Differences in the Electrochemical Performance of Pt-Based Catalysts Used for Polymer Electrolyte Membrane Fuel Cells in Liquid Half- and Full-Cells

Overcoming the Limitation of Ionomers on Mass Transport and Pt Activity to Achieve High-Performing Membrane Electrode Assembly

The membrane electrode assembly (MEA) is one of the critical components in proton exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs). However, the conventional MEA cathode with a covered-type catalyst/ionomer interfacial structure severely limits oxygen transport efficiency and Pt activity, hardly achieving the theoretical performance upper bound of PEMFCs. Here, we design a noncovered catalyst/ionomer interfacial structure with low proton transport resistance and high oxygen transport efficiency in the cathode catalyst layer (CL). This noncovered interfacial structure employs the ionomer cross-linked carbon particles as long-range and fast proton transport channels and prevents the ionomer from directly covering the Pt/C catalyst surface in the CL, freeing the oxygen diffusion process from passing through the dense ionomer covering layer to the Pt surface. Moreover, the structure improves oxygen transport within the pores of the CL and achieves more than 20% lower pressure-independent oxygen transport resistance compared to the covered-type structure. Fuel-cell diagnostics demonstrate that the noncovered catalyst/ionomer interfacial structure provides exceptional fuel-cell performance across the kinetic and mass transport-limited regions, with 77% and 67% higher peak power density than the covered-type interfacial structure under 0 kPagauge of oxygen and air conditions, respectively. This alternative interfacial structure provides a new direction for optimizing the electrode structure and improving mass-transport paths of MEA.

Exploring the Potential of Bimetallic PtPd/C Cathode Catalysts to Enhance the Performance of PEM Fuel Cells

Bimetallic platinum-containing catalysts are deemed promising for electrolyzers and proton-exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs). A significant number of laboratory studies and commercial offers are related to PtNi/C and PtCo/C electrocatalysts. The behavior of PtPd/C catalysts has been studied much less, although palladium itself is the metal closest to platinum in its properties. Using a series of characterization methods, this paper presents a comparative study of structural characteristics of the commercial PtPd/C catalysts containing 38% wt. of precious metals and the well-known HiSpec4000 Pt/C catalyst. The electrochemical behavior of the catalysts was studied both in a three-electrode electrochemical cell and in the membrane electrode assemblies (MEAs) of hydrogen-air PEMFCs. Both PtPd/C samples demonstrated higher values of the electrochemically active surface area, as well as greater specific and mass activity in the oxygen reduction reaction in comparison with conventional Pt/C, while not being inferior to the latter in durability. The MEA based on the best of the PtPd/C catalysts also exhibited higher performance in single tests and long-term durability testing. The results of this study conducted indicate the prospects of using bimetallic PtPd/C materials for cathode catalysts in PEMFCs.

A Janus Platinum/Tin Oxide Heterostructure for Durable Oxygen Reduction Reaction

Designing efficient and durable electrocatalysts for oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) is essential for proton exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs). Platinum-based catalysts are considered efficient ORR catalysts due to their high activity. However, the degradation of Pt species leads to poor durability of catalysts, limiting their applications in PEMFCs. Herein, a Janus heterostructure is designed for high durability ORR in acidic media. The Janus heterostructure composes of crystalline platinum and cassiterite tin oxide nanoparticles with carbon support (J-Pt@SnO2/C). Based on the synchrotron fine structure analysis and electrochemical investigation, the crystalline reconstruction and charge redistribution at the interface of Janus structure are revealed. The tightly coupled interface could optimize the valance states of Pt and the adsorption/desorption of oxygenated intermediates. As a result, the J-Pt@SnO2/C catalyst possesses distinguishing long-term stability during the accelerated durability test without obvious degradation after 40 000 cycles and keeps the majority of activity after 70 000 cycles. Meanwhile, the catalyst exhibits outstanding activity with half-wave potential at 0.905 V and a mass activity of 0.355 A mgPt -1 (2.7 times higher than Pt/C). The approach of the Janus catalyst paves an avenue for designing highly efficient and stable Pt-based ORR catalyst in the future implementation.

Multi-scale revealing how real catalyst layer interfaces dominate the local oxygen transport resistance in ultra-low platinum PEMFC

In view of a catalyst layer (CL) with low-Pt causing higher local transport resistance of O2 (Rlocal), we propose a multi-study methodology that combines CO poisoning, the limiting current density method, and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy to reveal how real CL interfaces dominate Rlocal. Experimental results indicate that the ionomer is not evenly distributed on the catalyst surface, and the uniformity of ionomer distribution does not show a positive correlation with the ionomer content. When the ionomer coverage on the supported catalyst surface is below 20 %, the ECSA is only 10 m2·g-1, and the ionomer coverage on the supported catalyst surface reaches 60 %, the ECSA is close to 40 m2·g-1. The ECSA has a positive correlation with ionomer coverage. Because the ECSA is measured by CO poisoning, it can be inferred that the platinum contacted with ionomer can generate effective active sites. Furthermore, a more uniform distribution of ionomer can create additional proton transport channels and reduce the distance for oxygen transport from the catalyst layer bulk to the active sites. A higher ECSA and a shorter distance for oxygen transport will reduce the Rlocal, leading to better performance.

Modification Strategies for Development of 2D Material-Based Electrocatalysts for Alcohol Oxidation Reaction

2D materials, such as graphene, MXenes (metal carbides and nitrides), graphdiyne (GDY), layered double hydroxides, and black phosphorus, are widely used as electrocatalyst supports for alcohol oxidation reactions (AORs) owing to their large surface area and unique 2D charge transport channels. Furthermore, the development of highly efficient electrocatalysts for AORs via tuning the structure of 2D support materials has recently become a hot area. This article provides a critical review on modification strategies to develop 2D material-based electrocatalysts for AOR. First, the principles and influencing factors of electrocatalytic oxidation of alcohols (such as methanol and ethanol) are introduced. Second, surface molecular functionalization, heteroatom doping, and composite hybridization are deeply discussed as the modification strategies to improve 2D material catalyst supports for AORs. Finally, the challenges and perspectives of 2D material-based electrocatalysts for AORs are outlined. This review will promote further efforts in the development of electrocatalysts for AORs.

