Molecular Design of Benzodithiophene-Based Organic Photovoltaic Materials

Oxygen-Stable Electrochemical CO2 Capture using Redox-Active Heterocyclic Benzodithiophene Quinone

Electrochemical carbon capture offers a promising alternative to thermal amine technology, which serves as the traditional benchmark method for CO2 capture. Despite its technological maturity, the widespread deployment of thermal amine technologies is hindered by high energy consumption and sorbent degradation. In contrast, electrochemical methods, with their inherently isothermal operation, address these challenges, offering enhanced energy efficiency and robustness. Among emerging strategies, electrochemical carbon capture systems using redox-active materials such as quinones stand out for their potential to capture CO2. However, their practical application is currently limited by their low stability in the presence of oxygen. We demonstrate that benzodithiophene quinone (BDT-Q), a heterocyclic quinone, exhibits high stability in electrochemical carbon capture processes with oxygen-containing feed gas. Conducted in a cyclic flow system with a simulated flue gas mixture containing 13 % CO2 and 3.5 % O2 for over 100 hours, the process demonstrates high oxygen stability with an electron utilization of 0.83 without significant degradation, indicating a promising approach for real world applications. Our study explores the potential of new heterocyclic quinone compounds in the context of carbon capture technologies.

Deep Learning-Assisted Design of Novel Donor-Acceptor Combinations for Organic Photovoltaic Materials with Enhanced Efficiency

Designing donor (D) and acceptor (A) structures and discovering promising D-A combinations can effectively improve organic photovoltaic (OPV) device performance. However, to obtain excellent power conversion efficiency (PCE), the trial-and-error structural design in the infinite chemical space is time-consuming and costly. Herein, a deep learning (DL)-assisted design framework for OPV materials is proposed. To effectively digitally represent the D and A structures, a structure representation method, polymer fingerprints, is developed, and a database of OPV materials is constructed. By applying an end-to-end graph neural network modeling method, high-precision DL models for predicting OPV performance are established. After combining the existing structures, ≈0.6 million virtual D-A combinations are generated. Then, the OPV performance of these candidate combinations is predicted by the well-trained models, and numbers of novel D-A combinations with high efficiency are identified. Experimental validations confirm that the prediction accuracy is greater than 93% and one of the screened combinations (i.e., D18:BTP-S11) exhibits an efficiency above 19.3% in single-junction organic solar cells. Finally, based on the structural gene analysis, the design rules to guide experimental explorations are suggested. The developed DL-assisted approach can accelerate the design of D-A combinations with ultrahigh efficiency and bring property breakthroughs for OPV devices.

Efficient Derivatization of a Thienobenzobisthiazole-Based π-Conjugated Polymer Through Late-Stage Functionalization Towards High-Efficiency Organic Photovoltaic Cells

Derivatization is essential for optimizing organic material properties. However, because functional groups are often introduced at an early stage of the synthesis, similar intermediates have to be repeatedly synthesized to produce derivatives, which amounts to a daunting and time-consuming task. Using thienobenzobisthiazole (TBTz) as a building unit of donor polymers for organic photovoltaics (OPVs), we demonstrate an efficient derivatization of a TBTz-based π-conjugated polymer by late-stage functionalization. In the developed synthetic route, functional groups are introduced at the last step of monomer synthesis, enabling us to easily synthesize several derivatives from a common intermediate. Ester and acyl groups are introduced into the polymer instead of the alkyl group, giving rise to deep HOMO energy levels and resulting in OPV cells with high open-circuit voltage even in the absence of halogen substituents that are typically introduced into the donor polymers. Notably, the ester-functionalized TBTz-based polymer shows a small nonradiative voltage loss (ΔVnr) of 0.19 V and has one of the highest charge generation efficiencies among the halogen-free donor polymers with similar ΔVnr, improving the critical trade-off relationship between voltage loss and charge generation. Our results provide an important guideline for the efficient development of high-performance polymers for OPVs.

Wide Bandgap Polymer Donors Based on Succinimide-Substituted Thiophene for Nonfullerene Organic Solar Cells

The advent of nonfullerene acceptors (NFAs) has greatly improved the photovoltaic performance of organic solar cells (OSCs). However, to compete with other solar cell technologies, there is a pressing need for accelerated research and development of improved NFAs as well as their compatible wide bandgap polymer donors. In this study, a novel electron-withdrawing building block, succinimide-substituted thiophene (TS), is utilized for the first time to synthesize three wide bandgap polymer donors: PBDT-TS-C5, PBDT-TSBT-C12, and PBDTF-TSBT-C16. These polymers exhibit complementary bandgaps for efficient sunlight harvesting and suitable frontier energy levels for exciton dissociation when paired with the extensively studied NFA, Y6. Among these donors, PBDTF-TSBT-C16 demonstrates the highest hole mobility and a relatively low highest occupied molecular orbital (HOMO) energy level, attributed to the incorporation of thiophene spacers and electron-withdrawing fluorine substituents. OSC devices based on the blend of PBDTF-TSBT-C16:Y6 achieve the highest power conversion efficiency of 13.21%, with a short circuit current density (Jsc) of 26.83 mA cm-2, an open circuit voltage (Voc) of 0.80 V, and a fill factor of 0.62. Notably, the Voc × Jsc product reaches 21.46 mW cm-2, demonstrating the potential of TS as an electron acceptor building block for the development of high-performance wide bandgap polymer donors in OSCs.

Sulfur-Bridged Cationic Diazulenomethenes: Formation of Charge-Segregated Assembly with High Charge-Carrier Mobility

Sulfur-bridged cationic diazulenomethenes were synthesized and exhibited high stability even under basic conditions due to the delocalization of positive charge over the whole π-conjugated skeleton. As a result of the effective delocalization and the absence of orthogonally oriented bulky substituents, the cationic π-conjugated skeletons formed a π-stacked array with short interfacial distances. A derivative with SbF6- as a counter anion formed a charge-segregated assembly in the crystalline state, rather than the generally favored charge-by-charge arrangement of oppositely charged species based on electrostatic interactions. Theoretical calculations suggested that the destabilization caused by electrostatic repulsion between two positively charged π-conjugated skeletons is compensated by the dispersion forces. In addition, the counter anion SbF6- played a role in regulating the molecular alignment through F⋯H-C and F-S interactions, which resulted in the charge-segregated alignment of the cationic π-skeletons. This characteristic assembled structure gave rise to a high charge-carrier mobility of 1.7 cm2 V-1 s-1 as determined using flash-photolysis time-resolved microwave conductivity.

