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Amoah AS, Pestov NB, Korneenko TV, Prokhorenko IA, Kurakin GF, Barlev NA. Lipoxygenases at the Intersection of Infection and Carcinogenesis. Int J Mol Sci 2024; 25:3961. [PMID: 38612771 PMCID: PMC11011848 DOI: 10.3390/ijms25073961] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2024] [Revised: 03/08/2024] [Accepted: 03/28/2024] [Indexed: 04/14/2024] Open
Abstract
The persisting presence of opportunistic pathogens like Pseudomonas aeruginosa poses a significant threat to many immunocompromised cancer patients with pulmonary infections. This review highlights the complexity of interactions in the host's defensive eicosanoid signaling network and its hijacking by pathogenic bacteria to their own advantage. Human lipoxygenases (ALOXs) and their mouse counterparts are integral elements of the innate immune system, mostly operating in the pro-inflammatory mode. Taking into account the indispensable role of inflammation in carcinogenesis, lipoxygenases have counteracting roles in this process. In addition to describing the structure-function of lipoxygenases in this review, we discuss their roles in such critical processes as cancer cell signaling, metastases, death of cancer and immune cells through ferroptosis, as well as the roles of ALOXs in carcinogenesis promoted by pathogenic infections. Finally, we discuss perspectives of novel oncotherapeutic approaches to harness lipoxygenase signaling in tumors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abdul-Saleem Amoah
- Institute of Biomedical Chemistry, Moscow 119121, Russia; (A.-S.A.); (N.A.B.)
- Laboratory of Molecular Oncology, Phystech School of Biological and Medical Physics, Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology, Dolgoprudny 141701, Russia
| | - Nikolay B. Pestov
- Institute of Biomedical Chemistry, Moscow 119121, Russia; (A.-S.A.); (N.A.B.)
- Group of Cross-Linking Enzymes, Shemyakin-Ovchinnikov Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry, Moscow 117997, Russia; (T.V.K.); (I.A.P.)
- Laboratory of Tick-Borne Encephalitis and Other Viral Encephalitides, Chumakov Federal Scientific Center for Research and Development of Immune-and-Biological Products, Moscow 108819, Russia
- Vavilov Institute of General Genetics, Moscow 119991, Russia
| | - Tatyana V. Korneenko
- Group of Cross-Linking Enzymes, Shemyakin-Ovchinnikov Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry, Moscow 117997, Russia; (T.V.K.); (I.A.P.)
| | - Igor A. Prokhorenko
- Group of Cross-Linking Enzymes, Shemyakin-Ovchinnikov Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry, Moscow 117997, Russia; (T.V.K.); (I.A.P.)
| | - Georgy F. Kurakin
- Department of Biochemistry, Pirogov Russian National Research Medical University, Moscow 117513, Russia;
| | - Nickolai A. Barlev
- Institute of Biomedical Chemistry, Moscow 119121, Russia; (A.-S.A.); (N.A.B.)
- Laboratory of Tick-Borne Encephalitis and Other Viral Encephalitides, Chumakov Federal Scientific Center for Research and Development of Immune-and-Biological Products, Moscow 108819, Russia
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2
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Brenna JT, Sergeeva MG, Pestov NB, Korneenko TV, Shchepinov MS. Arachidonic acid: reconciling the dichotomy of its oxidative cascade through specific deuteration. Free Radic Res 2023:1-11. [PMID: 37897398 DOI: 10.1080/10715762.2023.2277145] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2023] [Accepted: 10/18/2023] [Indexed: 10/30/2023]
Abstract
A new approach to attenuating pathological inflammatory reactions by buffering the eicosanoid pathways with oxidation-resistant hexadeuterated arachidonic acid (D-ARA) is discussed. Enzymatic processing of ARA, released by phospholipase A2, by lipoxygenases, cyclooxygenases, and cytochromes yields a wide range of bioactive eicosanoids, including pro-inflammation, pro-angiogenesis and pro-thrombosis species that, when produced in excess, are an underlying cause of pathology. Conversely, some products of ARA oxidation possess pro-resolving properties. Non-enzymatic free radical oxidation of ARA generates another large group of products such as isoprostanes and their metabolites, associated with inflammation, ischemia-reperfusion stress, and atherosclerosis. A separate group comprises reactive carbonyl derivatives that irreversibly damage diverse biomolecules. Being resistant to both enzymatic and non-enzymatic oxidation pathways due to large kinetic isotope effects, D-ARA may play a role in mitigating inflammation-related disorders and conditions, including inflammaging.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Thomas Brenna
- University of TX at Austin, Departments of Pediatrics, of Chemistry, and of Nutrition, Dell Pediatric Research Institute, Austin, TX, USA
| | - Marina G Sergeeva
- Belozersky Institute of Physical-Chemical Biology, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, Russia
| | - Nikolay B Pestov
- Chumakov Federal Scientific Center for Research and Development of Immune-and-Biological Products, Laboratory of Tick-Borne Encephalitis and other Encephalitides, Moscow, Russia
- Institute of Biomedical Chemistry, Moscow, Russia
- Shemyakin-Ovchinnikov Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry, Group of Cross-Linking Enzymes, Moscow, Russia
| | - Tatyana V Korneenko
- Shemyakin-Ovchinnikov Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry, Group of Cross-Linking Enzymes, Moscow, Russia
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3
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Tran M, Signorelli RL, Yamaguchi A, Chen E, Holinstat M, Iavarone AT, Offenbacher AR, Holman T. Biochemical and hydrogen-deuterium exchange studies of the single nucleotide polymorphism Y649C in human platelet 12-lipoxygenase linked to a bleeding disorder. Arch Biochem Biophys 2023; 733:109472. [PMID: 36442529 PMCID: PMC9888433 DOI: 10.1016/j.abb.2022.109472] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2022] [Revised: 11/19/2022] [Accepted: 11/21/2022] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Human platelet 12-lipoxygenase (h12-LOX) is responsible for the formation of oxylipin products that play an important role in platelet aggregation. Single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) of h12-LOX have been implicated in several diseases. In this study, we investigate the structural, dynamical, and functional impact of a h12-LOX SNP that generates a tyrosine-to-cysteine mutation at a buried site (Y649C h12-LOX) and was previously ascribed with reduced levels of 12(S)-hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acid (12S-HETE) production in isolated platelets. Herein, in vitro Michaelis-Menten kinetics show reduced catalytic rates for Y649C compared to WT h12-LOX at physiological or lower temperatures. Both proteins exhibited similar melting temperatures, metal content, and oligomerization state. Liposome binding for both proteins was also dependent upon the presence of calcium, temperature, and liposome composition; however, the Y649C variant was found to have lowered binding capacity to liposomes compared to WT at physiological temperatures. Further, hydrogen-deuterium exchange mass spectrometry (HDX-MS) experiments revealed a regional defined enhancement in the peptide mobility caused by the mutation. This increased instability for the mutation stemmed from a change in an interaction with an arched helix that lines the substrate binding site, located ≥15 Å from the mutation site. Finally, differential scanning calorimetry demonstrated a reduced protein (un)folding enthalpy, consistent with the HDX results. Taken together, these results demonstrate remarkable similarity between the mutant and WT h12-LOX, and yet, subtle changes in activity, membrane affinity and protein stability may be responsible for the significant physiological changes that the Y649C SNP manifests in platelet biology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michelle Tran
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California Santa Cruz, Santa Cruz, CA, 95064, USA
| | | | - Adriana Yamaguchi
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI, 48109, USA
| | - Eefie Chen
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California Santa Cruz, Santa Cruz, CA, 95064, USA
| | - Michael Holinstat
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI, 48109, USA
| | - Anthony T. Iavarone
- QB3/Chemistry Mass Spectrometry Facility, University of California Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, 94720, USA
| | - Adam R. Offenbacher
- Department of Chemistry, East Carolina University, Greenville, NC, 27858, USA,Corresponding author. (A.R. Offenbacher)
| | - Theodore Holman
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California Santa Cruz, Santa Cruz, CA, 95064, USA,Corresponding author. (T. Holman)
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4
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Functional Characterization of Novel Bony Fish Lipoxygenase Isoforms and Their Possible Involvement in Inflammation. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms232416026. [PMID: 36555666 PMCID: PMC9787790 DOI: 10.3390/ijms232416026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2022] [Revised: 12/10/2022] [Accepted: 12/12/2022] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Eicosanoids and related compounds are pleiotropic lipid mediators, which are biosynthesized in mammals via three distinct metabolic pathways (cyclooxygenase pathway, lipoxygenase pathway, epoxygenase pathway). These mediators have been implicated in the pathogenesis of inflammatory diseases and drugs interfering with eicosanoid signaling are currently available as antiphlogistics. Eicosanoid biosynthesis has well been explored in mammals including men, but much less detailed information is currently available on eicosanoid biosynthesis in other vertebrates including bony fish. There are a few reports in the literature describing the expression of arachidonic acid lipoxygenases (ALOX isoforms) in several bony fish species but except for two zebrafish ALOX-isoforms (zfALOX1 and zfALOX2) bony fish eicosanoid biosynthesizing enzymes have not been characterized. To fill this gap and to explore the possible roles of ALOX15 orthologs in bony fish inflammation we cloned and expressed putative ALOX15 orthologs from three different bony fish species (N. furzeri, P. nyererei, S. formosus) as recombinant N-terminal his-tag fusion proteins and characterized the corresponding enzymes with respect to their catalytic properties (temperature-dependence, activation energy, pH-dependence, substrate affinity and substrate specificity with different polyenoic fatty acids). Furthermore, we identified the chemical structure of the dominant oxygenation products formed by the recombinant enzymes from different free fatty acids and from more complex lipid substrates. Taken together, our data indicate that functional ALOX isoforms occur in bony fish but that their catalytic properties are different from those of mammalian enzymes. The possible roles of these ALOX-isoforms in bony fish inflammation are discussed.