Spatially Confined Alloying of Pt Accelerates Mass Transport for Fuel Cell Oxygen Reduction

Pt-based alloy with high mass activity and durability is highly desired for proton exchange membrane fuel cells, yet a great challenge remains due to the high mass transport resistance near catalysts with lowering Pt loading. Herein, an extensible approach employing atomic layer deposition to accurately introduce a gas-phase metal precursor into platinum nanoparticles (NPs) pre-filled mesoporous channels is reported, achieved by controlling both the deposition site and quantity. Following the spatially confined alloying treatment, the prepared PtSn alloy catalyst within mesopores demonstrates a small size and homogeneous distribution (2.10 ± 0.53 nm). The membrane electrode assembly with mesoporous carbon-supported PtSn alloy catalyst achieves a high initial mass activity of 0.85 Amg Pt - 1 ${\mathrm{mg}}_{\mathrm{Pt}}^{-1}$ at 0.9 V, which is attributed to the smallest local oxygen transport resistance (3.68 S m-1) ever reported. The mass activity of the catalyst only decreases by 11% after 30000 cycles of accelerated durability test, representing superior full-cell durability among the reported Pt-based alloy catalysts. The enhanced activity and durability are attributed to the decreased adsorption energy of oxygen intermediates on Pt surface and the strong electronic interaction between Pt and Sn inhibiting Pt dissolution.

Oxygen- and proton-transporting open framework ionomer for medium-temperature fuel cells

Medium-temperature proton exchange membrane fuel cells (MT PEMFCs) operating at 100° to 120°C have improved kinetics, simplified thermal and water management, and broadened fuel tolerance compared with low-temperature PEMFCs. However, high temperatures lead to Nafion ionomer dehydration and exacerbate gas transportation limitations. Inspired by osmolytes found in hyperthermophiles, we developed α-aminoketone-linked covalent organic framework (COF) ionomers, interwoven with Nafion, to act as "breathable" proton conductors. This approach leverages synergistic hydrogen bonding to retain water, enhancing hydration and proton transport while reducing oxygen transport resistance. For commercial Pt/C, the MT PEMFCs achieved peak and rated power densities of 18.1 and 9.5 Watts per milligram of Pt at the cathode at 105°C fueled with H2 and air, marking increases of 101 and 187%, respectively, compared with cells lacking the COF.

Quantitative evaluation of particle-binder interactions in ceramic slurries via differential centrifugal sedimentation

In diverse materials science spanning from fine ceramics to lithium-ion batteries and fuel cells, the particle-binder interactions in slurries play a crucial role in governing the ultimate performance. Despite numerous efforts to date, quantitatively elucidating these hidden interactions has remained a longstanding challenge. Here, we demonstrate a dynamic approach to evaluate adsorptive interactions between ceramic particles and polymeric binders entangled in a slurry utilizing differential centrifugal sedimentation (DCS). Particles settling under a centrifugal force field impart significant viscous resistance on the adsorbed binder, leading to its detachment, influenced by particle size and density. This behaviour directly reflects the particle-binder interactions, and detailed DCS spectrum analysis enables the quantitative assessment of nano-Newton-order adsorption forces. An important finding is the strong correlation of these forces with the mechanical properties of the moulded products. Our results provide insight that forming a flexible network structure with appropriate interactions is essential for desirable formability.

Integration Construction of Hybrid Electrocatalysts for Oxygen Reduction

There is notable progress in the development of efficient oxygen reduction electrocatalysts, which are crucial components of fuel cells. However, these superior activities are limited by imbalanced mass transport and cannot be fully reflected in actual fuel cell applications. Herein, the design concepts and development tracks of platinum (Pt)-nanocarbon hybrid catalysts, aiming to enhance the performance of both cathodic electrocatalysts and fuel cells, are presented. This review commences with an introduction to Pt/C catalysts, highlighting the diverse architectures developed to date, with particular emphasis on heteroatom modification and microstructure construction of functionalized nanocarbons based on integrated design concepts. This discussion encompasses the structural evolution, property enhancement, and catalytic mechanisms of Pt/C-based catalysts, including rational preparation recipes, superior activity, strong stability, robust metal-support interactions, adsorption regulation, synergistic pathways, confinement strategies, ionomer optimization, mass transport permission, multidimensional construction, and reactor upgrading. Furthermore, this review explores the low-barrier or barrier-free mass exchange interfaces and channels achieved through the impressive multidimensional construction of Pt-nanocarbon integrated catalysts, with the goal of optimizing fuel cell efficiency. In conclusion, this review outlines the challenges associated with Pt-nanocarbon integrated catalysts and provides perspectives on the future development trends of fuel cells and beyond.

Preferential segregation of gold at the symmetrical tilt grain boundaries of platinum: an atomic-scale quantitative understanding

Grain boundary (GB) segregation plays a pivotal role in maintaining and optimizing the remarkable catalytic or mechanical properties of nanocrystalline Pt by reducing the Gibbs free energy and thereby impeding structure degradation. The solute segregation behavior at the Pt GB, however, is not well understood at the atomic level. In this study, we employed first-principles calculations to elucidate the preferential segregation behavior of a single Au atom at the symmetrical tilt GB of Pt. For pure Pt, a linear relationship between the GB energy and excess volume is observed. Therefore, Au exhibits strong segregation tendencies towards GB to release excess energy and volume stored at the strained GB. Although the segregation energy is sensitive to various GB sites, it is interesting to note that the minimum one increases linearly with GB energy. This site-sensitivity of segregation energy can be attributed to mechanical, chemical, and interaction parts, which are quantitatively related to the atomic volume, coordination number, and average bond length, respectively. Finally, the interplay among different structural descriptors is revealed. These insights into the association between GB structures, segregation configuration and energy offers valuable atomic-scale quantitative insights into the segregation behavior of Au in Pt GBs, which holds significant implications for the design of Pt nanomaterials with enhanced thermal stability via GB engineering.

