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Gupta D, Mao J, Guo Z. Bifunctional Catalysts for CO 2 Reduction and O 2 Evolution: A Pivotal for Aqueous Rechargeable Zn-CO 2 Batteries. ADVANCED MATERIALS (DEERFIELD BEACH, FLA.) 2024; 36:e2407099. [PMID: 38924576 DOI: 10.1002/adma.202407099] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2024] [Revised: 06/16/2024] [Indexed: 06/28/2024]
Abstract
The quest for the advancement of green energy storage technologies and reduction of carbon footprint is determinedly rising toward carbon neutrality. Aqueous rechargeable Zn-CO2 batteries (ARZCBs) hold the great potential to encounter both the targets simultaneously, i.e., green energy storage and CO2 conversion to value-added chemicals/fuels. The major descriptor of ARZCBs efficiency is allied with the reactions occurring at cathode during discharging (CO2 reduction) and charging (O2 evolution) which own different fundamental mechanisms and hence mandate the employment of two different catalysts. This presents an overall complex and expensive battery system which requires a concrete solution, while the development and application of a bifunctional cathode catalyst toward both reactions could reduce the complexity and cost and thus can be a pivotal for ARZCBs. However, despite the increasing research interest and ongoing research, a systematic evaluation of bifunctional catalysts is rarely reported. In this review, the need of bifunctional cathode catalysts for ARZCBs and associated challenges with strategies have been critically assessed. A detailed progress examination and understanding toward designing of bifunctional catalyst for ARZCBs have been provided. This review will enlighten the future research approaching boosted performance of ARZCBs through the development of efficient bifunctional cathode catalysts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Divyani Gupta
- School of Chemical Engineering, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA, 5005, Australia
| | - Jianfeng Mao
- School of Chemical Engineering, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA, 5005, Australia
| | - Zaiping Guo
- School of Chemical Engineering, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA, 5005, Australia
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2
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Yang H, Hu X, Zhang G, Dou B, Cui G, Yang Q, Yan X. Life cycle assessment of secondary use and physical recycling of lithium-ion batteries retired from electric vehicles in China. WASTE MANAGEMENT (NEW YORK, N.Y.) 2024; 178:168-175. [PMID: 38401430 DOI: 10.1016/j.wasman.2024.02.034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2023] [Revised: 01/08/2024] [Accepted: 02/20/2024] [Indexed: 02/26/2024]
Abstract
With the rapid development of the global new energy vehicle industry, how to minimize the environmental impact of the recovery has become a common concern and urgent concern. China is a major production and consumption market for electric vehicles, there are no specific and extensive resource and environmental assessment system for batteries. In this paper, the retired Electric vehicles lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) was the research object, and a specific analysis of the recycling treatment and gradual use stages of power batteries were based on life cycle assessment. Different battery assessment scenarios were established according to the development of battery recycling in China. The results showed that the secondary use has the optimal performance compared to the full-component physical, pyrometallurgical and hydrometallurgy recycling. The results showed that direct recycling has a GWP of 0.037 kg-CO2 eq·kg LIB-1, which is lower than others. Secondary use of LIB accounts for the most emission reductions with Global warming (GWP) as 12.134 kg-CO2 eq·kg LIB-1. The secondary use has the greatest impact on the assessment results, especially in dynamic scenarios. Through a comprehensive comparison of different recycling technologies, the secondary use, increasing the recycling rate, reducing resource, energy consumption and pollution emissions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hanxue Yang
- School of Energy and Power Engineering, University of Shanghai for Science and Technology, Shanghai 200093, China
| | - Xiaocheng Hu
- Environment and Sustainability Institute, University of Exeter, Penryn, Cornwall TR10 9FE, UK
| | - Guanhua Zhang
- School of Energy and Power Engineering, University of Shanghai for Science and Technology, Shanghai 200093, China
| | - Binlin Dou
- School of Energy and Power Engineering, University of Shanghai for Science and Technology, Shanghai 200093, China
| | - Guomin Cui
- School of Energy and Power Engineering, University of Shanghai for Science and Technology, Shanghai 200093, China
| | - Qiguo Yang
- School of Energy and Power Engineering, University of Shanghai for Science and Technology, Shanghai 200093, China
| | - Xiaoyu Yan
- Environment and Sustainability Institute, University of Exeter, Penryn, Cornwall TR10 9FE, UK.