Research progress and application of high efficiency organic solar cells based on benzodithiophene donor materials

In recent decades, the demand for clean and renewable energy has grown increasingly urgent due to the irreversible alteration of the global climate change. As a result, organic solar cells (OSCs) have emerged as a promising alternative to address this issue. In this review, we summarize the recent progress in the molecular design strategies of benzodithiophene (BDT)-based polymer and small molecule donor materials since their birth, focusing on the development of main-chain engineering, side-chain engineering and other unique molecular design paths. Up to now, the state-of-the-art power conversion efficiency (PCE) of binary OSCs prepared by BDT-based donor materials has approached 20%. This work discusses the potential relationship between the molecular changes of donor materials and photoelectric performance in corresponding OSC devices in detail, thereby presenting a rational molecular design guidance for stable and efficient donor materials in future.

Multi-component Copolymerized Donors enable Frozen Nano-morphology and Superior Ductility for Efficient Binary Organic Solar Cells

Multi-component copolymerized donors (MCDs) have gained significant interest and have been rapidly developed in flexible organic solar cells (f-OSCs) in recent years. However, ensuring the power conversion efficiency (PCE) of f-OSCs while retaining ideal mechanical properties remains an enormous challenge. The fracture strain (FS) value of typical high-efficiency blend films is generally less than 8 %, which is far from the application standards of wearable photovoltaic devices. Therefore, we developed a series of novel MCDs after meticulous molecular design. Among them, the consistent MCD backbone and end-capped functional group formed a highly conjugated molecular plane, and the solubilization and mechanical properties were effectively optimized by modifying the proportion of solubilized alkyl chains. Consequently, due to the formation of entangled structures with a frozen blend film morphology considerably improved the high ductility of the active layer, P10.8/P20.2-TCl exhibited efficient PCE in rigid (18.53 %) and flexible (17.03 %) OSCs, along with excellent FS values (16.59 %) in pristine films, meanwhile, the outstanding FS values of 25.18 % and 12.3 % were achieved by P10.6/P20.4-TCl -based pristine and blend films, respectively, which were one of the highest records achieved by end-capped MCD-based binary OSCs, demonstrating promising application to synchronize the realization of high-efficiency and mechanically ductile flexible OSCs.

Impact of the chemical insertion of the dimethylamino group on the electronic and optical properties of the 4-(methoxyphenyl acetonitrile) monomer (MPA): a DFT theoretical investigation

CONTEXT

Density functional theory (DFT) calculations on the ground and the first excited state are performed on the modified and unmodified 4-(methoxyphenyl acetonitrile) monomer (referred to as MPA). The modified monomer named MFA is obtained by Knoevenagel condensation of MPA with dimethylformamide dimethyl acetal (DMF-DMA). DFT computations show that the chemical grafting of the dimethylamino group onto the MPA unit induces a great change in the geometric, electronic, and optical properties. Going from MPA to MFA monomer, a great change in the frontier orbitals of the highest occupied molecular orbital (HOMO) and the lowest unoccupied molecular orbital (LUMO) in the ground and the first excited state is observed. Consequently, a reduction in the energy gap HOMO-LUMO and an enhancement in the absorption and emission properties are observed under the chemical modification. The observed modifications in the electronics and optical properties are the result of the charge transfer appearing between the cyano (C≡N) acceptor group and the dimethylamino (DMF-DMA)-grafted group donor ring.

METHODS

Quantum chemical calculations were performed in the ground and the first excited state using the density functional theory (DFT), and it extends the time-dependent density functional theory (TD-DFT), implemented in the Gaussian 09 software package. The ground state is obtained by optimization of the studied molecular geometries by employing the DFT/M062X/6-31G(d,p) level of theory. The first excited state is obtained by re-optimization of the ground state geometries using the TD-DFT/M062X/6-31G(d,p) level of theory. The contour plots of the frontier orbitals and the molecular electrostatic potential (MEP) maps are obtained from the ground and the first excited state, optimized geometries, and drawn using Gaussview software.

Recent Progress of Oligomeric Non-Fullerene Acceptors for Efficient and Stable Organic Solar Cells

Organic solar cells (OSCs) have achieved remarkable power conversion efficiencies (PCEs) of over 19 % in the past few years due to the rapid development of non-fullerene acceptors (NFAs). However, the operational stability remains a great challenge that inhibits their commercialization. Recently, oligomeric NFAs (ONFAs) have attracted great attention, which not only can deliver excellent device performance, but also improve the thermal-/photo- stability of OSCs. This is attributed to the suppressed molecular diffusion of ONFAs associated with their high glass-transition temperature (Tg) and improved thermodynamic properties of ONFAs. Herein, we focus on investigating the correction between the ONFA chemical structure, material properties, device performance, and stability. In addition, we also try to point out the challenges in synthesizing ONFAs and provide potential directions for future ONFA designs.

Chlorinated Oligomers with Regulate Planarity Achieving Superior Photovoltaic Performance

Chlorine substitution, as an effective and low-cost modification strategy, has been applied in the design of donor and acceptor structures in organic solar cells. We synthesized a series of chlorinated dimerized acceptors to investigate the effect of chlorine numbers and locations on the photovoltaic properties. The results show that the planarity and morphology of DYV-γ-2Cl are greatly improved due to the appropriate numbers and positions of the substituted chlorine atoms. Therefore, the device based on PM6:DYV-γ-2Cl achieves a superior power conversion efficiency (PCE) of 15.54% among the three oligomeric acceptors with optimized molecular planarity and film morphology. This work demonstrated the positive effect of suitable numbers and the substitution positions of chlorines on the molecular arrangement and photovoltaic properties of the corresponding dimerized acceptors.

Narcissistic self-sorting in Zn(II) porphyrin derived semiconducting nanostructures

The narcissistic self-sorted phenomenon is explicitly attributed to the structural similarities in organic molecules. Although such relevant materials are rarely explored, self-sorted structures from macrocyclic π-conjugated-based p- and n-type organic semiconductors facilitate the increase of exciton dissociation and charge separation in bulk heterojunction solar cells. Herein, we report two extended π-conjugated derivatives consisting of zinc-porphyrin-linked benzothiadiazole acting as an acceptor (PB) and anthracene as a donor (PA). Despite having the same porphyrin π-conjugated core in PA and PB, variations in donor and acceptor moieties make the molecular packing form one-dimensional (1D) self-assembled nanofibers via H- and J-type aggregates. Interestingly, a dissimilar aggregate of PA and PB exists as a mixture (PA + PB), promoting narcissistic self-sorted structures. Electrochemical impedance investigation reveals that the electronic characteristics of self-sorting assemblies are influenced by the difference in electrostatic potentials for PA and PB, resulting in a transitional electrical conductivity of 0.14 S cm-1. Therefore, the design of such materials for the fabrication of effective photovoltaics is promoted by these extraordinary self-sorted behaviors in comparable organic π-conjugated molecules.