Strategies for Achieving Ultra-Long ORR Durability-Rh Activates Interatomic Interactions in Alloys

The stability of platinum-based alloy catalysts is crucial for the future development of proton exchange membrane fuel cells, considering the potential dissolution of transition metals under complex operating conditions. Here, we report on a Rh-doped Pt3Co alloy that exhibits strong interatomic interactions, thereby enhancing the durability of fuel cells. The Rh-Pt3Co/C catalyst demonstrates exceptional catalytic activity for oxygen reduction reactions (ORR) (1.31 A mgPt -1 at 0.9 V vs. the reversible hydrogen electrode (RHE) and maintaining 92 % of its mass activity after 170,000 potential cycles). Long-term testing has shown direct inhibition of Co dissolution in Rh-Pt3Co/C. Furthermore, tests on proton exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFC) have shown excellent performance and long-term durability with low Pt loading. After 50,000 cycles, there was no voltage loss at 0.8 A cm-2 for Rh-Pt3Co/C, while Pt3Co/C experienced a loss of 200 mV. Theoretical calculations suggest that introducing transition metal atoms through doping creates a stronger compressive strain, which in turn leads to increased catalytic activity. Additionally, Rh doping increases the energy barrier for Co diffusion in the bulk phase, while also raising the vacancy formation energy of the surface Pt. This ensures the long-term stability of the alloy over the course of the cycle.

Effect of Heat Treatment on Structure of Carbon Shell-Encapsulated Pt Nanoparticles for Fuel Cells

Polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs) have attracted much attention as highly efficient, eco-friendly energy conversion devices. However, carbon-supported Pt (Pt/C) catalysts for PEMFCs still have several problems, such as low long-term stability, to be widely commercialized in fuel cell applications. To address the stability issues of Pt/C such as the dissolution, detachment, and agglomeration of Pt nanoparticles under harsh operating conditions, we design an interesting fabrication process to produce a highly active and durable Pt catalyst by introducing a robust carbon shell on the Pt surface. Furthermore, this approach provides insights into how to regulate the carbon shell layer for fuel cell applications. Through the application of an appropriate amount of H2 gas during heat treatment, the carbon shell pores, which are integral to the structure, can be systematically modulated to facilitate oxygen adsorption for the oxygen reduction reaction. Simultaneously, the carbon shell functions as a protective barrier, preventing catalyst degradation. In this regard, we investigate an in-depth analysis of the effects of critical parameters including H2 content and the flow rate of H2/N2 mixed gas during heat treatment to prepare better catalysts.

Redesign of Anode Catalyst for Sustainable Survival of Fuel Cells

Polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs) suffer from severe performance degradation when operating under harsh conditions such as fuel starvation, shut-down/start-up, and open circuit voltage. A fundamental solution to these technical issues requires an integrated approach rather than condition-specific solutions. In this study, an anode catalyst based on Pt nanoparticles encapsulated in a multifunctional carbon layer (MCL), acting as a molecular sieve layer and protective layer is designed. The MCL enabled selective hydrogen oxidation reaction on the surface of the Pt nanoparticles while preventing their dissolution and agglomeration. Thus, the structural deterioration of a membrane electrode assembly can be effectively suppressed under various harsh operating conditions. The results demonstrated that redesigning the anode catalyst structure can serve as a promising strategy to maximize the service life of the current PEMFC system.

Hydrogen production, storage, and transportation: recent advances

One such technology is hydrogen-based which utilizes hydrogen to generate energy without emission of greenhouse gases. The advantage of such technology is the fact that the only by-product is water. Efficient storage is crucial for the practical application of hydrogen. There are several techniques to store hydrogen, each with certain advantages and disadvantages. In gaseous hydrogen storage, hydrogen gas is compressed and stored at high pressures, requiring robust and expensive pressure vessels. In liquid hydrogen storage, hydrogen is cooled to extremely low temperatures and stored as a liquid, which is energy-intensive. Researchers are exploring advanced materials for hydrogen storage, including metal hydrides, carbon-based materials, metal-organic frameworks (MOFs), and nanomaterials. These materials aim to enhance storage capacity, kinetics, and safety. The hydrogen economy envisions hydrogen as a clean energy carrier, utilized in various sectors like transportation, industry, and power generation. It can contribute to decarbonizing sectors that are challenging to electrify directly. Hydrogen can play a role in a circular economy by facilitating energy storage, supporting intermittent renewable sources, and enabling the production of synthetic fuels and chemicals. The circular economy concept promotes the recycling and reuse of materials, aligning with sustainable development goals. Hydrogen availability depends on the method of production. While it is abundant in nature, obtaining it in a clean and sustainable manner is crucial. The efficiency of hydrogen production and utilization varies among methods, with electrolysis being a cleaner but less efficient process compared to other conventional methods. Chemisorption and physisorption methods aim to enhance storage capacity and control the release of hydrogen. There are various viable options that are being explored to solve these challenges, with one option being the use of a multilayer film of advanced metals. This work provides an overview of hydrogen economy as a green and sustainable energy system for the foreseeable future, hydrogen production methods, hydrogen storage systems and mechanisms including their advantages and disadvantages, and the promising storage system for the future. In summary, hydrogen holds great promise as a clean energy carrier, and ongoing research and technological advancements are addressing challenges related to production, storage, and utilization, bringing us closer to a sustainable hydrogen economy.

High Power Density of a Hydrogen Peroxide Fuel Cell Using Cobalt Chlorin Complex Supported on Carbon Nanotubes as a Noncorrosive Anode

Hydrogen peroxide fuel cells (HPFCs) have attracted much attention due to their simple one-compartment structures and high availability under harsh conditions such as an anaerobic environment; however, catalysis improvement is strongly demanded for both anodes and cathodes in terms of activity and durability. Herein, we report the high catalytic activity of CoII chlorin [CoII(Ch)] for hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) oxidation with a low overpotential (0.21 V) compared to that of the CoII phthalocyanine and CoII porphyrin complexes, which have previously been reported as active anode catalysts. Linear sweep voltammograms and differential pulse voltammograms of the CoII complexes (CoIIL) and the corresponding ligands clearly showed that the CoIIIL species are the active species for H2O2 oxidation. Then, one-compartment HPFCs were constructed with CoII(Ch) supported on multiwalled carbon nanotubes (CNTs) as the anode together with FeII3[CoIII(CN)6]2 supported on CNTs as the cathode. The maximum power density of the HPFCs reached 151 μW cm-2 with an open circuit potential of 0.33 V when the coverage of CNT surfaces with CoII(Ch) exceeded ∼60% at the anode.