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3
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Li X, Zhang Y, Liao Y, Yu G. Environmental impact assessment of battery boxes based on lightweight material substitution. Sci Rep 2024; 14:2594. [PMID: 38297090 PMCID: PMC10830552 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-024-53238-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2023] [Accepted: 01/30/2024] [Indexed: 02/02/2024] Open
Abstract
Power battery is one of the core components of electric vehicles (EVs) and a major contributor to the environmental impact of EVs, and reducing their environmental emissions can help enhance the sustainability of electric vehicles. Based on the principle of stiffness equivalence, the steel case of the power cell is replaced with lightweight materials, a life cycle model is established with the help of GaBi software, and its environmental impact is evaluated using the CML2001 method. The results can be summarized as follows: (1) Based on the four environmental impact categories of GWP, AP, ADP (f), and HTP, which are the global warming potential (GWP), acidification potential (AP), abiotic depletion potential (ADP (f)) and human toxicity potential (HTP), the environmental impact of lightweight materials is lower than that of the steel box. Among them, the aluminum alloy box has the largest reduction, and the Carbon Fiber Sheet Molding Compound (CF-SMC) box is the second. (2) In the sensitivity analysis of electric structure, an aluminum alloy box is still the most preferable choice for environmental impact. (3) In the sensitivity analysis of driving mileage, the aluminum alloy box body is also the best choice for vehicle life. (4) Quantitative assessment using substitution factors measures the decrease in greenhouse gas emissions following the substitution of steel battery box with lightweight materials. The adoption of aluminum alloy battery box can lead to a reduction of 1.55 tons of greenhouse gas emissions, with a substitution factor of 1.55 tC sb-1. In the case that composite materials have not been recycled commercially on a large scale, aluminum alloy is still one of the best materials for the integrated environmental impact of the whole life cycle of the battery boxes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xinyu Li
- School of Mechanical Engineering, Hefei University of Technology, Hefei, China.
- Intelligent Manufacturing Institute of HFUT, Hefei University of Technology, Hefei, China.
- Anhui Province Key Laboratory of Low Carbon Recycling Technology and Equipment for Mechanical and Electrical Products, Hefei, China.
| | - Yuanhao Zhang
- School of Mechanical Engineering, Hefei University of Technology, Hefei, China
- Intelligent Manufacturing Institute of HFUT, Hefei University of Technology, Hefei, China
- Anhui Province Key Laboratory of Low Carbon Recycling Technology and Equipment for Mechanical and Electrical Products, Hefei, China
| | - Yumin Liao
- School of Mechanical Engineering, Hefei University of Technology, Hefei, China
- Intelligent Manufacturing Institute of HFUT, Hefei University of Technology, Hefei, China
- Anhui Province Key Laboratory of Low Carbon Recycling Technology and Equipment for Mechanical and Electrical Products, Hefei, China
| | - Guanghai Yu
- School of Mechanical Engineering, Hefei University of Technology, Hefei, China
- Intelligent Manufacturing Institute of HFUT, Hefei University of Technology, Hefei, China
- Anhui Province Key Laboratory of Low Carbon Recycling Technology and Equipment for Mechanical and Electrical Products, Hefei, China
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4
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Yan W, Wang X, Liu Y, Zhang XM, Jiang ZG, Huang L. A stochastic programming approach for EOL electric vehicle batteries recovery network design under uncertain conditions. Sci Rep 2024; 14:876. [PMID: 38195811 PMCID: PMC10776577 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-024-51169-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2023] [Accepted: 01/01/2024] [Indexed: 01/11/2024] Open
Abstract
With the development of the electric vehicle industry, the number of power batteries has increased dramatically. Establishing a recycling EOL (end-of-life) battery network for secondary use is an effective way to solve resource shortage and environmental pollution. However, existing networks are challenging due to the high uncertainty of EOL batteries, e.g., quantity and quality, resulting in a low recycling rate of the recovery network. To fill this gap, this paper proposes a stochastic programming approach for recovery network design under uncertain conditions of EOL batteries. Firstly, a multi-objective model for battery recovery network is established, considering carbon emissions and economic benefits. Secondly, a stochastic programming approach is proposed to clarify the model. Subsequently, the genetic algorithm is employed to solve the proposed model. Finally, a recovery network case of Region T is given to verify the credibility and superiority of the proposed method. The results demonstrate that the proposed model reduces carbon emissions by 20 metric tons and increases overall economic benefits by 10 million yuan in Region T compared to the deterministic model. Furthermore, the two portions affecting the optimization results are also discussed to provide a reference for reducing carbon emissions and improving economic efficiency in recycling networks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei Yan
- School of Automotive and Traffic Engineering, Wuhan University of Science and Technology, Hubei, 430081, China
- Academy of Green Manufacturing Engineering, Wuhan University of Science and Technology, Hubei, 430081, China
| | - Xiao Wang
- School of Automotive and Traffic Engineering, Wuhan University of Science and Technology, Hubei, 430081, China.