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Bacterial lipoxygenases: Biochemical characteristics, molecular structure and potential applications. Biotechnol Adv 2022; 61:108046. [DOI: 10.1016/j.biotechadv.2022.108046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2022] [Revised: 09/02/2022] [Accepted: 09/28/2022] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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Effects of Levofloxacin, Aztreonam, and Colistin on Enzyme Synthesis by P. aeruginosa Isolated from Cystic Fibrosis Patients. Antibiotics (Basel) 2022; 11:antibiotics11081114. [PMID: 36009983 PMCID: PMC9404814 DOI: 10.3390/antibiotics11081114] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2022] [Revised: 08/05/2022] [Accepted: 08/09/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
(1) Background: Cystic fibrosis (CF) is characterized by chronic pulmonary inflammation and persistent bacterial infections. P. aeruginosa is among the main opportunistic pathogens causing infections in CF. P. aeruginosa is able to form a biofilm, decreasing antibiotic permeability. LOX, a lipoxygenase enzyme, is a virulence factor produced by P. aeruginosa and promotes its persistence in lung tissues. The aim of this study is to evaluate if antibiotics currently used for aerosol therapy in CF are able to interfere with the production of lipoxygenase from open isolates of P. Aeruginosa from patients with CF. (2) Methods: Clinical isolates of P. aeruginosa from patients with CF were grown in Luria broth (LB). Minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) was performed and interpreted for all isolated strains according to the European Committee on Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing (EUCAST) guidelines. We selected four antibiotics with different mechanisms of action: aztreonam, colistin, amikacin, and levofloxacin. We used human pulmonary epithelial NCI-H929 cells to evaluate LOX activity and its metabolites according to antibiotic action at increasing concentrations. (3) Results: there is a correlation between LOX secretion by clinical isolates of P. aeruginosa and biofilm production. Levofloxacin exhibits highly significant inhibitory activity compared to the control. Amikacin also exhibits significant inhibitory activity against LOX production. Aztreonam and colistin do not show inhibitory activity. These results are also confirmed for LOX metabolites. (4) Conclusions: among the evaluated antibiotics, levofloxacin and amikacin have an activity on LOX secretion.
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Constantino-Teles P, Jouault A, Touqui L, Saliba AM. Role of Host and Bacterial Lipids in Pseudomonas aeruginosa Respiratory Infections. Front Immunol 2022; 13:931027. [PMID: 35860265 PMCID: PMC9289105 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2022.931027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2022] [Accepted: 06/07/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The opportunistic pathogen Pseudomonas aeruginosa is one of the most common agents of respiratory infections and has been associated with high morbidity and mortality rates. The ability of P. aeruginosa to cause severe respiratory infections results from the coordinated action of a variety of virulence factors that promote bacterial persistence in the lungs. Several of these P. aeruginosa virulence mechanisms are mediated by bacterial lipids, mainly lipopolysaccharide, rhamnolipid, and outer membrane vesicles. Other mechanisms arise from the activity of P. aeruginosa enzymes, particularly ExoU, phospholipase C, and lipoxygenase A, which modulate host lipid signaling pathways. Moreover, host phospholipases, such as cPLA2α and sPLA2, are also activated during the infectious process and play important roles in P. aeruginosa pathogenesis. These mechanisms affect key points of the P. aeruginosa-host interaction, such as: i) biofilm formation that contributes to bacterial colonization and survival, ii) invasion of tissue barriers that allows bacterial dissemination, iii) modulation of inflammatory responses, and iv) escape from host defenses. In this mini-review, we present the lipid-based mechanism that interferes with the establishment of P. aeruginosa in the lungs and discuss how bacterial and host lipids can impact the outcome of P. aeruginosa respiratory infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pamella Constantino-Teles
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Parasitology, Faculty of Medical Sciences, Rio de Janeiro State University, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Albane Jouault
- Sorbonne Université, Centre de Recherche Saint-Antoine, Inserm, Institut Pasteur, Mucoviscidose et Bronchopathies Chroniques, Département Santé Globale, Paris, France
| | - Lhousseine Touqui
- Sorbonne Université, Centre de Recherche Saint-Antoine, Inserm, Institut Pasteur, Mucoviscidose et Bronchopathies Chroniques, Département Santé Globale, Paris, France
| | - Alessandra Mattos Saliba
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Parasitology, Faculty of Medical Sciences, Rio de Janeiro State University, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
- *Correspondence: Alessandra Mattos Saliba,
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8
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Dar HH, Epperly MW, Tyurin VA, Amoscato AA, Anthonymuthu TS, Souryavong AB, Kapralov AA, Shurin GV, Samovich SN, St. Croix CM, Watkins SC, Wenzel SE, Mallampalli RK, Greenberger JS, Bayır H, Kagan VE, Tyurina YY. P. aeruginosa augments irradiation injury via 15-lipoxygenase-catalyzed generation of 15-HpETE-PE and induction of theft-ferroptosis. JCI Insight 2022; 7:156013. [PMID: 35041620 PMCID: PMC8876480 DOI: 10.1172/jci.insight.156013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2021] [Accepted: 01/13/2022] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
Abstract
Total body irradiation (TBI) targets sensitive bone marrow hematopoietic cells and gut epithelial cells, causing their death and inducing a state of immunodeficiency combined with intestinal dysbiosis and nonproductive immune responses. We found enhanced Pseudomonas aeruginosa (PAO1) colonization of the gut leading to host cell death and strikingly decreased survival of irradiated mice. The PAO1-driven pathogenic mechanism includes theft-ferroptosis realized via (a) curbing of the host antiferroptotic system, GSH/GPx4, and (b) employing bacterial 15-lipoxygenase to generate proferroptotic signal - 15-hydroperoxy-arachidonoyl-PE (15-HpETE-PE) - in the intestines of irradiated and PAO1-infected mice. Global redox phospholipidomics of the ileum revealed that lysophospholipids and oxidized phospholipids, particularly oxidized phosphatidylethanolamine (PEox), represented the major factors that contributed to the pathogenic changes induced by total body irradiation and infection by PAO1. A lipoxygenase inhibitor, baicalein, significantly attenuated animal lethality, PAO1 colonization, intestinal epithelial cell death, and generation of ferroptotic PEox signals. Opportunistic PAO1 mechanisms included stimulation of the antiinflammatory lipoxin A4, production and suppression of the proinflammatory hepoxilin A3, and leukotriene B4. Unearthing complex PAO1 pathogenic/virulence mechanisms, including effects on the host anti/proinflammatory responses, lipid metabolism, and ferroptotic cell death, points toward potentially new therapeutic and radiomitigative targets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haider H. Dar