Recent Progress in Semitransparent Organic Solar Cells: Photoabsorbent Materials and Design Strategies

The increasing energy demands of the global community can be met with solar energy. Solution-processed organic solar cells have seen great progress in power conversion efficiencies (PCEs). Semitransparent organic solar cells (ST-OSCs) have made enormous progress in recent years and have been considered one of the most promising solar cell technologies for applications in building-integrated windows, agricultural greenhouses, and wearable energy resources. Therefore, through the synergistic efforts of transparent electrodes, engineering in near-infrared photoabsorbent materials, and device engineering, high-performance ST-OSCs have developed, and PCE and average visible transmittance reach over 10% and 40%, respectively. In this review, we present the recent progress in photoabsorbent material engineering and strategies for enhancing the performance of ST-OSCs to help researchers gain a better understanding of structure-property-performance relationships. To conclude, new design concepts in material engineering and outlook are proposed to facilitate the further development of high-performance ST-OSCs.

Interface Engineering for Highly Efficient Organic Solar Cells

Organic solar cells (OSCs) have made dramatic advancements during the past decades owing to the innovative material design and device structure optimization, with power conversion efficiencies surpassing 19% and 20% for single-junction and tandem devices, respectively. Interface engineering, by modifying interface properties between different layers for OSCs, has become a vital part to promote the device efficiency. It is essential to elucidate the intrinsic working mechanism of interface layers, as well as the related physical and chemical processes that manipulate device performance and long-term stability. In this article, the advances in interface engineering aimed to pursue high-performance OSCs are reviewed. The specific functions and corresponding design principles of interface layers are summarized first. Then, the anode interface layer, cathode interface layer in single-junction OSCs, and interconnecting layer of tandem devices are discussed in separate categories, and the interface engineering-related improvements on device efficiency and stability are analyzed. Finally, the challenges and prospects associated with application of interface engineering are discussed with the emphasis on large-area, high-performance, and low-cost device manufacturing.

Rational Design of New Small Derivatives of 2,2'-Bithiophene as Hole Transport Material for Perovskite Solar Cells

Using Density Functional Theory (DFT) and Time Dependent DFT (TD-DFT) methods, this inquiry theoretically examines seven novel hole-transport materials (HTMs) namely DFBT1, DFBT2, DFBT3, DFBT4, DFBT5, DFBT6, and DFBT7 based on the 2,2'bithiophene core for future use as HTMs for perovskite solar cells (PSCs). The model molecule has been modified through substituting the end groups situated on the diphenylamine moieties with a tow acceptor bridged by thiophene, this modification was performed to test the impact of the π-bridge and acceptor on the electronic, photophysical, and photovoltaic properties of the newly created molecules. DFBT1 - DFBT7 displayed a lower band gap (1.49 eV to 2.69 eV) than the model molecule (3.63 eV). Additionally, the newly engineered molecules presented a greater λmax ranging from 393.07 nm to 541.02 nm in dimethylformamide solvent, as compared to the model molecule (380.61 nm). The PCEs of all newly designed molecules (22.42% to 29.21%) were high compared with the reference molecule (19.62%). Thus, this study showed that all seven newly small molecules were excellent candidates for a novel PSC.

A Hole-Selective Self-Assembled Monolayer for Both Efficient Perovskite and Organic Solar Cells

Self-assembled monolayers (SAMs) emerging as promising hole-selective layers (HSLs) are advantageous for facile processability, low cost, and minimal material consumption in the fabrication of both perovskite solar cells (PSCs) and organic solar cells (OSCs). However, owing to the different nature between perovskites and organic semiconductors, few SAMs were reported to effectively accommodate both PSCs and OSCs at the same time. In this regard, a universally applicable SAM that can accommodate both perovskites and organic semiconductors could be desirable for simplifying cell manufacturing, especially from an industrial perspective. In this work, we designed a SAM, TDPA-Cl by introducing chlorinated phenothiazine as the headgroup and linking with anchor phosphonic acid through a butyl chain. The resulting dense SAM was carefully characterized in terms of molecular bonding, surface morphology, and packing density, and its functions in OSCs and PSCs were discussed from the aspects of interactions with the absorber layer, energy level alignment, and charge-selective dipoles. The PM6:Y6-based OSCs with TDPA-Cl SAM as the HSL showed a superior performance to those with PEDOT:PSS. Furthermore, the universality was proved with an efficiency of 17.4% in the D18:Y6 system. In PSCs, the TDPA-Cl-based devices delivered a better performance of 22.4% than the PTAA-based devices (20.8%) with improved processability and reproducibility. This work represents a SAM with reasonably good compromise between the differing requirements of OSCs and PSCs.

Fluorinated Polymer Donors for Nonfullerene Organic Solar Cells

The rapid development of narrow-bandgap nonfullerene acceptors (NFAs) has boosted the efficiency of organic solar cells (OSCs) over 19 %. The new features of high-performance NFAs, such as visible-NIR light absorption, moderate the highest occupied molecular orbitals (HOMO), and high crystallinity, require polymer donors with matching physical properties. This emphasizes the importance of methods that can effectively tune the physical properties of polymers. Owning to very small atom size and strongest electronegativity, the fluorination has been proved the most efficient strategy to regulate the physical properties of polymer donors, including frontier energy level, absorption coefficient, dielectric constant, crystallinity and charge transport. Owing to the success of fluorination strategy, the vast majority of high-performance polymer donors possess one or more fluorine atoms. In this review, the fluorination synthetic methods, the synthetic route of well-known fluorinated building blocks, the fluorinated polymers which are categorized by the type of donor or acceptor units, and the relationships between the polymer structures, properties, and photovoltaic performances are comprehensively surveyed. We hope this review could provide the readers a deeper insight into fluorination strategy and lay a strong foundation for future innovation of fluorinated polymers.

Charge photogeneration dynamics in non-fullerene polymer solar cells with fluorinated and non-fluorinated acceptors

In this work, charge photogeneration and recombination processes of PM6:IDIC-4F and PM6:IDIC blend films were investigated by the steady-state and time-resolved spectroscopies, as well as the time-dependent density functional theory calculations. The peaks in absorption and photoluminescence (PL) spectra of IDIC and IDIC-4F solutions were assigned by combining the experiment and the simulation of UV-vis absorption and PL spectra. For neat acceptor films, the exciton diffusion length of neat IDIC and IDIC-4F films was estimated as ∼28.9 and ∼19.9 nm, respectively. For PM6-based blend films, we find that the fluorine substitution engineering on the IDIC acceptor material can increase the phase separate size of acceptor material in blend films, resulting in the reduction of dissociation efficiencies of acceptor excitons. In addition, we find that the charge recombination in PM6:IDIC-4F is dominated by bimolecular recombination, in comparison to geminate type carrier recombination in PM6:IDIC blend films. In addition, we find that thermal annealing treatment has a weak influence on carrier recombination but slightly reduces the exciton dissociation efficiency of acceptor in PM6:IDIC blend films, leading to a slightly reduced power conversion efficiency of PM6:IDIC solar cells. These results may shed light on the design of high-performance semiconductor molecules for application in solar cells.