Identifying the distinct roles of dual dopants in stabilizing the platinum-nickel nanowire catalyst for durable fuel cell

Stabilizing active PtNi alloy catalyst toward oxygen reduction reaction is essential for fuel cell. Doping of specific metals is an empirical strategy, however, the atomistic insight into how dopant boosts the stability of PtNi catalyst still remains elusive. Here, with typical examples of Mo and Au dopants, we identify the distinct roles of Mo and Au in stabilizing PtNi nanowires catalysts. Specifically, due to the stronger interaction between atomic orbital for Ni-Mo and Pt-Au, the Mo dopant mainly suppresses the outward diffusion of Ni atoms while the Au dopant contributes to the stabilization of surface Pt overlayer. Inspired by this atomistic understanding, we rationally construct the PtNiMoAu nanowires by integrating the different functions of Mo and Au into one entity. Such catalyst assembled in fuel cell cathode thus presents both remarkable activity and durability, even surpassing the United States Department of Energy technical targets for 2025.

Machine-learning-accelerated design of high-performance platinum intermetallic nanoparticle fuel cell catalysts

Carbon supported PtCo intermetallic alloys are known to be one of the most promising candidates as low-platinum oxygen reduction reaction electrocatalysts for proton-exchange-membrane fuel cells. Nevertheless, the intrinsic trade-off between particle size and ordering degree of PtCo makes it challenging to simultaneously achieve a high specific activity and a large active surface area. Here, by machine-learning-accelerated screenings from the immense configuration space, we are able to statistically quantify the impact of chemical ordering on thermodynamic stability. We find that introducing of Cu/Ni into PtCo can provide additional stabilization energy by inducing Co-Cu/Ni disorder, thus facilitating the ordering process and achieveing an improved tradeoff between specific activity and active surface area. Guided by the theoretical prediction, the small sized and highly ordered ternary Pt2CoCu and Pt2CoNi catalysts are experimentally prepared, showing a large electrochemically active surface area of ~90 m2 gPt‒1 and a high specific activity of ~3.5 mA cm‒2.

Universal and Energy-Efficient Approach to Synthesize Pt-Rare Earth Metal Alloys for Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell

Traditional synthesis methods of platinum-rare earth metal (Pt-RE) alloys usually involve harsh conditions and high energy consumption because of the low standard reduction potentials and high oxophilicity of RE metals. In this work, a one-step strategy is developed by rapid Joule thermal-shock (RJTS) to synthesize Pt-RE alloys within tens of seconds. The method can not only realize the regulation of alloy size, but also a universal method for the preparation of a family of Pt-RE alloys (RE = Ce, La, Gd, Sm, Tb, Y). In addition, the energy consumption of the Pt-RE alloy preparation is only 0.052 kW h, which is 2-3 orders of magnitude lower than other reported methods. This method allows individual Pt-RE alloy to be embedded in the carbon substrate, endowing the alloy catalyst excellent durability for oxygen reduction reaction (ORR). The performance of alloy catalyst shows negligible decay after 20k accelerated durability testing (ADT) cycles. This strategy offers a new route to synthesize noble/non-noble metal alloys with diversified applications besides ORR.

Operando Electron Microscopy of Catalysts: The Missing Cornerstone in Heterogeneous Catalysis Research?

Heterogeneous catalysis in thermal gas-phase and electrochemical liquid-phase chemical conversion plays an important role in our modern energy landscape. However, many of the structural features that drive efficient chemical energy conversion are still unknown. These features are, in general, highly distinct on the local scale and lack translational symmetry, and thus, they are difficult to capture without the required spatial and temporal resolution. Correlating these structures to their function will, conversely, allow us to disentangle irrelevant and relevant features, explore the entanglement of different local structures, and provide us with the necessary understanding to tailor novel catalyst systems with improved productivity. This critical review provides a summary of the still immature field of operando electron microscopy for thermal gas-phase and electrochemical liquid-phase reactions. It focuses on the complexity of investigating catalytic reactions and catalysts, progress in the field, and analysis. The forthcoming advances are discussed in view of correlative techniques, artificial intelligence in analysis, and novel reactor designs.

Materials Strategies Tackling Interfacial Issues in Catalyst Layers of Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells

The most critical challenge for the large-scale commercialization of proton exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs), one of the primary hydrogen energy technologies, is to achieve decent output performance with low usage of platinum (Pt). Currently, the performance of PEMFCs is largely limited by two issues at the catalyst/ionomer interface, specifically, the poisoning of active sites of Pt by sulfonate groups and the extremely sluggish local oxygen transport toward Pt. In the past few years, emerging strategies are derived to tackle these interface problems through materials optimization and innovation. This perspective summarizes the latest advances in this regard, and in the meantime unveils the molecule-level mechanisms behind the materials modulation of interfacial structures. This paper starts with a brief introduction of processes and structures of catalyst/ionomer interfaces, which is followed by a detailed review of progresses in key materials toward interface optimization, including catalysts, ionomers, and additives, with particular emphasis on the role of materials structure in regulating the intermolecular interactions. Finally, the challenges for the application of the established materials and research directions to broaden the material library are highlighted.

Multiscale Architectured Membranes, Electrodes, and Transport Layers for Next-Generation Polymer Electrolyte Membrane Fuel Cells

Over the past few decades, considerable advances have been achieved in polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs) based on the development of material technology. Recently, an emerging multiscale architecturing technology covering nanometer, micrometer, and millimeter scales has been regarded as an alternative strategy to overcome the hindrance to achieving high-performance and reliable PEMFCs. This review summarizes the recent progress in the key components of PEMFCs based on a novel architecture strategy. In the first section, diverse architectural methods for patterning the membrane surface with random, single-scale, and multiscale structures as well as their efficacy for improving catalyst utilization, charge transport, and water management are discussed. In the subsequent section, the electrode structures designed with 1D and 3D multiscale structures to enable low Pt usage, improve oxygen transport, and achieve high electrode durability are elucidated. Finally, recent advances in the architectured transport layer for improving mass transportation including pore gradient, perforation, and patterned wettability for gas diffusion layer and 3D structured/engineered flow fields are described.