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health and Center for Free Radical and Antioxidant Health, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Michael W. Epperly
- Department of Radiation Oncology, UPMC Hillman Cancer Center, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Vladimir A. Tyurin
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health and Center for Free Radical and Antioxidant Health, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Andrew A. Amoscato
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health and Center for Free Radical and Antioxidant Health, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Tamil S. Anthonymuthu
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health and Center for Free Radical and Antioxidant Health, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA.,Department of Critical Care Medicine, Safar Center for Resuscitation Research, University of Pittsburgh Medical Center, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Austin B. Souryavong
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health and Center for Free Radical and Antioxidant Health, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Alexander A. Kapralov
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health and Center for Free Radical and Antioxidant Health, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Galina V. Shurin
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health and Center for Free Radical and Antioxidant Health, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Svetlana N. Samovich
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health and Center for Free Radical and Antioxidant Health, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA
| | | | - Simon C. Watkins
- Department of Cell Biology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Sally E. Wenzel
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health and Center for Free Radical and Antioxidant Health, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Rama K. Mallampalli
- Department of Internal Medicine, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio, USA
| | - Joel S. Greenberger
- Department of Radiation Oncology, UPMC Hillman Cancer Center, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Hülya Bayır
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health and Center for Free Radical and Antioxidant Health, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA.,Department of Critical Care Medicine, Safar Center for Resuscitation Research, University of Pittsburgh Medical Center, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA.,Children’s Neuroscience Institute, Children’s Hospital of Pittsburgh, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Valerian E. Kagan
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health and Center for Free Radical and Antioxidant Health, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA.,Institute for Regenerative Medicine, I.M. Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University, Moscow, Russia.,Departments of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, Chemistry, Radiation Oncology, University of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Yulia Y. Tyurina
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health and Center for Free Radical and Antioxidant Health, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA
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Kakularam KR, Karst F, Polamarasetty A, Ivanov I, Heydeck D, Kuhn H. Paralog- and ortholog-specificity of inhibitors of human and mouse lipoxygenase-isoforms. Biomed Pharmacother 2021; 145:112434. [PMID: 34801853 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopha.2021.112434] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2021] [Revised: 11/10/2021] [Accepted: 11/12/2021] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Lipoxygenases (ALOX-isoforms) are lipid peroxidizing enzymes, which have been implicated in cell differentiation and maturation but also in the biosynthesis of lipid mediators playing important roles in the pathogenesis of inflammatory, hyperproliferative and neurological diseases. In mammals these enzymes are widely distributed and the human genome involves six functional genes encoding for six distinct human ALOX paralogs. In mice, there is an orthologous enzyme for each human ALOX paralog but the catalytic properties of human and mouse ALOX orthologs show remarkable differences. ALOX inhibitors are frequently employed for deciphering the biological role of these enzymes in mouse models of human diseases but owing to the functional differences between mouse and human ALOX orthologs the uncritical use of such inhibitors is sometimes misleading. In this study we evaluated the paralog- and ortholog-specificity of 13 frequently employed ALOX-inhibitors against four recombinant human and mouse ALOX paralogs (ALOX15, ALOX15B, ALOX12, ALOX5) under different experimental conditions. Our results indicated that except for zileuton, which exhibits a remarkable paralog-specificity for mouse and human ALOX5, no other inhibitor was strictly paralog specific but some compounds exhibit an interesting ortholog-specificity. Because of the variable isoform specificities of the currently available ALOX inhibitors care must be taken when the biological effects of these compounds observed in complex in vitro and in vivo systems are interpreted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kumar Reddy Kakularam
- Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, corporate member of Freie Universität Berlin and Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Department of Biochemistry, Chariteplatz 1, D-10117 Berlin, Germany
| | - Felix Karst
- Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, corporate member of Freie Universität Berlin and Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Department of Biochemistry, Chariteplatz 1, D-10117 Berlin, Germany
| | - Aparoy Polamarasetty
- Indian Institute of Petroleum and Energy, Visakhapatnam 530003, Andhra Pradesh, India
| | - Igor Ivanov
- Lomonosov Institute of Fine Chemical Technologies, MIREA - Russian Technological University, Vernadskogo Pr. 86, 119571 Moscow, Russia
| | - Dagmar Heydeck
- Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, corporate member of Freie Universität Berlin and Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Department of Biochemistry, Chariteplatz 1, D-10117 Berlin, Germany
| | - Hartmut Kuhn
- Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, corporate member of Freie Universität Berlin and Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Department of Biochemistry, Chariteplatz 1, D-10117 Berlin, Germany.