| | - Ying Liu
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, School of Engineering, Cardiff University, Cardiff, CF24 3AA, UK
| | - Xu-Mei Zhang
- School of Automotive and Traffic Engineering, Wuhan University of Science and Technology, Hubei, 430081, China
| | - Zhi-Gang Jiang
- Academy of Green Manufacturing Engineering, Wuhan University of Science and Technology, Hubei, 430081, China
| | - Lin Huang
- School of Automotive and Traffic Engineering, Wuhan University of Science and Technology, Hubei, 430081, China
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5
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Das PK, Bhat MY, Sajith S. Life cycle assessment of electric vehicles: a systematic review of literature. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2024; 31:73-89. [PMID: 38038907 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-023-30999-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2023] [Accepted: 11/06/2023] [Indexed: 12/02/2023]
Abstract
This study addresses the pressing need to evaluate the life cycle assessment (LCA) of electric vehicles (EVs) in comparison to traditional vehicles, amid growing environmental concerns and the quest for sustainable transportation alternatives. Through a systematic four-stage literature review, it strives to provide essential insights into the environmental impact, energy consumption, and resource utilization associated with EVs, thereby informing well-informed decisions in the transition to more sustainable transportation systems. The study's findings underscore a compelling environmental advantage of EVs. They emit a staggering 97% less CO2 equivalent emissions when compared to petrol vehicles, and a significant 70% less compared to their diesel counterparts, rendering them a crucial instrument in the battle against climate change. These environmental benefits are intricately linked to the adoption of clean energy sources and advanced battery technology. Furthermore, the study highlights the potential for additional emissions reduction through the extension of EV lifespans achieved by recycling and advanced battery technologies, with Li-ion batteries enjoying a second life as secondary storage systems. However, challenges remain, most notably the scarcity of rare earth materials essential for EV technology. The study's policy recommendations advocate for a swift shift towards clean energy sources in both EV production and usage, substantial investments in advanced battery technology, and robust support for recycling initiatives. Addressing the rare earth material shortage is paramount to the sustained growth and viability of EVs, facilitating a greener and more sustainable future in the realm of transportation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pabitra Kumar Das
- Department of Power Management, School of Business, University of Petroleum and Energy Studies, Dehradun, 248007, India
| | - Mohammad Younus Bhat
- Department of Economics and International Business, School of Business, University of Petroleum and Energy Studies, Dehradun, 248007, India.
| | - Shambhu Sajith
- Department of Power Management, School of Business, University of Petroleum and Energy Studies, Dehradun, 248007, India
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6
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Wu W, Cong N, Zhang X, Yue Q, Zhang M. Life cycle assessment and carbon reduction potential prediction of electric vehicles batteries. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2023; 903:166620. [PMID: 37643704 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.166620] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2023] [Revised: 08/11/2023] [Accepted: 08/25/2023] [Indexed: 08/31/2023]
Abstract
Electric vehicles (EVs) battery is a crucial component of energy storage components for electric vehicles. However, the environmental impact of EVs battery is still not clear. Therefore, this paper establishes a cradle-to-cradle life cycle assessment (LCA) frame and clarifies the environmental impacts on the entire lifespan of EVs battery in China. Specifically, the environmental impact of battery production, battery use, and recycling & disposal stages are analyzed and measured. In addition, the carbon reduction potential of recycling and secondary use under a future electricity mix is estimated. Results show that: (1) The production stage of EVs battery with the carbon emission of 105 kgCO2-eq/kWh, which has the most significant impact on the environment. (2) In the recycling process, cascade utilization can reduce 1.536 kgCO2-eq/kWh carbon emission. In terms of recycling methods, hydrometallurgy can reduce the most carbon emission (13.3 kgCO2-eq/kWh), followed by the combined hydro-pyrometallurgical process (8.11 kgCO2-eq/kWh) and pyrometallurgy (0.57 kgCO2-eq/kWh). (3) Under the estimated electricity mix in 2030, 2040, and 2050, the carbon emission in battery production can be approximately reduced by 31.9 %, 45 %, and 48.1 %, respectively.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenqi Wu
- School of Economics and Management, China University of Mining and Technology, Xuzhou 221116, China; Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, National University of Singapore, 117585 Singapore, Singapore.
| | - Nan Cong
- School of Economics and Management, China University of Mining and Technology, Xuzhou 221116, China
| | - Xueli Zhang
- School of Economics and Management, China University of Mining and Technology, Xuzhou 221116, China
| | - Qian Yue
- School of Economics and Management, China University of Mining and Technology, Xuzhou 221116, China
| | - Ming Zhang
- School of Economics and Management, China University of Mining and Technology, Xuzhou 221116, China.