Tailoring ionomer distribution in the catalyst layer via heteroatom-functionalization toward superior PEMFC performance

We investigate in detail the influence of O, S, and N functionalization of Pt3Co/C catalysts on the proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC). The results demonstrated that N-functionalization is more beneficial for the distribution of the ionomer in the catalyst layer, resulting in a trade-off between oxygen and hydronium ion transport.

Synergistic effect of bimetallic Pd-Pt nanocrystals for highly efficient methanol oxidation electrocatalysts

Metal nanocrystals (NCs) with controlled compositional and distributional structures have gained increasing attention due to their unique properties and broad applications, particularly in fuel cell systems. However, despite the significant importance of composition in metal NCs and their electrocatalytic behavior, comprehensive investigations into the relationship between atomic distribution and electrocatalytic activity remain scarce. In this study, we present the development of four types of nanocubes with similar sizes and controlled compositions (Pd-Pt alloy, Pd@Pt core-shell, Pd, and Pt) to investigate their influence on electrocatalytic performance for methanol oxidation reaction (MOR). The electrocatalytic activity and stability of these nanocubes exhibited variations based on their compositional structures, potentially affecting the interaction between the surface-active sites of the nanocrystals and reactive molecules. As a result, leveraging the synergistic effect of their alloy nanostructure, the Pd-Pt alloy nanocubes exhibited exceptional performance in MOR, surpassing the catalytic activity of other nanocubes, including Pd@Pt core-shell nanocubes, monometallic Pd and Pt nanocubes, as well as commercial Pd/C and Pt/C catalysts.

Atomistic Simulations of Hydrated Sulfonated Polybenzophenone Block Copolymer Membranes

We present a classical molecular dynamics simulations study on the nanostructures of the sulfonated polybenzophenone (SPK) block copolymer membranes at 300 K and 353 K. The results of the radial distribution function (RDF) show that the interactions of the sulfonate groups of the membrane with the hydronium ions are more significant than those of water due to the strong electrostatic attraction over the hydrogen bonding. However, the effect of temperatures on the RDF profile seems insignificant. Furthermore, the spatial distribution function (SDF) portrays that the sulfonate groups of the hydrophilic components are preferential binding sites for hydronium ions against the hydrophobic counterpart of the SPK membrane. The mobility of the H3 O+ ions at 300 K and 353 K is two (or three) times lower than that of Nafion/Aciplex. However, the diffusion coefficients for water molecules closely agree with Nafion/Aciplex. This study suggests that water clusters are more localized around the sulfonate groups in the SPK membranes. Thus, the molecular modeling study of SPK block copolymer membranes is warranted to design better-performing membrane electrolytes.

Progress and Perspective for In Situ Studies of Oxygen Reduction Reaction in Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells

Proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) is one of the most promising energy conversion devices with high efficiency and zero emission. However, oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) at the cathode is still the dominant limiting factor for the practical development of PEMFC due to its sluggish kinetics and the vulnerability of ORR catalysts under harsh operating conditions. Thus, the development of high-performance ORR catalysts is essential and requires a better understanding of the underlying ORR mechanism and the failure mechanisms of ORR catalysts with in situ characterization techniques. This review starts with the introduction of in situ techniques that have been used in the research of the ORR processes, including the principle of the techniques, the design of the in situ cells, and the application of the techniques. Then the in situ studies of the ORR mechanism as well as the failure mechanisms of ORR catalysts in terms of Pt nanoparticle degradation, Pt oxidation, and poisoning by air contaminants are elaborated. Furthermore, the development of high-performance ORR catalysts with high activity, anti-oxidation ability, and toxic-resistance guided by the aforementioned mechanisms and other in situ studies are outlined. Finally, the prospects and challenges for in situ studies of ORR in the future are proposed.

In Situ Filling of the Oxygen Vacancies with Dual Heteroatoms in Co3O4 for Efficient Overall Water Splitting

Electrocatalytic water splitting is a crucial area in sustainable energy development, and the development of highly efficient bifunctional catalysts that exhibit activity toward both hydrogen evolution reaction (HER) and oxygen evolution reaction (OER) is of paramount importance. Co₃O₄ is a promising candidate catalyst, owing to the variable valence of Co, which can be exploited to enhance the bifunctional catalytic activity of HER and OER through rational adjustments of the electronic structure of Co atoms. In this study, we employed a plasma-etching strategy in combination with an in situ filling of heteroatoms to etch the surface of Co₃O₄, creating abundant oxygen vacancies, while simultaneously filling them with nitrogen and sulfur heteroatoms. The resulting N/S-V_O-Co₃O₄ exhibited favorable bifunctional activity for alkaline electrocatalytic water splitting, with significantly enhanced HER and OER catalytic activity compared to pristine Co₃O₄. In an alkaline overall water-splitting simulated electrolytic cell, N/S-V_O-Co₃O₄ || N/S-V_O-Co₃O₄ showed excellent overall water splitting catalytic activity, comparable to noble metal benchmark catalysts Pt/C || IrO₂, and demonstrated superior long-term catalytic stability. Additionally, the combination of in situ Raman spectroscopy with other ex situ characterizations provided further insight into the reasons behind the enhanced catalyst performance achieved through the in situ incorporation of N and S heteroatoms. This study presents a facile strategy for fabricating highly efficient cobalt-based spinel electrocatalysts incorporated with double heteroatoms for alkaline electrocatalytic monolithic water splitting.

Effective single web-structured electrode for high membrane electrode assembly performance in polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cell

To achieve a sustainable society, CO₂ emissions must be reduced and efficiency of energy systems must be enhanced. The polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) has zero CO₂ emissions and high effectiveness for various applications. A well-designed membrane electrolyte assembly (MEA) composed of electrode layers of effective materials and structure can alter the performance and durability of PEMFC. We demonstrate an efficient electrode deposition method through a well-designed carbon single web with a porous 3D web structure that can be commercially adopted. To achieve excellent electrochemical properties, active Pt nanoparticles are controlled by a nanoglue effect on a highly graphitized carbon surface. The developed MEA exhibits a notable maximum power density of 1082 mW/cm² at 80°C, H₂/air, 50% RH, and 1.8 atm; low cathode loading of 0.1 mg_Pt/cm²; and catalytic performance decays of only 23.18 and 13.42% under commercial-based durability protocols, respectively, thereby achieving all desirables for commercial applications.