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10
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Kotlyarov S, Kotlyarova A. Molecular Mechanisms of Lipid Metabolism Disorders in Infectious Exacerbations of Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:7634. [PMID: 34299266 PMCID: PMC8308003 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22147634] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2021] [Revised: 07/13/2021] [Accepted: 07/15/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Exacerbations largely determine the character of the progression and prognosis of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). Exacerbations are connected with changes in the microbiological landscape in the bronchi due to a violation of their immune homeostasis. Many metabolic and immune processes involved in COPD progression are associated with bacterial colonization of the bronchi. The objective of this review is the analysis of the molecular mechanisms of lipid metabolism and immune response disorders in the lungs in COPD exacerbations. The complex role of lipid metabolism disorders in the pathogenesis of some infections is only beginning to be understood, however, there are already fewer and fewer doubts even now about its significance both in the pathogenesis of infectious exacerbations of COPD and in general in the progression of the disease. It is shown that the lipid rafts of the plasma membranes of cells are involved in many processes related to the detection of pathogens, signal transduction, the penetration of pathogens into the cell. Smoking disrupts the normally proceeded processes of lipid metabolism in the lungs, which is a part of the COPD pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stanislav Kotlyarov
- Department of Nursing, Ryazan State Medical University, 390026 Ryazan, Russia
| | - Anna Kotlyarova
- Department of Pharmacology and Pharmacy, Ryazan State Medical University, 390026 Ryazan, Russia;
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11
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Andersen JB, Hultqvist LD, Jansen CU, Jakobsen TH, Nilsson M, Rybtke M, Uhd J, Fritz BG, Seifert R, Berthelsen J, Nielsen TE, Qvortrup K, Givskov M, Tolker-Nielsen T. Identification of small molecules that interfere with c-di-GMP signaling and induce dispersal of Pseudomonas aeruginosa biofilms. NPJ Biofilms Microbiomes 2021; 7:59. [PMID: 34244523 PMCID: PMC8271024 DOI: 10.1038/s41522-021-00225-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2021] [Accepted: 06/11/2021] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Microbial biofilms are involved in a number of infections that cannot be cured, as microbes in biofilms resist host immune defenses and antibiotic therapies. With no strict biofilm-antibiotic in the current pipelines, there is an unmet need for drug candidates that enable the current antibiotics to eradicate bacteria in biofilms. We used high-throughput screening to identify chemical compounds that reduce the intracellular c-di-GMP content in Pseudomonas aeruginosa. This led to the identification of a small molecule that efficiently depletes P. aeruginosa for c-di-GMP, inhibits biofilm formation, and disperses established biofilm. A combination of our lead compound with standard of care antibiotics showed improved eradication of an implant-associated infection established in mice. Genetic analyses provided evidence that the anti-biofilm compound stimulates the activity of the c-di-GMP phosphodiesterase BifA in P. aeruginosa. Our work constitutes a proof of concept for c-di-GMP phosphodiesterase-activating drugs administered in combination with antibiotics as a viable treatment strategy for otherwise recalcitrant infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jens Bo Andersen
- Costerton Biofilm Center. Department of Immunology and Microbiology, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Louise Dahl Hultqvist
- Costerton Biofilm Center. Department of Immunology and Microbiology, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | | | - Tim Holm Jakobsen
- Costerton Biofilm Center. Department of Immunology and Microbiology, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Martin Nilsson
- Costerton Biofilm Center. Department of Immunology and Microbiology, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Morten Rybtke
- Costerton Biofilm Center. Department of Immunology and Microbiology, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Jesper Uhd
- Department of Chemistry, Technical University of Denmark, Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Blaine Gabriel Fritz
- Costerton Biofilm Center. Department of Immunology and Microbiology, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Roland Seifert
- Institute of Pharmacology and Research Core Unit Metabolomics, Hannover Medical School Carl-Neuberg-Straße 1, Hannover, Germany
| | - Jens Berthelsen
- Costerton Biofilm Center. Department of Immunology and Microbiology, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Thomas Eiland Nielsen
- Costerton Biofilm Center. Department of Immunology and Microbiology, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark.,Singapore Centre for Environmental Life Sciences Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Katrine Qvortrup
- Department of Chemistry, Technical University of Denmark, Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Michael Givskov
- Costerton Biofilm Center. Department of Immunology and Microbiology, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark. .,Singapore Centre for Environmental Life Sciences Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Singapore.
| | - Tim Tolker-Nielsen
- Costerton Biofilm Center. Department of Immunology and Microbiology, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark.
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12
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Kengmo Tchoupa A, Eijkelkamp BA, Peschel A. Bacterial adaptation strategies to host-derived fatty acids. Trends Microbiol 2021; 30:241-253. [PMID: 34218980 DOI: 10.1016/j.tim.2021.06.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2021] [Revised: 06/06/2021] [Accepted: 06/07/2021] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Fatty acids (FAs) are potent antimicrobials which hold great promise as viable alternatives or complements to conventional antibiotics. Intriguingly, bacteria are well equipped to use environmental FAs as energy sources and/or building blocks for their membrane lipids. Furthermore, these microbes display a wide array of mechanisms to prevent or mitigate FA toxicity. In this review we discuss strategies that bacteria use to thrive despite extensive exposure to host-derived antimicrobial FAs. We also highlight the altered response of these FA-adapted bacteria to antibiotics. Given the ubiquitous nature of FAs in various host environments, deciphering bacterial adaptation strategies to FAs is of prime importance. This knowledge may pave the way for a rational design of FA-based combination therapies with antibiotics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arnaud Kengmo Tchoupa
- Department of Infection Biology, Interfaculty Institute for Microbiology and Infection Medicine Tübingen (IMIT), University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany; Cluster of Excellence 'Controlling Microbes to Fight Infections', University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany.
| | - Bart A Eijkelkamp
- Molecular Sciences and Technology, College of Science and Engineering, Flinders University, Adelaide, Australia
| | - Andreas Peschel
- Department of Infection Biology, Interfaculty Institute for Microbiology and Infection Medicine Tübingen (IMIT), University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany; Cluster of Excellence 'Controlling Microbes to Fight Infections', University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
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13
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Niu M, Keller NP. Co-opting oxylipin signals in microbial disease. Cell Microbiol 2020; 21:e13025. [PMID: 30866138 DOI: 10.1111/cmi.13025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2018] [Revised: 02/01/2019] [Accepted: 02/06/2019] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Oxylipins, or oxygenated lipids, are universal signalling molecules across all kingdoms of life. These molecules, either produced by microbial pathogens or their mammalian host, regulate inflammation during microbial infection. In this review, we summarise current literature on the biosynthesis pathways of microbial oxylipins and their biological activity towards mammalian cells. Collectively, these studies have illustrated how microbial pathogens can modulate immune rsponse and disease outcome via oxylipin-mediated mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mengyao Niu
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin
| | - Nancy P Keller
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin.,Department of Bacteriology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin
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14
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Hashem C, Stolterfoht H, Rinnofner C, Steinberger S, Winkler M, Pichler H. Secretion of Pseudomonas aeruginosa Lipoxygenase by Pichia pastoris upon Glycerol Feed. Biotechnol J 2020; 15:e2000089. [PMID: 32749051 DOI: 10.1002/biot.202000089] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2020] [Revised: 07/07/2020] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