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7
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Llamas-Orozco JA, Meng F, Walker GS, Abdul-Manan AFN, MacLean HL, Posen ID, McKechnie J. Estimating the environmental impacts of global lithium-ion battery supply chain: A temporal, geographical, and technological perspective. PNAS NEXUS 2023; 2:pgad361. [PMID: 38034093 PMCID: PMC10683946 DOI: 10.1093/pnasnexus/pgad361] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2023] [Accepted: 10/25/2023] [Indexed: 12/02/2023]
Abstract
A sustainable low-carbon transition via electric vehicles will require a comprehensive understanding of lithium-ion batteries' global supply chain environmental impacts. Here, we analyze the cradle-to-gate energy use and greenhouse gas emissions of current and future nickel-manganese-cobalt and lithium-iron-phosphate battery technologies. We consider existing battery supply chains and future electricity grid decarbonization prospects for countries involved in material mining and battery production. Currently, around two-thirds of the total global emissions associated with battery production are highly concentrated in three countries as follows: China (45%), Indonesia (13%), and Australia (9%). On a unit basis, projected electricity grid decarbonization could reduce emissions of future battery production by up to 38% by 2050. An aggressive electric vehicle uptake scenario could result in cumulative emissions of 8.1 GtCO2eq by 2050 due to the manufacturing of nickel-based chemistries. However, a switch to lithium iron phosphate-based chemistry could enable emission savings of about 1.5 GtCO2eq. Secondary materials, via recycling, can help reduce primary supply requirements and alleviate the environmental burdens associated with the extraction and processing of materials from primary sources, where direct recycling offers the lowest impacts, followed by hydrometallurgical and pyrometallurgical, reducing greenhouse gas emissions by 61, 51, and 17%, respectively. This study can inform global and regional clean energy strategies to boost technology innovations, decarbonize the electricity grid, and optimize the global supply chain toward a net-zero future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jorge A Llamas-Orozco
- Sustainable Process Technologies Research Group, Department of Mechanical, Materials and Manufacturing Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Nottingham, Nottingham NG7 2RD, UK
| | - Fanran Meng
- Department of Chemical & Biological Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Sir Robert Hadfield Building, Mappin Street, Sheffield S1 3JD, UK
| | - Gavin S Walker
- Sustainable Process Technologies Research Group, Department of Mechanical, Materials and Manufacturing Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Nottingham, Nottingham NG7 2RD, UK
| | - Amir F N Abdul-Manan
- Strategic Transport Analysis Team, Transport Technology R&D, Research & Development Center (R&D), Saudi Aramco, Dhahran 31311, Saudi Arabia
| | - Heather L MacLean
- Department of Civil & Mineral Engineering, University of Toronto, 35 St.George Street, Toronto, Ontario M5S 1A4, Canada
| | - I Daniel Posen
- Department of Civil & Mineral Engineering, University of Toronto, 35 St.George Street, Toronto, Ontario M5S 1A4, Canada
| | - Jon McKechnie
- Sustainable Process Technologies Research Group, Department of Mechanical, Materials and Manufacturing Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Nottingham, Nottingham NG7 2RD, UK
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8
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Kim HC, Lee S, Wallington TJ. Cradle-to-Gate and Use-Phase Carbon Footprint of a Commercial Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle Lithium-Ion Battery. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2023; 57:11834-11842. [PMID: 37515579 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.3c01346] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/31/2023]
Abstract
Increased use of vehicle electrification to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions has led to the need for an accurate and comprehensive assessment of the carbon footprint of traction batteries. Unfortunately, there are few lifecycle assessments (LCAs) of commercial lithium-ion batteries available in the literature, and those that are available focus on the cradle-to-gate stage, often with little or no consideration of the use phase. To address this shortfall, we report both cradle-to-gate and use-phase GHG emissions for the 2020 Model Year Ford Explorer plug-in hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV) NMC622 battery. Using primary industry data for battery design and manufacturing, cradle-to-gate emissions are estimated to be 1.38 t CO2e (101 kg CO2e/kWh), with 78% from materials and parts production and 22% from cell, module, and pack manufacturing. Using mass-induced energy consumptions of 0.6 and 1.6 kWh/(100 km 100 kg) for charge-depleting and -sustaining modes, respectively, the mass-induced use-phase emission of the battery is estimated to be 1.04 t CO2e. We show that battery emissions during the cradle-to-gate and use phases are comparable and that both phases need to be considered. A holistic and harmonized LCA approach that includes battery use is required to reduce carbon footprint uncertainties and guide future battery designs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hyung Chul Kim
- Research and Innovation Center, Ford Motor Company, Dearborn, Michigan 48121, United States
| | - Sunghoon Lee
- ESG Impact Team, LG Energy Solution, Seoul 07335, Republic of Korea
| | - Timothy J Wallington
- Research and Innovation Center, Ford Motor Company, Dearborn, Michigan 48121, United States
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9
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Tang C, Tukker A, Sprecher B, Mogollón JM. Assessing the European Electric-Mobility Transition: Emissions from Electric Vehicle Manufacturing and Use in Relation to the EU Greenhouse Gas Emission Targets. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2023; 57:44-52. [PMID: 36574507 PMCID: PMC9836351 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.2c06304] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2022] [Revised: 11/24/2022] [Accepted: 11/29/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