Recent Advances of Benzodithiophene-Based Donor Materials for Organic Solar Cells

Recently, the power conversion efficiency (PCE) of organic solar cells (OSCs) has increased dramatically, making a big step toward the industrial application of OSCs. Among numerous OSCs, benzodithiophene (BDT)-based OSCs stand out in achieving efficient PCE. Notably, single-junction OSCs using BDT-based polymers as donor materials have completed a PCE of over 19%, indicating a dramatic potential for preparing high-performance large-scale OSCs. This paper reviews the recent progress of OSCs based on BDT polymer donor materials (PDMs). The development of BDT-based OSCs is concisely summarized. Meanwhile, the relationship between the structure of PDMs and the performance of OSCs is further described in this review. Besides, the development and prospect of single junction OSCs are also discussed.

Simple π-Conjugated Polymers Based on Bithiazole for Nonfullerene Organic Photovoltaics

Thiazole, as a family of five-membered heteroaromatic rings, is an interesting building unit that can play a role in coplanarizing the backbone as well as deepening the HOMO energy level, which is beneficial for the design of π-conjugated polymers for the photoactive materials in organic photovoltaics (OPVs). Here, we designed and synthesized π-conjugated polymers with simple chemical structures, which consist of 2,2'-bithiazole or 5,5'-bithiazole and alkylthiophenes as the polymer backbone. In fact, the polymers can be easily synthesized in much fewer steps compared to the typical high-performance polymers based on fused heteroaromatic rings. Interestingly, PTN5 exhibited a markedly higher ordered structure than PTN2. This was likely ascribed to the more coplanar and rigid backbone of PTN5 than that of PTN2 originating in the effectively arranged S···N interaction. As a result, the nonfullerene photovoltaic cell based on PTN5 showed a PCE of 12.2%, which was much higher than the cell based on PTN2 (4.3%) and was high for the polymers consisting of only nonfused rings. These results demonstrate that thiazole-based polymers are promising photoactive materials for OPVs and emphasize the importance of careful molecular design utilizing noncovalent interactions.

P-type Polymers in Semitransparent Organic Photovoltaics

P-type polymers are polymeric semiconducting materials that conduct holes and have extensive applications in optoelectronics such as organic photovoltaics. Taking the advantage of intrinsic discontinuous light absorption of organic semiconductors, semitransparent organic photovoltaics (STOPVs) present compelling opportunities in various potential applications such as building-integrated photovoltaics, agrivoltaics, automobiles, and wearable electronics. The characteristics of p-type polymers, including optical, electronic, and morphological properties, determine the performance of STOPVs, and the requirements for p-type polymers differ between opaque organic photovoltaics and STOPVs. Hence, in this Minireview, recent advances of p-type polymers used in STOPVs are systematically summarized, with emphasis on the effects of chemical structures, conformation structures, and aggregation structures of p-type polymers on the performance of STOPVs. Furthermore, new design concepts and guidelines are also proposed for p-type polymers to facilitate the future development of high-performance STOPVs.

Synthesis of p-Azaquinodimethane-based Quinoidal Fluorophores

Quinoidal π-conjugated systems are sought-after materials for semiconducting applications because of their rich optical and electronic characteristics. However, the analogous fluorescent compounds are extremely rare, with just two reports in the literature. Here, we present the design and development of a third series of quinoidal fluorophores [(2,5-diarylidene)-3,6-bis(hexyloxy)-2,5-dihydropyrazine (Q1-Q5)] that incorporates p-azaquinodimethane. The fluorophores are synthesized in a two-step synthetic approach employing Knoevenagel condensation of N,N-diacetyl-piperazine-2,5-dione with different aromatic aldehydes followed by O-alkylation in high yields. Q1-Q5 are strongly emissive, and by altering the aryl-substituents, the emission colors can be modulated from blue to orange. The compounds possess emission maxima (λem) at 475-555 nm in the solution state and 510-610 nm in the solid state, with fluorescence quantum yields of up to 60%. To the best of our knowledge, the reported systems are the first quinoidal dual-state emissive (solution- and solid-state) compounds. In trifluoroacetic acid, Q5 exhibits halochromic behavior, with a dramatic color change from yellow to blue. Furthermore, the preliminary fluorescent sensing studies demonstrated that Q5 could act as a selective turn-off fluorescence probe for electron-deficient picric acid (PA), with an emission quenching of >90% in the solution state. The thin-layer chromatography (TLC) strip sensor of Q5 was also designed to detect PA in water.

Biodegradation of Congo Red Dye Using Lysinibacillus Species in a Moving Bed Biofilm Reactor: Continuous Study and Kinetic Evaluation

The objective of this work was to develop a low-cost and efficient biocarrier for biodegradation of azo dye (i.e., Congo red (CR) dye). The potential bacterial species, i.e., Lysinibacillus fusiformis KLM1 and Lysinibacillus macrolides KLM2, were isolated from the dye-contaminated site. These bacterial species were immobilized onto the polypropylene-polyurethane foam (PP-PUF) and employed in a moving bed biofilm reactor (MBBR) for the treatment of CR dye. The effectiveness of the MBBR was investigated by operating the bioreactor in a continuous mode at various initial CR dye concentrations (50-250 mg/L) for 113 days. The removal efficiency was found in the range of 88.4-64.6% when the initial dye concentration was varied from 50 to 250 mg/L. The maximum elimination capacity (EC) of 213.18 mg/L.d was found at 250 mg/L of CR dye concentration. In addition, the CR dye utilization rate in the MBBR was studied by using two kinetics, namely, first-order and second-order (Grau) models. The high regression coefficients (R2 > 0.97) and the satisfactory root mean square (RMSE) values (0.00096-0.02610) indicated the reasonable prediction of CR dye degradation rate by the Grau model.

Organic Solar Cells with Over 19% Efficiency Enabled by a 2D-Conjugated Non-Fullerene Acceptor Featuring Favorable Electronic and Aggregation Structures

The π-expansion of non-fullerene acceptors is a promising method for boosting the organic photovoltaic performance by allowing the fine-tuning of electronic structures and molecular packing. In this work, highly efficient organic solar cells (OSCs) are fabricated using a 2D π-expansion strategy to design new non-fullerene acceptors. Compared with the quinoxaline-fused cores of AQx-16, the π-expanded phenazine-fused cores of AQx-18 induce more ordered and compact packing between adjacent molecules, affording an optimized morphology with rational phase separation in the blend film. This facilitates efficient exciton dissociation and inhibited charge recombination. Consequently, a power conversion efficiency (PCE) of 18.2% with simultaneously increasing Voc , Jsc , and fill factor is achieved in the AQx-18-based binary OSCs. Significantly, AQx-18-based ternary devices fabricated via a two-in-one alloy acceptor strategy exhibit a superior PCE of 19.1%, one of the highest values ever reported for OSCs, along with a high Voc of 0.928 V. These results indicate the importance of the 2D π-expansion strategy for the delicate regulation of the electronic structures and crystalline behaviors of the non-fullerene acceptors to achieve superior photovoltaic performance, aimed at significantly promoting further development of OSCs.