Pseudomonas aeruginosa lipoxygenase (PaLOX) catalyzes the peroxidation of unsaturated fatty acids. Not only linoleic acid, but also linolenic acid and oleic acid are oxidized. The natural host secretes PaLOX into the periplasmic space. Herein, the aim is to secrete PaLOX to the culture supernatant of Pichia pastoris. Since protein background in the culture supernatant is typically rather low, this strategy allows for almost pure production of PaLOX applicable for the valorization of renewable fatty acids, for example for the production of green leaf volatiles. Using the CAT1 promoter system and the well-established α-factor signal sequence for secretion, methanol- and glycerol-induced secretion are compared and the latter shows four times more LOX activity in the culture supernatant under methanol-free conditions. In addition, secreted PaLOX is purified and the specific activity with enzyme in culture supernatant is compared. Notably, the predominant specific activity is achieved for enzyme in culture supernatant - 11.6 U mg-1 - reaching five times higher specific activity than purified PaLOX.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chiam Hashem
- Austrian Centre of Industrial Biotechnology, Krenngasse 37, Graz, 8010, Austria
- TU Graz, NAWI Graz, BioTechMed Graz, Institute of Molecular Biotechnology, Petersgasse 14, Graz, 8010, Austria
| | - Holly Stolterfoht
- Austrian Centre of Industrial Biotechnology, Krenngasse 37, Graz, 8010, Austria
| | - Claudia Rinnofner
- Austrian Centre of Industrial Biotechnology, Krenngasse 37, Graz, 8010, Austria
- bisy GmbH, Wuenschendorf 292, Hofstaetten, 8200, Austria
| | - Stefan Steinberger
- Austrian Centre of Industrial Biotechnology, Krenngasse 37, Graz, 8010, Austria
| | - Margit Winkler
- Austrian Centre of Industrial Biotechnology, Krenngasse 37, Graz, 8010, Austria
- TU Graz, NAWI Graz, BioTechMed Graz, Institute of Molecular Biotechnology, Petersgasse 14, Graz, 8010, Austria
| | - Harald Pichler
- Austrian Centre of Industrial Biotechnology, Krenngasse 37, Graz, 8010, Austria
- TU Graz, NAWI Graz, BioTechMed Graz, Institute of Molecular Biotechnology, Petersgasse 14, Graz, 8010, Austria
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15
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Lu J, Zhang C, Leong HY, Show PL, Lu F, Lu Z. Overproduction of lipoxygenase from Pseudomonas aeruginosa in Escherichia coli by auto-induction expression and its application in triphenylmethane dyes degradation. J Biosci Bioeng 2020; 129:327-332. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jbiosc.2019.09.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2019] [Revised: 08/10/2019] [Accepted: 09/07/2019] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
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16
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Stolterfoht H, Rinnofner C, Winkler M, Pichler H. Recombinant Lipoxygenases and Hydroperoxide Lyases for the Synthesis of Green Leaf Volatiles. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2019; 67:13367-13392. [PMID: 31591878 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.9b02690] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Green leaf volatiles (GLVs) are mainly C6- and in rare cases also C9-aldehydes, -alcohols, and -esters, which are released by plants in response to biotic or abiotic stresses. These compounds are named for their characteristic smell reminiscent of freshly mowed grass. This review focuses on GLVs and the two major pathway enzymes responsible for their formation: lipoxygenases (LOXs) and fatty acid hydroperoxide lyases (HPLs). LOXs catalyze the peroxidation of unsaturated fatty acids, such as linoleic and α-linolenic acids. Hydroperoxy fatty acids are further converted by HPLs into aldehydes and oxo-acids. In many industrial applications, plant extracts have been used as LOX and HPL sources. However, these processes are limited by low enzyme concentration, stability, and specificity. Alternatively, recombinant enzymes can be used as biocatalysts for GLV synthesis. The increasing number of well-characterized enzymes efficiently expressed by microbial hosts will foster the development of innovative biocatalytic processes for GLV production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Holly Stolterfoht
- Austrian Centre of Industrial Biotechnology , Petersgasse 14 , 8010 Graz , Austria
| | - Claudia Rinnofner
- Austrian Centre of Industrial Biotechnology , Petersgasse 14 , 8010 Graz , Austria
- bisy e.U. , Wetzawinkel 20 , 8200 Hofstaetten , Austria
| | - Margit Winkler
- Austrian Centre of Industrial Biotechnology , Petersgasse 14 , 8010 Graz , Austria
- Institute of Molecular Biotechnology , TU Graz, NAWI Graz, BioTechMed Graz , Petersgasse 14 , 8010 Graz , Austria
| | - Harald Pichler
- Austrian Centre of Industrial Biotechnology , Petersgasse 14 , 8010 Graz , Austria
- Institute of Molecular Biotechnology , TU Graz, NAWI Graz, BioTechMed Graz , Petersgasse 14 , 8010 Graz , Austria
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17
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Schäfer M, Fan Y, Gu T, Heydeck D, Stehling S, Ivanov I, Yao YG, Kuhn H. The lipoxygenase pathway of Tupaia belangeri representing Scandentia. Genomic multiplicity and functional characterization of the ALOX15 orthologs in the tree shrew. Biochim Biophys Acta Mol Cell Biol Lipids 2019; 1865:158550. [PMID: 31676437 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbalip.2019.158550] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2019] [Revised: 09/10/2019] [Accepted: 09/22/2019] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
The tree shrew (Tupaia belangeri) is a rat-sized mammal, which is more closely related to humans than mice and rats. However, the use of tree shrew to explore the patho-mechanisms of human inflammatory disorders has been limited since nothing is known about eicosanoid metabolism in this mammalian species. Eicosanoids are important lipid mediators exhibiting pro- and anti-inflammatory activities, which are biosynthesized via lipoxygenase and cyclooxygenase pathways. When we searched the tree shrew genome for the presence of cyclooxygenase and lipoxygenase isoforms we found copies of functional COX1, COX2 and LOX genes. Interestingly, we identified four copies of ALOX15 genes, which encode for four structurally distinct ALOX15 orthologs (tupALOX15a-d). To explore the catalytic properties of these enzymes we expressed tupALOX15a and tupALOX15c as catalytically active proteins and characterized their enzymatic properties. As predicted by the Evolutionary Hypothesis of ALOX15 specificity we found that the two enzymes converted arachidonic acid predominantly to 12S-HETE and they also exhibited membrane oxygenase activities. However, their reaction kinetic properties (KM for arachidonic acid and oxygen, T- and pH-dependence) and their substrate specificities were remarkably different. In contrast to mice and humans, tree shrew ALOX15 isoforms are highly expressed in the brain suggesting a role of these enzymes in cerebral function. The genomic multiplicity and the tissue expression patterns of tree shrew ALOX15 isoforms need to be considered when the results of in vivo inflammation studies obtained in this animal are translated into the human situation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marjann Schäfer
- Institute of Biochemistry, Charité - University Medicine Berlin, Corporate member of Free University Berlin, Humboldt University Berlin and Berlin Institute of Health, Charitéplatz 1, D-10117 Berlin, Germany
| | - Yu Fan
- Key Laboratory of Animal Models and Human Disease Mechanisms of the Chinese Academy of Sciences & Yunnan Province, Kunming Institute of Zoology, Kunming, Yunnan 650223, China
| | - Tianle Gu
- Key Laboratory of Animal Models and Human Disease Mechanisms of the Chinese Academy of Sciences & Yunnan Province, Kunming Institute of Zoology, Kunming, Yunnan 650223, China; Kunming College of Life Science, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, Yunnan 650204, China
| | - Dagmar Heydeck
- Institute of Biochemistry, Charité - University Medicine Berlin, Corporate member of Free University Berlin, Humboldt University Berlin and Berlin Institute of Health, Charitéplatz 1, D-10117 Berlin, Germany
| | - Sabine Stehling
- Institute of Biochemistry, Charité - University Medicine Berlin, Corporate member of Free University Berlin, Humboldt University Berlin and Berlin Institute of Health, Charitéplatz 1, D-10117 Berlin, Germany
| | - Igor Ivanov
- Lomonosov Institute of Fine Chemical Technologies, MIREA - Russian Technological University, Vernadskogo pr. 86, 119571 Moscow, Russia
| | - Yong-Gang Yao
- Key Laboratory of Animal Models and Human Disease Mechanisms of the Chinese Academy of Sciences & Yunnan Province, Kunming Institute of Zoology, Kunming, Yunnan 650223, China; Kunming College of Life Science, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, Yunnan 650204, China
| | - Hartmut Kuhn
- Institute of Biochemistry, Charité - University Medicine Berlin, Corporate member of Free University Berlin, Humboldt University Berlin and Berlin Institute of Health, Charitéplatz 1, D-10117 Berlin, Germany.