The European Union (EU) has set a 37.5% GHG reduction target in 2030 for the mobility sector, relative to 1990 levels. This requires increasing the share of zero-emission passenger vehicles, mainly in the form of electric vehicles (EVs). This study calculates future GHG emissions related to passenger vehicle manufacturing and use based on stated policy goals of EU Member States for EV promotion. Under these policies, by 2040 the stock of EVs would be about 73 times larger than those of 2020, contributing to a cumulative in-use emission reduction of 2.0 gigatons CO2-eq. Nevertheless, this stated EV adoption will not be sufficiently fast to reach the EU's GHG reduction targets, and some of the GHG environmental burdens may be shifted to the EV battery manufacturing countries. To achieve the 2030 reduction targets, the EU as a whole needs to accelerate the phase-out of internal combustion engine vehicles and transit to e-mobility at the pace of the most ambitious Member States, such that EVs can comprise at least 55% of the EU passenger vehicle fleet in 2030. An accelerated decarbonization of the electricity system will become the most critical prerequisite for minimizing GHG emissions from both EV manufacturing and in-use stages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chen Tang
- Institute
of Environmental Sciences, Leiden University, Leiden, 2333 CC, The Netherlands
| | - Arnold Tukker
- Institute
of Environmental Sciences, Leiden University, Leiden, 2333 CC, The Netherlands
- Netherlands
Organization for Applied Scientific Research (TNO), The Hague, 2595 DA, The Netherlands
| | - Benjamin Sprecher
- Faculty
of Industrial Design Engineering, Delft
University of Technology, Delft, 2628 CE, The Netherlands
| | - José M. Mogollón
- Institute
of Environmental Sciences, Leiden University, Leiden, 2333 CC, The Netherlands
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10
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Du S, Gao F, Nie Z, Liu Y, Sun B, Gong X. Comparison of Electric Vehicle Lithium-Ion Battery Recycling Allocation Methods. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2022; 56:17977-17987. [PMID: 36455148 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.2c05755] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
Power lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) are an important component of carbon neutrality in the transportation sector. The rapid growth of the LIB recycling industry is driven by various factors, such as resource scarcity. As a process interacting upstream and downstream, LIB recycling must consider the impact of the application of modeling approaches on the allocation of environmental benefits and burdens, especially at a time when carbon emissions are highly correlated with profit. In this study, seven allocation methods were chosen and applied to the production and multiple recycling process of typical LIB on the same data basis. The application of different allocation methods produced very disparate allocation results, and the conclusions of previous studies comparing the environmental performance of battery types need to be revisited. The life-cycle assessment (LCA) results should be interpreted with caution due to the impact of the allocation methods. Furthermore, a multi-indicator qualitative analysis based on product and process characteristics compares the applicability of the allocation methods to different aspects of LIB recycling. Relevant product standards for batteries should consider the characteristics of different methods and recommend a specific allocation method for the LCA community to employ in time to ensure that relevant studies are representative and comparable.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shiwei Du
- National Engineering Laboratory for Industrial Big-Data Application Technology, Faculty of Materials and Manufacturing, Beijing University of Technology, Beijing 100124, China
| | - Feng Gao
- National Engineering Laboratory for Industrial Big-Data Application Technology, Faculty of Materials and Manufacturing, Beijing University of Technology, Beijing 100124, China
| | - Zuoren Nie
- National Engineering Laboratory for Industrial Big-Data Application Technology, Faculty of Materials and Manufacturing, Beijing University of Technology, Beijing 100124, China
| | - Yu Liu
- National Engineering Laboratory for Industrial Big-Data Application Technology, Faculty of Materials and Manufacturing, Beijing University of Technology, Beijing 100124, China
| | - Boxue Sun
- National Engineering Laboratory for Industrial Big-Data Application Technology, Faculty of Materials and Manufacturing, Beijing University of Technology, Beijing 100124, China
| | - Xianzheng Gong
- National Engineering Laboratory for Industrial Big-Data Application Technology, Faculty of Materials and Manufacturing, Beijing University of Technology, Beijing 100124, China
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11
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Dubey S, Salwan P, Agarwal NK. Application of Machine Learning Algorithm in Managing Deviant Consumer Behaviors and Enhancing Public Service. JOURNAL OF GLOBAL INFORMATION MANAGEMENT 2022. [DOI: 10.4018/jgim.292064] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Consumer-deviant behavior costs global utility firms USD 96 billion yearly, attributable to Non-Technical Losses (NTLs). NTLs affect the operations of power systems by overloading lines and transformers, resulting in voltage imbalances and, thereby, impacting services. They also impact the electricity price paid by the honest customers. Traditional meters constitute 98 % of the total electricity meters in India. This paper argues that while traditional meters have their limitation in checking consumer-deviant behavior, this issue can be resolved with ML-based algorithms. These algorithms can predict suspected cases of theft with reasonable certainty, thereby enabling distribution companies to save money and provide consistent and dependable services to honest customers at reasonable costs. The key learning from this paper is that even if data is noisy, it is possible to create a Machine Learning Model to detect NTL with 80 percentage plus accuracy.