Synthesis and Characterizations of Polythiophene Networks with Nonplanar BN Lewis Pair Building Blocks

Doping the boron (B) element endowed organic π-conjugated polymers (OCPs) with intriguing optoelectronic properties. Herein, we introduce a new series of thienylborane-pyridine (BN) Lewis pairs via the facile reactions between thienylborane and various pyridine derivatives. Particularly, we developed a "one-pot" synthetic protocol to access BN2 with an unstable 4-bromopyridine moiety. Polycondensations between the BN Lewis pairs and distannylated thiophene afforded a new series of BN-cross-linked polythiophenes (BN-PTs). Experiments revealed that BN-PTs exhibited highly uniform chemical structures, particularly the uniform chemical environment of B-centers. BN-PTs showed good stability in the solid state. PBN2 even maintained the uniform B-center under high temperature or moisture conditions. The studies further suggested that the presence of topological BN structures endowed the polymers with strong intramolecular charge separation character. As a proof of concept, a representative BN-PT was tested as the catalyst for photocatalytic hydrogen evolution.

A Wide Bandgap Acceptor with Large Dielectric Constant and High Electrostatic Potential Values for Efficient Organic Photovoltaic Cells

Low-bandgap materials have achieved rapid development and promoted the enhancement of power conversion efficiencies (PCEs) of organic photovoltaic (OPV) cells. However, the design of wide-bandgap non-fullerene acceptors (WBG-NFAs), required by indoor applications and tandem cells, has been lagging far behind the development of OPV technologies. Here, we designed and synthesized two NFAs named ITCC-Cl and TIDC-Cl by finely optimizing ITCC. In contrast with ITCC and ITCC-Cl, TIDC-Cl can maintain a wider bandgap and a higher electrostatic potential simultaneously. When blending with the donor PB2, the highest dielectric constant is also obtained in TIDC-Cl-based films, enabling efficient charge generation. Therefore, the PB2:TIDC-Cl-based cell possessed a high PCE of 13.8% with an excellent fill factor (FF) of 78.2% under the air mass 1.5G (AM 1.5G) condition. Furthermore, an exciting PCE of 27.1% can be accomplished in the PB2:TIDC-Cl system under the illumination of 500 lux (2700 K light-emitting diode). Combined with the theoretical simulation, the tandem OPV cell based on TIDC-Cl was fabricated and exhibited an excellent PCE of 20.0%.

Tuning the optoelectronic properties of acridine-triphenylamine (ACR-TPA) based novel hole transporting material for high efficiency perovskite and organic solar cell

In this research, five distinct small donor molecules (designated as ACR-TPA-X1, ACR-TPA-X2, ACR-TPA-X3, ACR-TPA-X4, ACR-TPA-X5) are constructed by replacing the methoxy groups on both sides of the model molecule (ACR-TPA-R) with thiophene bridged acceptor moieties. We have used the B3LYP/6-31G (d,p) model for our computational studies. Our model molecule's morphological alteration has resulted in a lowered E_g of 1.77-2.51 eV as compared to model (ACR-TPA-R=3.84 eV). ACR-TPA-X2 investigated the λ_max at 776 nm. ACR-TPA-X4 was found to be most miscible with dichloromethane (DCM). The greatest V_OC(1.21 eV) was observed in ACR-TPA-X1. Among all of the variants, ACR-TPA-X1 had the highest PCE (23.42%). It was found that ACR-TPA-X4 had the highest electron mobility (0.00370 eV) and ACR-TPA-X5 had the highest hole mobility (0.00324 eV) of all the materials examined. The findings prove the worth of the methods used, paving the way for the development of effective small donors for OSCs and HTMs for PSCs.

Asymmetric Polymer Additive for Morphological Regulation and Thermally Stable Organic Solar Cells

High thermal stability is crucial for the commercialization of organic solar cells (OSCs). The thermal stability of OSCs has been improved using the tailoring blend morphology of bulk heterojunctions (BHJs). Herein, we demonstrated thermally stable OSCs in a ternary blended system containing low-crystalline semiconducting polymers (asy-PNDI1FTVT and PTB7-Th) and a non-fullerene acceptor (Y6). The asymmetric n-type semiconducting polymer (asy-PNDI1FTVT) differed from general symmetric semiconducting polymers as it randomly substituted fluorine atoms at the donor moiety (TVT), resulting in significantly lower crystallinity. asy-PNDI1FTVT in PTB7-Th:Y6 exhibited a well-mixed morphology at the BHJ and efficiently facilitated the charge dissociation process with an enhanced fill factor and power conversion efficiency. Furthermore, the ternary system of PTB7-Th:Y6:asy-PNDI1FTVT suppressed phase separation with negligible burn-in loss and performance degradation under thermal stress. The experiments showed that our devices without encapsulation retained over 90% of their initial efficiencies after 100 h at 65 °C. These results show significant potential for the development of thermally stable OSCs with reasonable efficiency.

Citric acid modified semi-embedded silver nanowires/colorless polyimide transparent conductive substrates for efficient flexible perovskite solar cells

Flexible solar cells, with the merits of structure compactness and shape transformation, are promising power sources for future electronic devices. However, frangible indium tin oxide-based transparent conductive substrates severely limit the flexibility of solar cells. Herein, we develop a flexible transparent conductive substrate of silver nanowires semi-embedded in colorless polyimide (denoted as AgNWs/cPI) via a simple and effective substrate transfer method. A homogeneous and well-connected AgNW conductive network can be constructed through modulating the silver nanowire suspension with citric acid. As a result, the prepared AgNWs/cPI shows low sheet resistance of about 21.3 ohm sq.-1, high transmittance at 550 nm of 94%, and smooth morphology with the peak-to-valley roughness value of 6.5 nm. The perovskite solar cells (PSCs) on AgNWs/cPI exhibit power conversion efficiency of 14.98% with negligible hysteresis. Moreover, the fabricated PSCs maintain nearly 90% initial efficiency after bending for 2000 cycles. This study sheds light on the importance of suspension modification for the distribution and connection of AgNWs and paves a way for the development of high-performance flexible PSCs for practical applications.