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18
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Morello E, Pérez-Berezo T, Boisseau C, Baranek T, Guillon A, Bréa D, Lanotte P, Carpena X, Pietrancosta N, Hervé V, Ramphal R, Cenac N, Si-Tahar M. Pseudomonas aeruginosa Lipoxygenase LoxA Contributes to Lung Infection by Altering the Host Immune Lipid Signaling. Front Microbiol 2019; 10:1826. [PMID: 31474948 PMCID: PMC6702342 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2019.01826] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2019] [Accepted: 07/24/2019] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Pseudomonas aeruginosa is an opportunistic bacteria and a major cause of nosocomial pneumonia. P. aeruginosa has many virulence factors contributing to its ability to colonize the host. LoxA is a lipoxygenase enzyme secreted by P. aeruginosa that oxidizes polyunsaturated fatty acids. Based on previous in vitro biochemical studies, several biological roles of LoxA have been hypothesized, including interference of the host lipid signaling, and modulation of bacterial invasion properties. However, the contribution of LoxA to P. aeruginosa lung pathogenesis per se remained unclear. In this study, we used complementary in vitro and in vivo approaches, clinical strains of P. aeruginosa as well as lipidomics technology to investigate the role of LoxA in lung infection. We found that several P. aeruginosa clinical isolates express LoxA. When secreted in the lungs, LoxA processes a wide range of host polyunsaturated fatty acids, which further results in the production of bioactive lipid mediators (including lipoxin A4). LoxA also inhibits the expression of major chemokines (e.g., MIPs and KC) and the recruitment of key leukocytes. Remarkably, LoxA promotes P. aeruginosa persistence in lungs tissues. Hence, our study suggests that LoxA-dependent interference of the host lipid pathways may contribute to P. aeruginosa lung pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eric Morello
- INSERM, Centre d'Etude des Pathologies Respiratoires (CEPR), UMR 1100, Tours, France.,Université de Tours, Tours, France
| | - Teresa Pérez-Berezo
- Institut de Recherche en Santé Digestive, Université de Toulouse, INSERM, INRA, Ecole Nationale Vétérinaire de Toulouse, Toulouse, France
| | - Chloé Boisseau
- INSERM, Centre d'Etude des Pathologies Respiratoires (CEPR), UMR 1100, Tours, France.,Université de Tours, Tours, France
| | - Thomas Baranek
- INSERM, Centre d'Etude des Pathologies Respiratoires (CEPR), UMR 1100, Tours, France.,Université de Tours, Tours, France
| | - Antoine Guillon
- INSERM, Centre d'Etude des Pathologies Respiratoires (CEPR), UMR 1100, Tours, France.,Université de Tours, Tours, France
| | - Déborah Bréa
- INSERM, Centre d'Etude des Pathologies Respiratoires (CEPR), UMR 1100, Tours, France.,Université de Tours, Tours, France
| | - Philippe Lanotte
- CHRU de Tours, Service de Bactériologie-Virologie, Tours, France.,Université de Tours, UMR1282 ISP, Faculté de Médecine, Equipe Bactéries et Risque Materno-Foetal, Tours, France
| | - Xavier Carpena
- Institut de Biologia Molecular de Barcelona, Parc Científic de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain.,XALOC Beamline, ALBA Synchrotron, Cerdanyola del Vallès, Spain
| | - Nicolas Pietrancosta
- Plateau 2MI, CNRS UMR8601, Laboratoire de Chimie et de Biochimie Pharmacologiques et Toxicologiques, Centre Universitaire des Saints-Pères, Paris, France.,Université Paris Descartes, Sorbonne Paris Cité, Paris, France
| | - Virginie Hervé
- INSERM, Centre d'Etude des Pathologies Respiratoires (CEPR), UMR 1100, Tours, France.,Université de Tours, Tours, France
| | - Reuben Ramphal
- INSERM, Centre d'Etude des Pathologies Respiratoires (CEPR), UMR 1100, Tours, France.,Université de Tours, Tours, France.,Department of Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States
| | - Nicolas Cenac
- Institut de Recherche en Santé Digestive, Université de Toulouse, INSERM, INRA, Ecole Nationale Vétérinaire de Toulouse, Toulouse, France
| | - Mustapha Si-Tahar
- INSERM, Centre d'Etude des Pathologies Respiratoires (CEPR), UMR 1100, Tours, France.,Université de Tours, Tours, France
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19
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Peng G, Hou X, Zhang W, Song M, Yin M, Wang J, Li J, Liu Y, Zhang Y, Zhou W, Li X, Li G. Alkyl rhamnosides, a series of amphiphilic materials exerting broad-spectrum anti-biofilm activity against pathogenic bacteria via multiple mechanisms. ARTIFICIAL CELLS NANOMEDICINE AND BIOTECHNOLOGY 2019; 46:S217-S232. [PMID: 30618296 DOI: 10.1080/21691401.2018.1491474] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
As novel amphiphilic materials, six uncharged alkyl rhamnosides incorporating various alkyl chain and one rhamnose amine quaternary ammonium salt were successfully synthesized in this study. Their amphiphilic properties (HLB and CMC), antimicrobial and anti-biofilm activity against S. aureus and P. aeruginosa were investigated. Differentially regulated proteins and pathways were identified by comparative proteomics research to first give a sight on how alkyl rhamnosides performed the anti-biofilm activity at protein and pathway levels. Among the uncharged alkyl rhamnosides, dodecyl rhamnoside and octyl rhamnoside showed the best antimicrobial and anti-biofilm ability against S. aureus and against P. aeruginosa, respectively. Interestingly, the relationships between amphiphilic properties or MIC with anti-biofilm activity were first established. Uncharged alkyl rhamnoside with an optimized HLB value of 5.0 had both the strongest antibacterial and anti-biofilm activity against S. aureus, and MIC was the maximum biofilm inhibitory concentration for all alkyl rhamnosides. Alkyl rhamnosides have a significant overall regulatory effect on the proteomics and pathways of bacterial biofilms, including energy production, substrates transportation, signal transduction, key molecules balance, and so on. These amphiphilic materials have a great potential to be used as additives in pharmaceutic, cosmetic, food industry, hospital and in other non-medical fields.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guanghua Peng
- a Beijing Key Laboratory of Molecular Pharmaceutics and New Drug System, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences , Peking University Health Science Center , Beijing , China
| | - Xucheng Hou
- a Beijing Key Laboratory of Molecular Pharmaceutics and New Drug System, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences , Peking University Health Science Center , Beijing , China
| | - Wenxi Zhang
- a Beijing Key Laboratory of Molecular Pharmaceutics and New Drug System, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences , Peking University Health Science Center , Beijing , China
| | - Maoyuan Song
- a Beijing Key Laboratory of Molecular Pharmaceutics and New Drug System, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences , Peking University Health Science Center , Beijing , China
| | - Mengya Yin
- a Beijing Key Laboratory of Molecular Pharmaceutics and New Drug System, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences , Peking University Health Science Center , Beijing , China
| | - Jiaxing Wang
- a Beijing Key Laboratory of Molecular Pharmaceutics and New Drug System, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences , Peking University Health Science Center , Beijing , China
| | - Jiajia Li
- a Beijing Key Laboratory of Molecular Pharmaceutics and New Drug System, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences , Peking University Health Science Center , Beijing , China
| | - Yajie Liu
- a Beijing Key Laboratory of Molecular Pharmaceutics and New Drug System, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences , Peking University Health Science Center , Beijing , China
| | - Yuanyuan Zhang
- a Beijing Key Laboratory of Molecular Pharmaceutics and New Drug System, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences , Peking University Health Science Center , Beijing , China
| | - Wenkai Zhou
- b Institute of Medicinal Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Medical Science & Peking Union Medical College , Beijing , China
| | - Xinru Li
- a Beijing Key Laboratory of Molecular Pharmaceutics and New Drug System, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences , Peking University Health Science Center , Beijing , China
| | - Guiling Li
- b Institute of Medicinal Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Medical Science & Peking Union Medical College , Beijing , China
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20