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12
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Li P, Xia X, Guo J. A review of the life cycle carbon footprint of electric vehicle batteries. Sep Purif Technol 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.seppur.2022.121389] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
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13
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Life Cycle Prediction Assessment of Battery Electrical Vehicles with Special Focus on Different Lithium-Ion Power Batteries in China. ENERGIES 2022. [DOI: 10.3390/en15155321] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
The incentive policies of new energy vehicles substantially promoted the development of the electrical vehicles technology and industry in China. However, the environmental impact of the key technology parameters progress on the battery electrical vehicles (BEV) is uncertain, and the BEV matching different lithium-ion power batteries shows different environmental burdens. This study conducts a life cycle assessment (LCA) of a BEV matching four different power batteries of lithium-ion phosphate (LFP), lithium-ion nickel-cobalt-manganese (NCM), lithium manganese oxide (LMO), and lithium titanate oxide (LTO) batteries. In addition, the 2025 and 2030 prediction analyses of the batteries production and life cycle BEV are conducted with the specially considered change and progress of the power battery energy density, battery manufacturing energy consumption, electricity structure, battery charge efficiency, and vehicle lightweight level. In addition, sensitivity analyses of power battery energy density, battery manufacturing energy consumption, electricity structure, and battery charge efficiency are conducted. The results show that the LFP battery is more environmentally friendly in the global warming potential (GWP) and acidification potential (AP), and the NCM battery is more environmentally friendly in abiotic depletion (fossil) (ADP(f)) and human toxicity potential (HTP). However, the LTO battery shows the highest environmental impact among the four environmental impact categories due to the lower energy density. For life cycle BEV, GWP and ADP(f) of BEV based on LFP, NCM, and LMO are lower than those of internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEV), while AP and HTP of BEV based on the four batteries are higher than those of ICEV. The grave-to-cradle (GTC) phase of vehicle has substantial environmental benefit to reduce the human toxicity emission. With the improvement of the battery density, battery charge efficiency, electricity structure, and glider lightweight level, life cycle BEVs based on the four different batteries show substantial environmental benefits for four environmental impact categories.
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14
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Advancing battery design based on environmental impacts using an aqueous Al-ion cell as a case study. Sci Rep 2022; 12:8911. [PMID: 35618815 PMCID: PMC9135763 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-13078-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2022] [Accepted: 05/20/2022] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
The drive to decarbonise our economy needs to be built into our technology development, particularly in the energy storage industry. A method for creating performance targets for battery development based on environmental impact is presented and discussed. By taking the environmental impact assessments from existing lithium-ion battery technology—it is possible to derive energy density, cycle life and % active material targets required to achieve equal or better environmental impacts for emerging technologies to use. A parameter ‘goal space’ is presented using this technique for an aqueous aluminium-ion battery in its early development. This method is based on the main reason for battery technology advancement—the mitigation of climate change and the reduction of overall CO2 emissions in society. By starting out with targets based on emission data, sustainability will be at the centre of battery research, as it should be.
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15
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Quan J, Zhao S, Song D, Wang T, He W, Li G. Comparative life cycle assessment of LFP and NCM batteries including the secondary use and different recycling technologies. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2022; 819:153105. [PMID: 35041948 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.153105] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2021] [Revised: 01/09/2022] [Accepted: 01/10/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Lithium iron phosphate (LFP) batteries and lithium nickel cobalt manganese oxide (NCM) batteries are the most widely used power lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) in electric vehicles (EVs) currently. The future trend is to reuse LIBs retired from EVs for other applications, such as energy storage systems (ESS). However, the environmental performance of LIBs during the entire life cycle, from the cradle to the grave, has not been extensively discussed. In this study, life cycle assessment (LCA) was used to quantify and compare the environmental impacts of LFP and NCM batteries. Apart from the phases of production, the first use in EVs, and recycling, the repurposing of retired LIBs and their secondary use in the ESS were also included in the system boundary. Also, the environmental impacts of various recycling processes were evaluated. The LCA results suggested that the NCM battery had better comprehensive environmental performance than the LFP one but shorter service life over the whole life cycle. In China, the first and secondary use phases contributed most to the environmental impacts with electricity mostly generated from fossil fuels. The LIB production phase was relevant to all assessed impact categories and contributed more than 50% to Abiotic Depletion Potential (ADP elements) particularly. The environmental loads could be mitigated through the recovery of metals and other materials. And, hydrometallurgy was recommended for recycling waste LIBs by better environmental advantages than pyrometallurgy and direct physical recycling. Sensitivity analysis revealed that by optimizing the charge-discharge efficiency of LIBs, particularly LFP batteries, all environmental burdens could be considerably decreased. Therefore, improving the electrochemical performance of LIBs and increasing the use proportion of clean energy were crucial to reduce the environmental impacts over their entire life cycle.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiawei Quan
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resources Reuse, Shanghai Institute of Pollution Control and Ecological Security, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Mingjing Building, 1239 Siping Road, Shanghai 200092, People's Republic of China
| | - Siqi Zhao
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resources Reuse, Shanghai Institute of Pollution Control and Ecological Security, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Mingjing Building, 1239 Siping Road, Shanghai 200092, People's Republic of China
| | - Duanmei Song
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resources Reuse, Shanghai Institute of Pollution Control and Ecological Security, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Mingjing Building, 1239 Siping Road, Shanghai 200092, People's Republic of China
| | - Tianya Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resources Reuse, Shanghai Institute of Pollution Control and Ecological Security, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Mingjing Building, 1239 Siping Road, Shanghai 200092, People's Republic of China
| | - Wenzhi He
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resources Reuse, Shanghai Institute of Pollution Control and Ecological Security, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Mingjing Building, 1239 Siping Road, Shanghai 200092, People's Republic of China
| | - Guangming Li
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resources Reuse, Shanghai Institute of Pollution Control and Ecological Security, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Mingjing Building, 1239 Siping Road, Shanghai 200092, People's Republic of China.