Benzo[d]thiazole Based Wide Bandgap Donor Polymers Enable 19.54% Efficiency Organic Solar Cells Along with Desirable Batch-to-Batch Reproducibility and General Applicability

The limited selection pool of high-performance wide bandgap (WBG) polymer donors is a bottleneck problem of the nonfullerene acceptor (NFA) based organic solar cells (OSCs) that impedes the further improvement of their photovoltaic performances. Herein, a series of new WBG polymers, namely PH-BTz, PS-BTz, PF-BTz, and PCl-BTz, are developed by using the bicyclic difluoro-benzo[d]thiazole (BTz) as the acceptor block and benzo[1,2-b:4,5-b']dithiophene (BDT) derivatives as the donor units. By introducing S, F, and Cl atoms to the alkylthienyl sidechains on BDT, the resulting polymers exhibit lowered energy levels and enhanced aggregation properties. The fluorinated PBTz-F not only exhibits a low-lying HOMO level, but also has stronger face-on packing order and results in more uniform fibril-like interpenetrating networks in the related PF-BTz:L8-BO blend. A high-power conversion efficiency (PCE) of 18.57% is achieved. Moreover, PBTz-F also exhibits a good batch-to-batch reproducibility and general applicability. In addition, ternary blend OSCs based on the host PBTz-F:L8-BO blend and PM6 guest donor exhibits a further enhanced PCE of 19.54%, which is among the highest values of OSCs.

Designing of anthracene-arylamine hole transporting materials for organic and perovskite solar cells

This study focuses on the creation of 5 small donor molecules (A102W1-A102W5) by substituting the one-sided methoxy group of model (A102R) with different thiophene bridged acceptor moieties. B3LYP/6-31**G (d,p) model has been employed for computational analysis. The best miscibility was found for A102W3 in dichloromethane (DCM) solvent, where its λ_max was also found to be at 753 nm, its E_g was found to be 1.55 eV as well as dipole moment in DCM was 21.47 D. The percentage of PCE among all the variants was greatest for A102W2 (25.31%). The electron reorganization energy shown by A102W4 was 0.00470 eV, whereas the hole reorganization energy investigated in A102W2 was 0.00586 eV representing their maximum electron and hole mobility respectively amongst all. Results validate the value of specified techniques, opening a new door to create efficient small donors for OSCs and HTMs for PSCs.

A new dithieno[3,2-b:2',3'-d]thiophene derivative for high performance single crystal organic field-effect transistors and UV-sensitive phototransistors

Organic phototransistors (OPTs), as the basic unit for organic image sensors, are emerging as one of the most promising light signal detectors. High performance UV-sensitive phototransistors are highly desired for the detection of UV light. Herein, by introducing the anthracene group to the 2,6-positions of dithieno[3,2-b:2',3'-d]thiophene, we designed and synthesized a new dithieno[3,2-b:2',3'-d]thiophene derivative, 2,6-di(anthracen-2-yl)dithieno[3,2-b:2',3'-d]thiophene (2,6-DADTT). The single crystal structure of 2,6-DADTT presents classical herringbone packing with multiple intermolecular interactions, including S⋯S (3.470 Å), S⋯C (3.304 Å, 3.391 Å, 3.394 Å) and C-H⋯π (2.763 Å, 2.822 Å, 2.846 Å, 2.865 Å, 2.885 Å, 2.890 Å) contacts. Single crystal organic field-effect transistors (SC-OFETs) based on 2,6-DADTT reach a highest mobility of 1.26 cm2 V-1 s-1 and an average mobility of 0.706 cm2 V-1 s-1. 2,6-DADTT-based single crystal organic phototransistors (OPTs) demonstrate photosensitivity (P) of 2.49 × 106, photoresponsivity (R) of 6.84 × 103 A W-1 and ultrahigh detectivity (D*) of 4.70 × 1016 Jones to UV light, which are among the best figures of merit for UV-sensitive OPTs. These excellent comprehensive performances indicate its good application prospects in integrated optoelectronics.

Progress and Future Potential of All-Small-Molecule Organic Solar Cells Based on the Benzodithiophene Donor Material

Organic solar cells have obtained a prodigious amount of attention in photovoltaic research due to their unique features of light weight, low cost, eco-friendliness, and semitransparency. A rising trend in this field is the development of all-small-molecules organic solar cells (ASM-OSCs) due to their merits of excellent batch-to-batch reproducibility, well-defined structures, and simple purification. Among the numerous organic photovoltaic (OPV) materials, benzodithiophene (BDT)-based small molecules have come to the fore in achieving outstanding power conversion efficiency (PCE) and breaking the 17% efficiency barrier in single-junction OPV devices, indicating the significant potential of this class of materials in commercial photovoltaic applications. This review specially focuses on up-to-date information about improvements in BDT-based ASM-OSCs since 2011 and provides an outlook on the most significant challenges that remain in the field. We believe there will be more exciting BDT-based photovoltaic materials and devices developed in the near future.

Solution-Processable Donor–Acceptor Copolymer Thin Films for Efficient Visible-Light-Driven Photocatalytic Hydrogen Evolution

Conjugated polymers (CPs) have been actively utilized as photocatalysts for hydrogen evolution due to their easy synthetic tunability to endow specific functionalities, including visible-light absorption, higher-lying LUMO energy for proton reduction, and sufficient photochemical stability. Enhancing interfacial surface and compatibility of hydrophobic CPs with hydrophilic water is the central focus to improve the hydrogen evolution rate (HER). Although a number of successful approaches have been developed in recent years, tedious chemical modifications or post-treatment of CPs make reproducibility of the materials difficult. In this work, a solution processable PBDB-T polymer is directly deposited on a glass substrate to form a thin film that is immersed in an aqueous solution to photochemically catalyze H₂ generation. The PBDB-T thin film showed a much higher hydrogen evolution rate (HER) than the typical method of using PBDB-T suspended solids due to the enhanced interfacial area with a more suitable solid-state morphology. When the thickness of the thin film is reduced to dramatically improve the utilization of the photocatalytic material, the 0.1 mg-based PBDB-T thin film exhibited an unprecedentedly high HER of 120.90 mmol h^-1 g^-1.

Preparation of Efficient Organic Solar Cells Based on Terpolymer Donors via a Monomer-Ratio Insensitive Side-Chain Hybridization Strategy

Creating new donor materials is crucial for further advancing organic solar cells. Random terpolymers have been adopted to overcome shortcomings of regular alternating donor-acceptor (D-A) polymers of which the performance is often susceptible to batch-to-batch variations. In general, the properties and performance of efficient D₁ -A-D₂ -A and D-A₁ -D-A₂ terpolymers are sensitive to the D₁ /D₂ or A₁ /A₂ monomer ratios. Side-chain hybridization is a strategy to address this problem. Here, six D₁ -A-D₂ -A-type random terpolymers comprising D₁ and D₂ monomers with the same π-conjugated D unit but with different side chains were synthesized. The side chains, containing either fluorine or trialkylsilyl substituents were chosen to provide near-identical optoelectronic properties but provide a tool to create a better-optimized film morphology when blended with a non-fullerene acceptor. This strategy allows improving the device performance to over 18 %, higher than that obtained with the corresponding D₁ -A or D₂ -A bipolymers (around 17 %). Hence, side-chain hybridization is a promising strategy to design efficient D₁ -A-D₂ -A terpolymer donors that are insensitive to the D₁ /D₂ monomer ratio, which is beneficial for the scaled-up synthesis of high-performance materials.