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Goloshchapova K, Stehling S, Heydeck D, Blum M, Kuhn H. Functional characterization of a novel arachidonic acid 12S-lipoxygenase in the halotolerant bacterium Myxococcus fulvus exhibiting complex social living patterns. Microbiologyopen 2018; 8:e00775. [PMID: 30560563 PMCID: PMC6612559 DOI: 10.1002/mbo3.775] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2018] [Revised: 10/24/2018] [Accepted: 11/07/2018] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Lipoxygenases are lipid peroxidizing enzymes, which frequently occur in higher plants and mammals. These enzymes are also expressed in lower multicellular organisms but here they are not widely distributed. In bacteria, lipoxygenases rarely occur and evaluation of the currently available bacterial genomes suggested that <0.5% of all sequenced bacterial species carry putative lipoxygenase genes. We recently rescreened the public bacterial genome databases for lipoxygenase-like sequences and identified two novel lipoxygenase isoforms (MF-LOX1 and MF-LOX2) in the halotolerant Myxococcus fulvus. Both enzymes share a low degree of amino acid conservation with well-characterized eukaryotic lipoxygenase isoforms but they involve the catalytically essential iron cluster. Here, we cloned the MF-LOX1 cDNA, expressed the corresponding enzyme as N-terminal hexa-his-tag fusion protein, purified the recombinant enzyme to electrophoretic homogeneity, and characterized it with respect to its protein-chemical and enzymatic properties. We found that M. fulvus expresses a catalytically active intracellular lipoxygenase that converts arachidonic acid and other polyunsaturated fatty acids enantioselectively to the corresponding n-9 hydroperoxy derivatives. The enzyme prefers C20 - and C22 -polyenoic fatty acids but does not exhibit significant membrane oxygenase activity. The possible biological relevance of MF-LOX1 will be discussed in the context of the suggested concepts of other bacterial lipoxygenases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kateryna Goloshchapova
- Institute of BiochemistryCharité—Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Corporate Member of Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt‐Universität zu Berlin, and Berlin Institute of HealthBerlinGermany
| | - Sabine Stehling
- Institute of BiochemistryCharité—Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Corporate Member of Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt‐Universität zu Berlin, and Berlin Institute of HealthBerlinGermany
| | - Dagmar Heydeck
- Institute of BiochemistryCharité—Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Corporate Member of Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt‐Universität zu Berlin, and Berlin Institute of HealthBerlinGermany
| | | | - Hartmut Kuhn
- Institute of BiochemistryCharité—Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Corporate Member of Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt‐Universität zu Berlin, and Berlin Institute of HealthBerlinGermany
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21
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An JU, Oh DK. Stabilization and improved activity of arachidonate 11 S-lipoxygenase from proteobacterium Myxococcus xanthus. J Lipid Res 2018; 59:2153-2163. [PMID: 30257932 DOI: 10.1194/jlr.m088823] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2018] [Revised: 09/14/2018] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Lipoxygenases (LOXs) catalyze the dioxygenation of PUFAs to produce regio- and stereospecific oxygenated fatty acids. The identification of regio- and stereospecific LOXs is important because their specific products are involved in different physiological activities in various organisms. Bacterial LOXs are found only in some proteobacteria and cyanobacteria, and they are not stable in vitro. Here, we used C20 and C22 PUFAs such as arachidonic acid (ARA), eicosapentaenoic acid, and docosahexaenoic acid to identify an 11S-specific LOX from the proteobacterium Myxococcus xanthus and explore its in vitro stability and activity. The activity and stability of M. xanthus ARA 11S-LOX as well as the production of 11S-hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acid from ARA were significantly increased by the addition of phosphatidylcholine, Ca2+, and coactosin-like protein (newly identified in the yeast Rhodosporidium toluroides) as stimulatory factors; in fact, LOX activity in the presence of all three factors increased approximately 3-fold. Our results indicate that these stimulatory factors can be used to increase the activity and stability of bacterial LOX and the production of bioactive hydroxy fatty acids, which can contribute to new academic research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jung-Ung An
- Department of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Konkuk University, Seoul 05029, South Korea
| | - Deok-Kun Oh
- Department of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Konkuk University, Seoul 05029, South Korea
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22
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Dar HH, Tyurina YY, Mikulska-Ruminska K, Shrivastava I, Ting HC, Tyurin VA, Krieger J, St Croix CM, Watkins S, Bayir E, Mao G, Armbruster CR, Kapralov A, Wang H, Parsek MR, Anthonymuthu TS, Ogunsola AF, Flitter BA, Freedman CJ, Gaston JR, Holman TR, Pilewski JM, Greenberger JS, Mallampalli RK, Doi Y, Lee JS, Bahar I, Bomberger JM, Bayır H, Kagan VE. Pseudomonas aeruginosa utilizes host polyunsaturated phosphatidylethanolamines to trigger theft-ferroptosis in bronchial epithelium. J Clin Invest 2018; 128:4639-4653. [PMID: 30198910 DOI: 10.1172/jci99490] [Citation(s) in RCA: 137] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/27/2017] [Accepted: 07/26/2018] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Ferroptosis is a death program executed via selective oxidation of arachidonic acid-phosphatidylethanolamines (AA-PE) by 15-lipoxygenases. In mammalian cells and tissues, ferroptosis has been pathogenically associated with brain, kidney, and liver injury/diseases. We discovered that a prokaryotic bacterium, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, that does not contain AA-PE can express lipoxygenase (pLoxA), oxidize host AA-PE to 15-hydroperoxy-AA-PE (15-HOO-AA-PE), and trigger ferroptosis in human bronchial epithelial cells. Induction of ferroptosis by clinical P. aeruginosa isolates from patients with persistent lower respiratory tract infections was dependent on the level and enzymatic activity of pLoxA. Redox phospholipidomics revealed elevated levels of oxidized AA-PE in airway tissues from patients with cystic fibrosis (CF) but not with emphysema or CF without P. aeruginosa. We believe that the evolutionarily conserved mechanism of pLoxA-driven ferroptosis may represent a potential therapeutic target against P. aeruginosa-associated diseases such as CF and persistent lower respiratory tract infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haider H Dar
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health and Center for Free Radical and Antioxidant Health and
| | - Yulia Y Tyurina
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health and Center for Free Radical and Antioxidant Health and
| | - Karolina Mikulska-Ruminska
- Department of Computational and System Biology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA.,Institute of Physics, Nicolaus Copernicus University, Torun, Poland
| | - Indira Shrivastava
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health and Center for Free Radical and Antioxidant Health and.,Department of Computational and System Biology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Hsiu-Chi Ting
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health and Center for Free Radical and Antioxidant Health and
| | - Vladimir A Tyurin
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health and Center for Free Radical and Antioxidant Health and
| | - James Krieger
- Department of Computational and System Biology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA
| | | | | | - Erkan Bayir
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health and Center for Free Radical and Antioxidant Health and
| | - Gaowei Mao
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health and Center for Free Radical and Antioxidant Health and.,Department of Critical Care Medicine
| | | | - Alexandr Kapralov
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health and Center for Free Radical and Antioxidant Health and
| | - Hong Wang
- Department of Biostatistics, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Matthew R Parsek
- Department of Microbiology, School of Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, USA
| | - Tamil S Anthonymuthu
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health and Center for Free Radical and Antioxidant Health and.,Department of Critical Care Medicine
| | | | | | - Cody J Freedman
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California Santa Cruz, Santa Cruz, California, USA
| | | | - Theodore R Holman
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California Santa Cruz, Santa Cruz, California, USA
| | | | - Joel S Greenberger
- Department of Radiation Oncology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Rama K Mallampalli
- Department of Medicine and.,Medical Specialty Service Line, Veterans Affairs Pittsburgh Healthcare System, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA
| | | | | | - Ivet Bahar
- Department of Computational and System Biology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA
| | | | - Hülya Bayır
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health and Center for Free Radical and Antioxidant Health and.,Department of Critical Care Medicine
| | - Valerian E Kagan
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health and Center for Free Radical and Antioxidant Health and.,Department of Radiation Oncology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA.,Department of Chemistry and.,Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA.,Laboratory of Navigational Redox Lipidomics, Institute of Regenerative Medicine, IM Sechenov Moscow State Medical University, Moscow, Russia