Hydrogen Promotes the Growth of Platinum Pyramidal Nanocrystals by Size-Dependent Symmetry Breaking

The growth of pyramidal platinum nanocrystals is studied by a combination of synthesis/characterization experiments and density functional theory calculations. It is shown that the growth of pyramidal shapes is due to a peculiar type of symmetry breaking, which is caused by the adsorption of hydrogen on the growing nanocrystals. Specifically, the growth of pyramidal shapes is attributed to the size-dependent adsorption energies of hydrogen atoms on {100} facets, whose growth is hindered only if they are sufficiently large. The crucial role of hydrogen adsorption is further confirmed by the absence of pyramidal nanocrystals in experiments where the reduction process does not involve hydrogen.

Effects of the crown ether cavity on the performance of anion exchange membranes

Anion exchange membrane fuel cells (AEMFCs) have emerged as a promising alternative to proton exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs) due to their adaptability to low-cost stack components and non-noble-metals catalysts. However, the poor alkaline resistance and low OH^- conductivity of anion exchange membranes (AEMs) have impeded the large-scale implementation of AEMFCs. Herein, the preparation of a new type of AEMs with crown ether macrocycles in their main chains via a one-pot superacid catalyzed reaction was reported. The study aimed to examine the influence of crown ether cavity size on the phase separation structure, ionic conductivity and alkali resistance of anion exchange membranes. Attributed to the self-assembly of crown ethers, the poly (crown ether) (PCE) AEMs with dibenzo-18-crown-6-ether (QAPCE-18-6) exhibit an obvious phase separated structure and a maximum OH^- conductivity of 122.5 mS cm^-1 at 80 °C (ionic exchange capacity is 1.51 meq g^-1). QAPCE-18-6 shows a good alkali resistance with the OH^- conductivity retention of 94.5% albeit being treated in a harsh alkali condition. Moreover, the hydrogen/oxygen single cell equipped with QAPCE-18-6 can achieve a peak power density (PPD) of 574 mW cm^-2 at a current density of 1.39 A cm^-2.

Alloying Matters for Ordering: Synthesis of Highly Ordered PtCo Intermetallic Catalysts for Fuel Cells

Porous carbon-supported atomically ordered intermetallic compounds (IMCs) are promising electrocatalysts in boosting oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) for fuel cell applications. However, the formation mechanism of IMC structures under high temperatures is poorly understood, which hampers the synthesis of highly ordered IMC catalysts with promoted ORR performance. Here, we employ high-temperature X-ray diffraction and energy-dispersive spectroscopic elemental mapping techniques to study the formation process of IMCs, by taking PtCo for example, in an industry-relevant impregnation synthesis. We find that high-temperature annealing is crucial in promoting the formation of alloy particles with a stoichiometric Co/Pt ratio, which in turn is the precondition for transforming the disordered alloys to ordered intermetallic structures at a relatively low temperature. Based on the findings, we accordingly synthesize highly ordered L1₀-type PtCo catalysts with a remarkable ORR performance in fuel cells.

Killing Two Birds with One Stone: Upgrading Organic Compounds via Electrooxidation in Electricity-Input Mode and Electricity-Output Mode

The electrochemically oxidative upgrading reaction (OUR) of organic compounds has gained enormous interest over the past few years, owing to the advantages of fast reaction kinetics, high conversion efficiency and selectivity, etc., and it exhibits great potential in becoming a key element in coupling with electricity, synthesis, energy storage and transformation. On the one hand, the kinetically more favored OUR for value-added chemical generation can potentially substitute an oxygen evolution reaction (OER) and integrate with an efficient hydrogen evolution reaction (HER) or CO₂ electroreduction reaction (CO₂RR) in an electricity-input mode. On the other hand, an OUR-based cell or battery (e.g., fuel cell or Zinc-air battery) enables the cogeneration of value-added chemicals and electricity in the electricity-output mode. For both situations, multiple benefits are to be obtained. Although the OUR of organic compounds is an old and rich discipline currently enjoying a revival, unfortunately, this fascinating strategy and its integration with the HER or CO₂RR, and/or with electricity generation, are still in the laboratory stage. In this minireview, we summarize and highlight the latest progress and milestones of the OUR for the high-value-added chemical production and cogeneration of hydrogen, CO₂ conversion in an electrolyzer and/or electricity in a primary cell. We also emphasize catalyst design, mechanism identification and system configuration. Moreover, perspectives on OUR coupling with the HER or CO₂RR in an electrolyzer in the electricity-input mode, and/or the cogeneration of electricity in a primary cell in the electricity-output mode, are offered for the future development of this fascinating technology.

Elucidating Electrocatalytic Oxygen Reduction Kinetics via Intermediates by Time-Dependent Electrochemiluminescence

Facile evaluation of oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) kinetics for electrocatalysts is critical for sustainable fuel-cell development and industrial H₂ O₂ production. Despite great success in ORR studies using mainstream strategies, such as the membrane electrode assembly, rotation electrodes, and advanced surface-sensitive spectroscopy, the time and spatial distribution of reactive oxygen species (ROS) intermediates in the diffusion layer remain unknown. Using time-dependent electrochemiluminescence (Td-ECL), we report an intermediate-oriented method for ORR kinetics analysis. Owing to multiple ultrasensitive stoichiometric reactions between ROS and the ECL emitter, except for electron transfer numbers and rate constants, the potential-dependent time and spatial distribution of ROS were successfully obtained for the first time. Such exclusively uncovered information would guide the development of electrocatalysts for fuel cells and H₂ O₂ production with maximized activity and durability.

Small amounts of main group metal atoms matter: ultrathin Pd-based alloy nanowires enabling high activity and stability towards efficient oxygen reduction reaction and ethanol oxidation

Proton-exchange membrane fuel cells are considered as promising energy-conversion devices. Alloying 3d transition metals with noble metals not only highly improves the performance of noble metal-based catalysts towards electrocatalytic reactions in fuel cells due to d-d hybridization interaction but also decreases the total cost. However, the rapid leaching of transition metal atoms leads to a fast decay of the activity, which seriously affects the performance of the fuel cell. Herein, alloyed Pd-main group metal (e.g. Pb, Bi, Sn) ultrathin nanowires were realized by a facile one-step wet-chemical strategy. The content of the main group metal could be tuned in a certain range while maintaining the same one-dimensional ultrathin nanowire morphology, which provided a large surface area and many more active sites. These Pd-based alloys showed a significant improvement in electrocatalytic activity and durability towards the oxygen reaction reaction as well as ethanol oxidation reaction. Optimal activity occurred when a small amount of main group metal existed, which could be explained through calculations by a strong p-d hybridization interaction between the main group metal and Pd to optimize the surface electronic structure collaboratively. Besides, high stability was achieved, which could be ascribed to the increased antioxidant activity of Pd by the main group metal. Furthermore, the low amount of the main group metal atoms also prevented them from leaching out of the crystal lattice.