Main/side chain asymmetric molecular design enhances charge transfer of two-dimensional conjugated polymer/g-C3N4 heterojunctions for high-efficiency photocatalytic sterilization and degradation

Heterojunctions based on conjugated polymers (PHJs) are of promise as photocatalysts. Here, we fabricate the two-dimensional benzodithiophene (BDT) and thieno[2,3-f]benzofuran (TBF) based conjugated polymers/g-C₃N₄ PHJs creatively using the symmetry-breaking strategy. PD1 and PD3 with the asymmetric backbone TBF have better crystallinity. Moreover, PD3 utilizing fluorinated benzotriazole as the electron acceptor unit possesses more compact π - π stacking and higher charge mobility. The conjugated polymer PD5 with asymmetric side chains in the donor unit BDT guarantees more efficient charge transfer in the corresponding PD5/g-C₃N₄ PHJ while maintaining comparable light utilization rate. Consequently, PD5/g-C₃N₄ shows the champion performance with photocatalytic sterilization rates reaching 99.1% and 97.3% for S. aureus and E. coli. Notably, the reaction rate constant for Rhodamine B degradation of PD5/g-C₃N₄ is 8 times that of g-C₃N₄, a record high among conjugated polymers/g-C₃N₄. This study aims to reveal the structure - property correlation of asymmetric conjugated polymers/g-C₃N₄ for potential photocatalysis applications.

Stille type P-C coupling polycondensation towards phosphorus-crosslinked polythiophenes with P-regulated photocatalytic hydrogen evolution

Recently, exploring new type polymerization protocols has been a major driving force in advancing organic polymers into highly functional materials. Herein we report a new polycondensation protocol to implant the phosphorus (P) atom in the main backbone of crosslinked polythiophenes. The polycondensation harnesses a Stille phosphorus-carbon (P-C) coupling reaction between phosphorus halides and aryl stannanes that has not been reported previously. Mechanistic studies uncovered that the P-electrophile makes the reactivity of a catalytic Pd-center highly sensitive towards the chemical structures of aryl stannanes, which is distinct from the typical Stille carbon-carbon coupling reaction. The efficient P-C polycondensation afforded a series of P-crosslinked polythiophenes (PC-PTs). Leveraging on the direct P-crosslinking polymerization, solid-state ³¹P NMR studies revealed highly uniform crosslinking environments. Efficient post-polymerization P-chemistry was also applied to the PC-PTs, which readily yielded the polymers with various P-environments. As a proof of concept, new PC-PTs were applied as the photocatalysts for H₂ evolution under visible light irradiation. PC-PTs with an ionic P(Me)-center exhibit a H₂ evolution rate up to 2050 μmol h^-1 g^-1, which is much higher than those of PC-PTs with a P(O)-center (900 μmol h^-1 g^-1) and P(iii)-center (155 μmol h^-1 g^-1). For the first time, the studies reveal that regulating P-center environments can be an effective strategy for fine tuning the photocatalytic H₂ evolution performance of organic polymers.

Asymmetric Wettability Mediated Patterning of Single Crystalline Nematic Liquid Crystal and P-N Heterojunction Toward a Broadband Photodetector

The well aligned and precise patterning of liquid crystals (LCs) are considered as two key challenges for large-scale and high-efficiency integrated optoelectronic devices. However, owing to the uncontrollable liquid flow and dewetting process in the conventional techniques, most of the reported research is mainly focused on simple sematic LCs, which are composed of terthiophenes or benzothieno[3, 2-b][1] benzothiophene backbone; only a few works are carried out on the complicated LCs. Herein, an efficient strategy was introduced to control the liquid flow and alignment of LCs and realized precise and high-quality patterning of A-π-D-π-A BTR, based on the asymmetric wettability interface. Through this strategy, the large-area and well-aligned BTR microwires array was fabricated, which exhibited highly ordered molecular packing and improved charge transport performance. Furthermore, the integration of BTR and PC₇₁BM was achieved to manufacture uniform P-N heterojunction arrays, which still possessed highly ordered alignment of BTR. On the basis of these aligned heterojunction arrays, the high-performance photodetector exhibited an excellent responsivity of 27.56 A W^-1 and a specific detectivity of 2.07 × 10¹² Jones. This research not only provides an efficient strategy for the fabrication of aligned micropatterns of LCs but also gives a novel insight for the fabrication of high-quality micropatterns of the P-N heterojunction toward integrated optoelectronics.

Quantum chemical investigation of Z-shaped heptazethrenes derivatives with detailed structural parameters and singlet fission for photovoltaic applications

A variety of organic solar cells has been discovered, but there is a need for efficient optoelectronic material to obtain high power conversion efficiency. In this study, we derived new molecules from Z-shaped heptazethrene. We measured its photovoltaic parameters, including frontier molecular orbitals (where the energy gap decreases to 16% as compared to the reference), molecular electrostatic potential maps (more nucleophilic core), the density of states (partial and total), absorbance in Vis-IR region (in the range of 650-1000 nm), transition density matrix, and hole-electron mobility in terms of reorganization energy that showed 11% higher electron mobility (λ_e) and 52% higher hole mobility (λ_h) as compared to the reference. A comparable power conversion efficiency (∼9%) is obtained from a single photon. Using the concept of singlet fission, we can increase the efficiency twice using a single photon (based on the diradical character of the molecule). The diradical character of the entitled molecules was also calculated. The designed molecules fulfil the criteria of singlet fission that generate two excited triplets from a single photon (E_S1>2E_T1). The designed molecules are more stable than the reference indicated by the singlet-triplet energy gap, which is 37% higher. Hence this work assists the researcher in enhancing the efficiency of the solar cell.

Synthesis and Characterization of Solution-Processible Donor-Acceptor Electrochromic Conjugated Copolymers Based on Quinoxalino[2',3':9,10]phenanthro[4,5-abc]phenazine as the Acceptor Unit

Donor-acceptor (D-A) type conjugated polymers are of high interest in the field of electrochromism. In this study, three novel conjugated copolymers (PBPE-1, PBPE-2 and PBPE-3) based on quinoxalino[2',3':9,10]phenanthro[4,5-abc]phenazine (A) as the acceptor unit and 4,8-bis((2-octyldodecyl)oxy)benzo[1,2-b:4,5-b']dithiophene (D1) and 3,3-didecyl-3,4-dihydro-2H-thieno[3,4-b][1,4]dioxepine (ProDOT-decyl₂, D2) as the donor units with different donor-to-acceptor ratios were successfully synthesized through Stille coupling polymerization. The polymers were then characterized by cyclic voltammetry (CV), fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) spectoscopy, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), spectroelectrochemistry, thermogravimetry (TG), electrochromic switching and colorimetry. Optical band gap values were calculated as 1.99 eV, 2.02 eV and 2.03 eV, respectively. The three copolymers have good solubility, distinct redox peaks, wide absorption spectra, good thermal stabilities, bright color changes and significant electrochromic switching properties. Compared to the other two copolymers, the PBPE-3 film exhibited high coloration efficiency values of 513 cm²·C^-1 at 504 nm and 475 cm²·C^-1 at 1500 nm. The films have the advantage of exhibiting cathodic and anodic coloration.