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23
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Aldrovandi M, Banthiya S, Meckelmann S, Zhou Y, Heydeck D, O'Donnell VB, Kuhn H. Specific oxygenation of plasma membrane phospholipids by Pseudomonas aeruginosa lipoxygenase induces structural and functional alterations in mammalian cells. Biochim Biophys Acta Mol Cell Biol Lipids 2017; 1863:152-164. [PMID: 29146531 PMCID: PMC5764228 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbalip.2017.11.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2017] [Revised: 10/20/2017] [Accepted: 11/11/2017] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
Pseudomonas aeruginosa is a gram-negative pathogen, which causes life-threatening infections in immunocompromized patients. These bacteria express a secreted lipoxygenase (PA-LOX), which oxygenates free arachidonic acid to 15S-hydro(pero)xyeicosatetraenoic acid. It binds phospholipids at its active site and physically interacts with lipid vesicles. When incubated with red blood cells membrane lipids are oxidized and hemolysis is induced but the structures of the oxygenated membrane lipids have not been determined. Using a lipidomic approach, we analyzed the formation of oxidized phospholipids generated during the in vitro incubation of recombinant PA-LOX with human erythrocytes and cultured human lung epithelial cells. Precursor scanning of lipid extracts prepared from these cells followed by multiple reaction monitoring and MS/MS analysis revealed a complex mixture of oxidation products. For human red blood cells this mixture comprised forty different phosphatidylethanolamine and phosphatidylcholine species carrying oxidized fatty acid residues, such as hydroxy-octadecadienoic acids, hydroxy- and keto-eicosatetraenoic acid, hydroxy-docosahexaenoic acid as well as oxygenated derivatives of less frequently occurring polyenoic fatty acids. Similar oxygenation products were also detected when cultured lung epithelial cells were employed but here the amounts of oxygenated lipids were smaller and under identical experimental conditions we did not detect major signs of cell lysis. However, live imaging indicated an impaired capacity for trypan blue exclusion and an augmented mitosis rate. Taken together these data indicate that PA-LOX can oxidize the membrane lipids of eukaryotic cells and that the functional consequences of this reaction strongly depend on the cell type.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maceler Aldrovandi
- Systems Immunity Research Institute, School of Medicine, Cardiff University, Cardiff CF14 4XN, UK
| | - Swathi Banthiya
- Institute of Biochemistry, Charite - University Medicine Berlin, Charitéplatz 1, D-10117 Berlin, Germany
| | - Sven Meckelmann
- Systems Immunity Research Institute, School of Medicine, Cardiff University, Cardiff CF14 4XN, UK
| | - You Zhou
- Systems Immunity Research Institute, School of Medicine, Cardiff University, Cardiff CF14 4XN, UK
| | - Dagmar Heydeck
- Institute of Biochemistry, Charite - University Medicine Berlin, Charitéplatz 1, D-10117 Berlin, Germany
| | - Valerie B O'Donnell
- Systems Immunity Research Institute, School of Medicine, Cardiff University, Cardiff CF14 4XN, UK.
| | - Hartmut Kuhn
- Institute of Biochemistry, Charite - University Medicine Berlin, Charitéplatz 1, D-10117 Berlin, Germany.
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24
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Pseudomonas aeruginosa sabotages the generation of host proresolving lipid mediators. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2016; 114:136-141. [PMID: 27980032 PMCID: PMC5224368 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1610242114] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Recurrent Pseudomonas aeruginosa infections coupled with robust, damaging neutrophilic inflammation characterize the chronic lung disease cystic fibrosis (CF). The proresolving lipid mediator, 15-epi lipoxin A4 (15-epi LXA4), plays a critical role in limiting neutrophil activation and tissue inflammation, thus promoting the return to tissue homeostasis. Here, we show that a secreted P. aeruginosa epoxide hydrolase, cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator inhibitory factor (Cif), can disrupt 15-epi LXA4 transcellular biosynthesis and function. In the airway, 15-epi LXA4 production is stimulated by the epithelial-derived eicosanoid 14,15-epoxyeicosatrienoic acid (14,15-EET). Cif sabotages the production of 15-epi LXA4 by rapidly hydrolyzing 14,15-EET into its cognate diol, eliminating a proresolving signal that potently suppresses IL-8-driven neutrophil transepithelial migration in vitro. Retrospective analyses of samples from patients with CF supported the translational relevance of these preclinical findings. Elevated levels of Cif in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid were correlated with lower levels of 15-epi LXA4, increased IL-8 concentrations, and impaired lung function. Together, these findings provide structural, biochemical, and immunological evidence that the bacterial epoxide hydrolase Cif disrupts resolution pathways during bacterial lung infections. The data also suggest that Cif contributes to sustained pulmonary inflammation and associated loss of lung function in patients with CF.
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25
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Banthiya S, Kalms J, Galemou Yoga E, Ivanov I, Carpena X, Hamberg M, Kuhn H, Scheerer P. Structural and functional basis of phospholipid oxygenase activity of bacterial lipoxygenase from Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Biochim Biophys Acta Mol Cell Biol Lipids 2016; 1861:1681-1692. [PMID: 27500637 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbalip.2016.08.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2016] [Revised: 07/29/2016] [Accepted: 08/03/2016] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
Pseudomonas aeruginosa expresses a secreted LOX-isoform (PA-LOX, LoxA) capable of oxidizing polyenoic fatty acids to hydroperoxy derivatives. Here we report high-level expression of this enzyme in E. coli and its structural and functional characterization. Recombinant PA-LOX oxygenates polyenoic fatty acids including eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid to the corresponding (n-6)S-hydroperoxy derivatives. This reaction involves abstraction of the proS-hydrogen from the n-8 bisallylic methylene. PA-LOX lacks major leukotriene synthase activity but converts 5S-HETE and 5S,6R/S-DiHETE to anti-inflammatory and pro-resolving lipoxins. It also exhibits phospholipid oxygenase activity as indicated by the formation of a specific pattern of oxygenation products from different phospholipid subspecies. Multiple mutagenesis studies revealed that PA-LOX does not follow classical concepts explaining the reaction specificity of mammalian LOXs. The crystal structure of PA-LOX was solved with resolutions of up to 1.48Å and its polypeptide chain is folded as single domain. The substrate-binding pocket consists of two fatty acid binding subcavities and lobby. Subcavity-1 contains the catalytic non-heme iron. A phosphatidylethanolamine molecule occupies the substrate-binding pocket and its sn1 fatty acid is located close to the catalytic non-heme iron. His377, His382, His555, Asn559 and the C-terminal Ile685 function as direct iron ligands and a water molecule (hydroxyl) completes the octahedral ligand sphere. Although the biological relevance of PA-LOX is still unknown its functional characteristics (lipoxin synthase activity) implicate this enzyme in a bacterial evasion strategy aimed at downregulating the hosts' immune system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Swathi Banthiya
- Institut für Biochemie, Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Charitéplatz 1, D-10117 Berlin, Germany
| | - Jacqueline Kalms
- Institut für Medizinische Physik und Biophysik, Group Protein X-ray Crystallography and Signal Transduction, Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Charitéplatz 1, D-10117 Berlin, Germany
| | - Etienne Galemou Yoga
- Institut für Medizinische Physik und Biophysik, Group Protein X-ray Crystallography and Signal Transduction, Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Charitéplatz 1, D-10117 Berlin, Germany
| | - Igor Ivanov
- Institut für Biochemie, Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Charitéplatz 1, D-10117 Berlin, Germany
| | - Xavi Carpena
- Institut de Biologia Molecular de Barcelona (IBMB-CSIC), Parc Científic de Barcelona, 08028 Barcelona, Spain; XALOC beamline, ALBA synchrotron (CELLS), 08290 Cerdanyola del Vallès, Spain
| | - Mats Hamberg
- Department of Medical Biochemistry and Biophysics, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Hartmut Kuhn
- Institut für Biochemie, Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Charitéplatz 1, D-10117 Berlin, Germany.
| | - Patrick Scheerer
- Institut für Medizinische Physik und Biophysik, Group Protein X-ray Crystallography and Signal Transduction, Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Charitéplatz 1, D-10117 Berlin, Germany.
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