Electrocatalytic oxygen reduction with cobalt corroles bearing cationic substituents

Recent decades have seen increasing interest in developing highly active and selective electrocatalysts for the oxygen reduction reaction (ORR). The active site environment of cytochrome c oxidases (CcOs), including electrostatic and hydrogen-bonding interactions, plays an important role in promoting the selective conversion of dioxygen to water. Herein, we report the synthesis of three Co^III corroles, namely 1 (with a 10-phenyl ortho-trimethylammonium cationic group), 2 (with a 10-phenyl ortho-dimethylamine group) and 3 (with a 10-phenyl para-trimethylammonium cationic group) as well as their electrocatalytic ORR activities in both acidic and neutral solutions. We discovered that 1 is much more active and selective than 2 and 3 for the electrocatalytic four-electron ORR. Importantly, 1 showed ORR activities with half-wave potentials at E_1/2 = 0.75 V versus RHE in 0.5 M H₂SO₄ solutions and at E_1/2 = 0.70 V versus RHE in neutral 0.1 M phosphate buffer solutions. This work is significant for outlining a strategy to increase both the activity and selectivity of metal corroles for the electrocatalytic ORR by introducing cationic units.

Design strategies of Pt-based electrocatalysts and tolerance strategies in fuel cells: a review

As highly efficient conversion devices, proton-exchange-membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs) can directly convert chemical energy to electrical energy with high efficiencies and lower or even zero emissions compared to combustion engines. However, the practical applications of PEMFCs have been seriously hindered by the intermediates (especially CO) poisoning of anodic Pt catalysts. Hence, how to improve the CO tolerance of the needed Pt catalysts and reveal their anti-CO poisoning mechanism are the key points to developing novel anti-toxic Pt-based electrocatalysts. To date, two main strategies have received increasing attention in improving the CO tolerance of Pt-based electrocatalysts, including alloying Pt with a second element and fabricating composites with geometry and interface engineering. Herein, we will first discuss the latest developments of Pt-based alloys and their anti-CO poisoning mechanism. Subsequently, a detailed description of Pt-based composites with enhanced CO tolerance by utilizing the synergistic effect between Pt and carriers is introduced. Finally, a brief perspective and new insights on the design of Pt-based electrocatalysts to inhibit CO poisoning in PEMFCs are also presented.

Advances in Low Pt Loading Membrane Electrode Assembly for Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells

Hydrogen has the potential to be one of the solutions that can address environmental pollution and greenhouse emissions from traditional fossil fuels. However, high costs hinder its large-scale commercialization, particularly for enabling devices such as proton exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs). The precious metal Pt is indispensable in boosting the oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) in cathode electrocatalysts from the most crucial component, i.e., the membrane electrode assembly (MEA). MEAs account for a considerable amount of the entire cost of PEMFCs. To address these bottlenecks, researchers either increase Pt utilization efficiency or produce MEAs with enhanced performance but less Pt. Only a few reviews that explain the approaches are available. This review summarizes advances in designing nanocatalysts and optimizing the catalyst layer structure to achieve low-Pt loading MEAs. Different strategies and their corresponding effectiveness, e.g., performance in half-cells or MEA, are summarized and compared. Finally, future directions are discussed and proposed, aiming at affordable, highly active, and durable PEMFCs.

Platinum nanosheets synthesized via topotactic reduction of single-layer platinum oxide nanosheets for electrocatalysis

Increasing the performance of Pt-based electrocatalysts for the oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) is essential for the widespread commercialization of polymer electrolyte fuel cells. Here we show the synthesis of double-layer Pt nanosheets with a thickness of 0.5 nm via the topotactic reduction of 0.9 nm-thick single-layer PtO_x nanosheets, which are exfoliated from a layered platinic acid (H_yPtO_x). The ORR activity of the Pt nanosheets is two times greater than that of conventionally used state-of-the-art 3 nm-sized Pt nanoparticles, which is attributed to their large electrochemically active surface area (124 m² g^-1). These Pt nanosheets show excellent potential in reducing the amount of Pt used by enhancing its ORR activity. Our results unveil strategies for designing advanced catalysts that are considerably superior to traditional nanoparticle systems, allowing Pt catalysts to operate at their full potential in areas such as fuel cells, rechargeable metal-air batteries, and fine chemical production.

Low-Loading Sub-3 nm PtCo Nanoparticles Supported on Co-N-C with Dual Effect for Oxygen Reduction Reaction in Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells

Developing low-loading Pt-based catalysts possessing glorious catalytic performance can accelerate oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) and hence significantly advance the commercialization of proton exchange membrane fuel cells. In this report, we propose a hybrid catalyst that consists of low-loading sub-3 nm PtCo intermetallic nanoparticles carried on Co-N-C (PtCo/Co-N-C) via the microwave-assisted polyol procedure and subsequent heat treatment. Atomically dispersed Co atoms embedded in the Co-N-C carriers diffuse into the lattice of Pt, thus forming ultrasmall PtCo intermetallic nanoparticles. Owing to the dual effect of the enhanced metal-support interaction and alloy effect, as-fabricated PtCo/Co-N-C catalysts deliver an extraordinary performance, achieving a half-wave potential of 0.921 V, a mass activity of 0.700 A mg_Pt^-1@0.9 V, and brilliant durability in the acidic medium. The fuel cell employing PtCo/Co-N-C as the cathode catalyst with an ultralow Pt loading of 0.05 mg cm^-2 exhibits an impressive peak power density of 0.700 W cm^-2, higher than that of commercial Pt/C under the same condition. Furthermore, the enhanced intrinsic ORR activity and stability are imputed to the downshifted d-band center and the strengthened metal-support interaction, as revealed by density functional theory calculations. This report affords a facile tactic to fabricate Pt-based alloy composite catalysts, which is also applicable to other alloy catalysts.