Effect of Chlorine Substituents on the Photovoltaic Properties of Monocyanated Quinoxaline-Based D-A-Type Polymers

A string of monocyanated quinoxaline (Qx)-based D-A-type polymers systematically decorated with electron-attracting chlorine (Cl) atoms was created for use in non-fullerene polymer solar cells (PSCs). First, coupling of the benzodithiophene (BDT) donor and Qx acceptor with the strong electron-attracting cyano (CN) unit at its 5-position yielded the monocyanated reference polymer PB-CNQ. Subsequently, the additional Cl atoms were separately or simultaneously incorporated into the thiophene side groups of the BDT donor and Qx acceptor to create other objective polymers, PBCl-CNQ, PB-CNQCl, and PBCl-CNQCl. The Cl substituents on the BDT donor and Qx acceptor are represented by the names of the polymers. Owing to the favorable contributions of Cl substituents, the inverted-type non-fullerene PSCs based on partially chlorinated PBCl-CNQ (12.80%) and PB-CNQCl (13.93%) exhibited better power conversion efficiencies (PCEs) than the device based on unchlorinated reference PB-CNQ (11.19%). However, a significantly reduced PCE of 9.84% was observed for the device based on PBCl-CNQCl, in which Cl atoms were loaded on both the BDT donor and Qx acceptor at the same time. Hence, these results reveal that optimization of the number and position of Cl substituents in monocyanated Qx-based polymers is essential for enhancing their photovoltaic nature through the synergistic effects between two strong electron-attracting CN and Cl substituents.

Quantum modeling of dimethoxyl-indaceno dithiophene based acceptors for the development of semiconducting acceptors with outstanding photovoltaic potential

In the current DFT study, seven dimethoxyl-indaceno dithiophene based semiconducting acceptor molecules (ID1-ID7) are designed computationally by modifying the parent molecule (IDR). Here, based on a DFT exploration at a carefully selected level of theory, we have compiled a list of the optoelectronic properties of ID1-ID7 and IDR. In light of these results, all newly designed molecules, except ID5 have shown a bathochromic shift in their highest absorbance (λ _max). ID1-ID4, ID6 and ID7 molecules have smaller band gap (E _gap) and excitation energy (E _x). IP of ID5 is the smallest and EA of ID1 is the largest among all others. Compared to the parent molecule, ID1-ID3 have increased electron mobility, with ID1 being the most improved in hole mobility. ID4 had the best light harvesting efficiency in this investigation, due to its strongest oscillator. The acceptor molecules' open-circuit voltages (V _OC) were computed after being linked to the PTB7-Th donor molecule. Fill factor (FF) and normalized V _OC of ID1-ID7 were calculated and compared to the parent molecule. Based on the outcomes of this study, the modified acceptors may be further scrutinised for empirical usage in the production of organic solar cells with enhanced photovoltaic capabilities.

Tetracyanobutadiene Bridged Push-Pull Chromophores: Development of New Generation Optoelectronic Materials

This review describes the design strategies used for the synthesis of various tetracyanobutadiene bridged donor-acceptor molecular architectures by a click type [2+2] cycloaddition-retroelectrocyclization (CA-RE) reaction sequence. The photophysical and electrochemical properties of the tetracyanobutadiene bridged molecular architectures based on various moieties including diketopyrrolopyrrole, isoindigo, benzothiadiazole, pyrene, pyrazabole, truxene, boron dipyrromethene (BODIPY), phenothiazine, triphenylamine, thiazole and bisthiazole are summarized. Further, we discuss some important applications of the tetracyanobutadiene bridged derivatives in dye sensitized solar cells, bulk heterojunction solar cells and photothermal cancer therapy.

Preparation and Electrochromic Properties of Benzodithiophene-Isoindigo Conjugated Polymers with Oligoethylene Glycol Side Chains

Functional polymers featuring good processability in non-halogenated, benzene-free green solvents are highly desired due to health and environmental concerns. Herein, a series of novel D-A type conjugated polymers, PBDT-IIDs, are designed and successfully prepared by "green" functionalization of the polymers with highly hydrophilic, highly polar, highly flexible, and biocompatible oligoethylene glycol (OEG) side chains in order to improve the processability. These series polymers are named PBDT-IID2, PBDT-IID3, and PBDT-IID4, respectively, according to the number of oxygen atoms in the side chain. After confirmation by structural characterization, the basic properties of PBDT-IIDs are also investigated. With the increase in the OEG side chain length, the polymer PBDT-IID4 not only has good solubility in the halogen solvent chlorobenzene, but also exhibits excellent solubility in the green halogen-free solvent methyltetrahydrofuran (Me-THF). As a result, the green solvent Me-THF can also be applied to prepare PBDT-IIDs' electrochromic active layers, except for chlorobenzene and toluene. The electrochromism of PBDT IIDs under both positive and negative voltages has a practical application potential. The several controllable switches between dark green and khaki (0-0.6 V) are expected to show great potential in the field of military camouflage. Furthermore, according to the principle of red, green, and blue (RGB) mixing, light blue-green in the reduced state (-1.6 V) can be used in the preparation of complementary ECDs to provide one of the three primary colors (green).

Theoretical study on the electronic properties of different types of the donor:acceptor complexes

Non-fullerene organic solar cells can be classified into four forms in line with the different types of donor (D) and acceptor (A) in the active layer: all-polymer (P_D:P_A), polymer D:small-molecule A (P_D:M_A), small-molecule D:polymer A (M_D:P_A), and all-small-molecule (M_D:M_A). On the basis of having studied the electronic properties of a large number of related monomer molecules and D:A complexes, this work constructed four groups of D:A molecular pairs as described above as examples to investigate their electronic properties with first-principles density functional theory. The results show that the absolute value of the average binding energy of the P_D:P_Acomplex D18:P(NDI2HD-T) is larger than others, indicating the structure is relatively more stable. In accordance of the Bader charge analysis, the intra-molecular charge transfer of small-molecule is greater than polymers. For these blends, the intermolecular charge transfer of the all-polymer pair D18:P(NDI2HD-T) is larger, revealing that the P_D:P_Apair may result in a stronger intermolecular dipole electric field, which is beneficial to facilitate the separation of excitons. In addition, the M_D:M_Apair DRTB-T:FDICTF-2Cl and the P_D:M_Acomplex D18:FDICTF-2Cl all exhibit a larger amount of intra-molecular charge transfer, which indicates that the small-molecule acceptors in D:A complexes are conducive to promoting intra-molecular charge transfer.