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16
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Cumulative Emissions of CO2 for Electric and Combustion Cars: A Case Study on Specific Models. ENERGIES 2022. [DOI: 10.3390/en15072703] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
This work includes calculations of the cumulative CO2 emissions of two comparable cars—the VW Golf VII—one with a combustion engine and the other with an electric motor. Calculation of CO2 emissions was performed, taking into account the stages of production, utilization and use of the above-mentioned vehicles. For the use phase, it was assumed that the total mileage of the car will be 150,000 km over 10 years. For the electric vehicle, calculations were made assuming five different sources of electricity (from coal only, from natural gas only, from PV and wind turbines, an average mix of European power sources and an average mix of Polish power sources; W1–W5 designations, respectively). For individual sources of electricity, cumulative CO2 emissions were taken into account, that is, resulting both from the production of electricity and the use of the resources (for example, technical service per 1 kWh of electricity produced). The obtained results of the analysis show that for the adopted assumptions regarding operation, for variants W2–W5, the use of an electric car results in lower cumulative CO2 emission than a the use of a combustion car. For a combustion car, the value was 37,000 kg-CO2, and for an electric car, depending on the variant, the value was 43, 31, 16, 23 and 34 thousand kg-CO2 for variants W1 to W5, respectively. Based on the emissions results obtained for individual stages of the use of selected vehicles, a comparative analysis of cumulative CO2 emissions was performed. The purpose of this analysis was to determine whether the replacement of an existing combustion car (that has already been manufactured; therefore, this part of the analysis does not include CO2 emissions in the production stage) with a new electric car, which has to be manufactured, therefore associated with additional CO2 emissions, would reduce cumulative CO2 emissions. Considering three adopted average annual car mileages (3000, 7500 and 15,000 km) and the previously described power options (W1–W5), we sought an answer as to whether the use of a new electric car would be burdened with lower cumulative CO2 emissions. In this case we assumed an analysis time of 15 years. For the worst variant from the point of view of CO2 emissions (W1, electricity from coal power sources only), further use of a combustion car is associated with lower cumulative CO2 emissions than the purchase of a new electric car over the entire analyzed period of 15 years. In turn, for the most advantageous variant (W3, electricity from PV or wind power sources) with an annual mileage of 3000 km, the purchase of a new electric car results in higher cumulative CO2 emissions throughout the analyzed period, whereas for an annual milage of 7500 or 15,000 km, replacing the car with an electric car “pays back” in terms of cumulative CO2 emissions after 8.5 or 4 years, respectively.
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17
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Xia X, Li P. A review of the life cycle assessment of electric vehicles: Considering the influence of batteries. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2022; 814:152870. [PMID: 34990672 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.152870] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2021] [Revised: 12/24/2021] [Accepted: 12/29/2021] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
The automotive industry is currently on the verge of electrical transition, and the environmental performance of electric vehicles (EVs) is of great concern. To assess the environmental performance of EVs scientifically and accurately, we reviewed the life cycle environmental impacts of EVs and compared them with those of internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEVs). Considering that the battery is the core component of EVs, we further summarise the environmental impacts of battery production, use, secondary utilisation, recycling, and remanufacturing. The results showed that the environmental impact of EVs in the production phase is higher than that of ICEVs due to battery manufacturing. EVs in the use phase obtained a better overall image than ICEVs, although this largely depended on the share of clean energy generation. In the recycling phase, repurposing and remanufacturing retired batteries are helpful in improving the environmental benefits of EVs. Over the entire life cycle, EVs have the potential to mitigate greenhouse gas emissions and fossil energy consumption; however, they have higher impacts than ICEVs in terms of metal and mineral consumption and human toxicity potential. In summary, optimising the power structure, upgrading battery technology, and improving the recycling efficiency are of great significance for the large-scale promotion of EVs, closed-loop production of batteries, and sustainable development of the resources, environment, and economy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoning Xia
- School of Economics and Business Administration, Chongqing University, Chongqing 400030, PR China.