Covalent organic framework-based porous ionomers for high-performance fuel cells

Lowering platinum (Pt) loadings without sacrificing power density and durability in fuel cells is highly desired yet challenging because of the high mass transport resistance near the catalyst surfaces. We tailored the three-phase microenvironment by optimizing the ionomer by incorporating ionic covalent organic framework (COF) nanosheets into Nafion. The mesoporous apertures of 2.8 to 4.1 nanometers and appendant sulfonate groups enabled the proton transfer and promoted oxygen permeation. The mass activity of Pt and the peak power density of the fuel cell with Pt/Vulcan (0.07 mg of Pt per square centimeter in the cathode) both reached 1.6 times those values without the COF. This strategy was applied to catalyst layers with various Pt loadings and different commercial catalysts.

Biomass-Based Oxygen Reduction Reaction Catalysts from the Perspective of Ecological Aesthetics—Duckweed Has More Advantages than Soybean

Ecological aesthetics encourages the harmonization of humans and nature. In this paper, we integrate ecological aesthetics into the development of oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) catalysts of H2/O2 fuel cells. Moldy soybean and duckweed as raw materials are adopted to prepare biomass-based ORR catalysts, both of which have advantages in activity, stability, environmental protection and resource richness over the conventional expensive and scarce noble metal-based catalysts. Therefore, duckweed is more environmentally friendly, entails a simpler preparation process and has a better catalytic performance, ultimately being more in line with ecological aesthetics.

Native Ligand Carbonization Renders Common Platinum Nanoparticles Highly Durable for Electrocatalytic Oxygen Reduction: Annealing Temperature Matters

Current protocols for synthesizing monodisperse platinum (Pt) nanoparticles typically involve the use of hydrocarbon molecules as surface-capping ligands. Using Pt nanoparticles as catalysts for the oxygen reduction reaction (ORR), however, these ligands must be removed to expose surface sites. Here, highly durable ORR catalysts are realized without ligand removal; instead, the native ligands are converted into ultrathin, conformal graphitic shells by simple thermal annealing. Strikingly, the annealing temperature is a critical factor dictating the ORR performance of Pt catalysts. Pt nanoparticles treated at 500 °C show a very poor ORR activity, whereas those annealed at 700 °C become highly active along with exceptional stability. In-depth characterization reveals that thermal treatment from 500 to 700 °C gradually opens up the porosity in carbon shells through graphitization. Importantly, such graphitic-shell-coated Pt catalysts exhibit a superior ORR stability, largely retaining the activity after 20 000 cycles in a membrane electrode assembly. Moreover, this ligand carbonization strategy can be extended to modify commercial Pt/C catalysts with substantially enhanced stability. This work demonstrates the feasibility of boosting the ORR performance of common Pt nanoparticles by harnessing the native surface ligands, offering a robust approach of designing highly durable catalysts for proton-exchange-membrane fuel cells.

Electrocatalytic Properties of Mixed-Oxide-Containing Composite-Supported Platinum for Polymer Electrolyte Membrane (PEM) Fuel Cells

TiO2-based mixed oxide–carbon composite supports have been suggested to provide enhanced stability for platinum (Pt) electrocatalysts in polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM) fuel cells. The addition of molybdenum (Mo) to the mixed oxide is known to increase the CO tolerance of the electrocatalyst. In this work Pt catalysts, supported on Ti1−xMoxO2–C composites with a 25/75 oxide/carbon mass ratio and prepared from different carbon materials (C: Vulcan XC-72, unmodified and functionalized Black Pearls 2000), were compared in the hydrogen oxidation reaction (HOR) and in the oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) with a commercial Pt/C reference catalyst in order to assess the influence of the support on the electrocatalytic behavior. Our aim was to perform electrochemical studies in preparation for fuel cell tests. The ORR kinetic parameters from the Koutecky–Levich plot suggested a four-electron transfer per oxygen molecule, resulting in H2O. The similarity between the Tafel slopes suggested the same reaction mechanism for electrocatalysts supported by these composites. The HOR activity of the composite-supported electrocatalysts was independent of the type of carbonaceous material. A noticeable difference in the stability of the catalysts appeared only after 5000 polarization cycles; the Black Pearl-containing sample showed the highest stability.

Recreating Fuel Cell Catalyst Degradation in Aqueous Environments for Identical-Location Scanning Transmission Electron Microscopy Studies

The recent surge in interest of proton exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs) for heavy-duty vehicles increases the demand on the durability of oxygen reduction reaction electrocatalysts used in the fuel cell cathode. This prioritizes efforts aimed at understanding and subsequently controlling catalyst degradation. Identical-location scanning transmission electron microscopy (IL-STEM) is a powerful method that enables precise characterization of degradation processes in individual catalyst nanoparticles across various stages of cycling. Recreating the degradation processes that occur in PEMFC membrane electrode assemblies (MEAs) within the aqueous cell used for IL-STEM experiments is vital for generating an accurate understanding of these processes. In this work, we investigate the type and degree of catalyst degradation achieved by cycling in an aqueous cell compared to a PEMFC MEA. While significant degradation is observed in IL-STEM experiments performed on a traditional Pt catalyst using the standard accelerated stress test potential window (0.6-0.95 V_RHE), degradation of a PtCo catalyst designed for heavy-duty vehicle use is very limited compared to that observed in MEAs. We therefore explore various experimental parameters such as temperature, acid type, acid concentration, ionomer content, and potential window to identify conditions that reproduce the degradation observed in MEAs. We find that by extending the cycling potential window to 0.4-1.0 V_RHE in an electrolyte containing Pt ions, the degraded particle size distribution and alloy composition better match that observed in MEAs. In particular, these conditions increase the relative contribution of Ostwald ripening, which appears to play a more significant role in the degradation of larger alloy particles supported on high-surface-area carbons than coalescence. Results from this work highlight the potential for discrepancies between ex situ aqueous experiments and MEA tests. While different catalysts may require a unique modification to the AST protocol, strategies provided in this work enable future in situ and identical-location experiments that will play an important role in the development of robust catalysts for heavy-duty vehicle applications.