0011 ~ 0.0092) in the determination of CA in real samples (water, drinks and fruits), which holds great potential for application in determination of CA in real samples. Importantly, the probe has good blood compatibility, and it has been successfully applied to detect exogenously induced changes in acidic pH and CA in zebrafish with great time-stability by using fluorescence imaging technology, respectively.

Application of lanthanide-doped upconversion nanoparticles for cancer treatment: a review

With the excellent ability to transform near-infrared light to localized visible or UV light, thereby achieving deep tissue penetration, lanthanide ion-doped upconversion nanoparticles (UCNP) have emerged as one of the most striking nanoscale materials for more effective and safer cancer treatment. Up to now, UCNPs combined with photosensitive components have been widely used in the delivery of chemotherapy drugs, photodynamic therapy and photothermal therapy. Applications in these directions are reviewed in this article. We also highlight microenvironmental tumor monitoring and precise targeted therapies. Then we briefly summarize some new trends and the existing challenges for UCNPs. We hope this review can provide new ideas for future cancer treatment based on UCNPs.

Carbon Dots with Absorption Red-Shifting for Two-Photon Fluorescence Imaging of Tumor Tissue pH and Synergistic Phototherapy

Phototherapy exhibits significant potential as a novel tumor treatment method, and the development of highly active photosensitizers and photothermal agents has drawn considerable attention. In this work, S and N atom co-doped carbon dots (S,N-CDs) with an absorption redshift effect were prepared by hydrothermal synthesis with lysine, o-phenylenediamine, and sulfuric acid as raw materials. The near-infrared (NIR) absorption features of the S,N-CDs resulted in two-photon (TP) emission, which has been used in TP fluorescence imaging of lysosomes and tumor tissue pH and real-time monitoring of apoptosis during tumor phototherapy, respectively. The obtained heteroatom co-doped CDs can be used not only as an NIR imaging probe but also as an effective photodynamic therapy/photothermal therapy (PDT/PTT) therapeutic agent. The efficiencies of different heteroatom-doped CDs in tumor treatment were compared. It was found that the S,N-CDs showed higher therapeutic efficiency than N-doped CDs, the efficiency of producing 1O2 was 27%, and the photothermal conversion efficiency reached 34.4%. The study provides new insight into the synthesis of carbon-based nanodrugs for synergistic phototherapy and accurate diagnosis of tumors.

A photostable reaction-based A-A-A type two-photon fluorescent probe for rapid detection and imaging of sulfur dioxide

In this study, a novel reaction-based A-A-A (acceptor-acceptor-acceptor) type two-photon fluorescent probe, BTC, is prepared using the benzothiadiazole (BTD) scaffold as the two-photon fluorophore and electron-accepting centre. Two β-chlorovinyl aldehyde moieties are symmetrically connected to both ends of the BTD scaffold and act as reaction groups to recognize SO2 and quenching groups to make the dis-activated probe stay at off-state due to their weak electron-withdrawing effect. In the presence of SO2 derivatives, the aldehyde groups are consumed through aldehyde addition, resulting in the activation of intramolecular charge transfer (ICT) processes and therefore recovering the fluorescence of the probe. The designed probe shows excellent two-photon properties including large two-photon absorption cross-sections (TPA) of 91 GM and photostability. Beyond these, the BTC probe exhibits a fast response to SO2 within 30 s, high specificity without foreign interference and a broad detection range from 500 nM to 120 μM with a detection limit of 190 nM. The designed fluorescent probe is further applied to the two-photon imaging of exogenous and endogenous SO2 derivatives under different physiological processes in HeLa cells and zebrafish with satisfactory results. We believe that the proposed design strategy can be extended to fabricate versatile BTD-based two-photon fluorescent probes through molecular engineering for further applications in bioassays and two-photon imaging.

Fluorophore-Dapagliflozin Dyad for Detecting Diabetic Liver/Kidney Damages via Fluorescent Imaging and Treating Diabetes via Inhibiting SGLT2

Type II diabetes is a prevalent disease; if left untreated, it could cause serious complications including liver and kidney damages. Hence, early diagnosis for these damages and effective treatment of diabetes are of high importance. Herein, a fluorophore-dapagliflozin dyad (DX-B-DA) has been developed as a theranostic system that can be triggered by intrahepatic/intrarenal reactive oxygen species (ROS) to concomitantly release a near-infrared (NIR) fluorescent dye (DX) and a SGLT2 inhibitor dapagliflozin (DA). In this dyad (DX-B-DA), the NIR fluorophore (DX) and the drug DA were covalently linked through a boronate ester bond which serves as the fluorescence quencher as well as the ROS-responsive moiety that can be cleaved by pathological levels of ROS in diabetics. The in vitro experiments indicate that, in the absence of hydrogen peroxide, the dyad is weakly emissive and keeps its drug moiety in an inactive state, while upon responding to hydrogen peroxide, the dyad simultaneously releases the NIR dye and the drug DA, suggesting that it can serve as an activatable probe for detecting and imaging diabetic liver/kidney damages as well as a prodrug for diabetes treatment upon being triggered by ROS. The dyad was then injected in mouse model of type II diabetes, and it is found that the dyad can not only offer visualized diagnosis for diabetes-induced liver/kidney damages but also exhibit high efficacy in treating type II diabetes and consequently ameliorating diabetic liver/kidney damages.

Benzoindole-based bifunctional ratiometric turn-on sensor with an ICT effect for trapping of H+ and Al3+ in dual-channel cell imaging and samples

Abnormal changes in H⁺ and Al³⁺ concentrations in living cells can alter neurological diseases. A small-molecule sensor combined with a fluorescence imaging technique holds great promise for monitoring changes in proton and metal-ion concentration. In this work, a bifunctional ratiometric naked-eye fluorescence sensor (BIBC) was developed for turn-on detection of H⁺ and Al³⁺ in H₂O/EtOH (v/v = 1:1) mixtures. BIBC exhibits a pK_a value of 4.58 within a linear pH variation from 4.1 to 4.7 (R² = 0.9939). Moreover, the fluorescence intensity ratio (I_{566 nm}/I_{524 nm}) shows a good linear relationship (R² = 0.9965) within an Al³⁺ concentration range of 7.0-10.0 μM. The detection limit (DL) for the sensor was calculated to be 1.58 μM. The practical application of BIBC for Al³⁺ detection in real samples was further discussed, and satisfactory results were obtained. Furthermore, the sensor was applied to real-time visualization of changes in H⁺ and Al³⁺ concentration in living cells, with great photostability and low cytotoxicity observed. Fluorescence images of H⁺ and Al³⁺ were collected by using a fluorescence microscope in a dual-channel configuration, wherein they were labeled green and yellow, respectively.

Optical and magnetic resonance imaging approaches for investigating the tumour microenvironment: state-of-the-art review and future trends

The tumour microenvironment (TME) strongly influences tumorigenesis and metastasis. Two of the most characterized properties of the TME are acidosis and hypoxia, both of which are considered hallmarks of tumours as well as critical factors in response to anticancer treatments. Currently, various imaging approaches exist to measure acidosis and hypoxia in the TME, including magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), positron emission tomography and optical imaging. In this review, we will focus on the latest fluorescent-based methods for optical sensing of cell metabolism and MRI as diagnostic imaging tools applied both in vitro and in vivo. The primary emphasis will be on describing the current and future uses of systems that can measure intra- and extra-cellular pH and oxygen changes at high spatial and temporal resolution. In addition, the suitability of these approaches for mapping tumour heterogeneity, and assessing response or failure to therapeutics will also be covered.

Orange emissive carbon nanodots for fluorescent and colorimetric bimodal discrimination of Cu2+ and pH

We have facilely synthesized orange emissive carbon nanodots (O-CDs) via a hydrothermal method using citric acid and 5-aminosalicylic acid.