| | - Pengwei Li
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Northeastern University, Shenyang 110819, PR China
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18
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Jiang S, Hua H, Zhang L, Liu X, Wu H, Yuan Z. Environmental impacts of hydrometallurgical recycling and reusing for manufacturing of lithium-ion traction batteries in China. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2022; 811:152224. [PMID: 34896143 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.152224] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2021] [Revised: 12/02/2021] [Accepted: 12/03/2021] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Recycling lithium-ion batteries from electric vehicles is considered an important way to tackle the future supply risks of virgin materials, but the actual environmental impact of traction battery recycling is controversial. This study conducted a process-based life cycle assessment to quantify the environmental impacts of hydrometallurgical recycling of two common lithium-ion traction batteries (lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide and lithium iron phosphate battery) and reusing materials in their manufacturing in China. The results show that recycling can cause net environmental benefits of the two traction battery types for the considered impact categories, but the net benefits for direct recycling technology are higher because of fewer requirements of chemicals and energy. Reusing recovered materials in battery manufacturing would reduce the impacts in comparison to no recycling, but the reduction potential of greenhouse gas emission and energy demand is not significant. Sensitivity analysis shows that recycling benefits are highly dependent on recovering efficiency and electricity used for manufacturing and recycling. Comprehensive management strategies are necessary to improve the end-of-life traction battery management, such as using carbon-free energy sources, designing batteries with less metal, and developing recycling technology using fewer chemicals. This study contributes by offering transparent life cycle inventory for hydrometallurgical recycling lithium-ion traction batteries and providing scientific knowledge to improve their sustainable management.
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Affiliation(s)
- Songyan Jiang
- School of Management Science and Engineering, Nanjing University of Information Science and Technology, Nanjing 210044, PR China
| | - Hui Hua
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of the Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210023, PR China
| | - Ling Zhang
- College of Economics and Management, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing 210037, PR China
| | - Xuewei Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of the Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210023, PR China
| | - Huijun Wu
- School of Earth and Environment, Anhui University of Science and Technology, Huainan 232001, PR China
| | - Zengwei Yuan
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of the Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210023, PR China.
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19
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Shafique M, Luo X. Environmental life cycle assessment of battery electric vehicles from the current and future energy mix perspective. JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT 2022; 303:114050. [PMID: 34872799 DOI: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2021.114050] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2021] [Revised: 10/04/2021] [Accepted: 10/31/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Electric vehicles and renewable energy sources in transportation played a significant role in promoting sustainable transportation systems. The overall performance of the electric vehicle is highly dependent on the electricity mix consumed during their production and use phase. Therefore, a comprehensive and dynamic assessment is necessary to provide accurate guidance to users and policymakers. Therefore, this study presents a comparative cradle to grave life cycle analysis of electric vehicles in 10 selected countries using the current and future electricity mix scenarios. We present the environmental footprint of vehicle production, transportation, and use phases. The results revealed that EVs in China with current (2019) and future 2025 electricity mix scenarios had a higher impact than all other EVs. In contrast, EV with 2030 Norway electricity mix was an optimal choice and has the least environmental impact in most of the selected categories. Moreover, it was also found that all EVs with 2030 electricity mix had lower environmental damages than EV 2019 electricity mix. Besides, this study outcome indicated that the use of clean energy could help to decrease the environmental impact and mitigate climate change all around the globe.
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Affiliation(s)
- Muhammad Shafique
- Department of Architecture and Civil Engineering, City University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong; Architecture and Civil Engineering Research Center, Shenzhen Research Institute of City University of Hong Kong, Shenzhen, China
| | - Xiaowei Luo
- Department of Architecture and Civil Engineering, City University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong; Architecture and Civil Engineering Research Center, Shenzhen Research Institute of City University of Hong Kong, Shenzhen, China.
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20
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Yang L, Yu B, Malima G, Yang B, Chen H, Wei YM. Are electric vehicles cost competitive? A case study for China based on a lifecycle assessment. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2022; 29:7793-7810. [PMID: 34480315 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-021-15139-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2020] [Accepted: 06/22/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Promoting the development of electric vehicles (EVs) is regarded as an important measure to ensure energy security, mitigate climate change, and solve the transport sector's air pollution problems. Nowadays, compared to gasoline vehicles, whether the EVs are more competitive in terms of cost is still a question. There is no consensus achieved since the total cost depends on the development stage of the automobile industry and power generation structure as well as the cost accounting boundary. Many of existing studies did not include the costs occurred in all the stages. In response to this concern, this study estimates the lifecycle cost covering the whole process of production, use, disposal, and infrastructure construction as well as externalities for passenger battery electric vehicle (BEV), fuel cell vehicle (FCV), and gasoline vehicle (GV) by applying the comprehensive lifecycle cost model to China. The results indicate that in 2018, BEV and FCV were more expensive than GV (1.2-5.3 times), but that BEV will become cheaper after 2025, and its cost advantage will be enlarged to $419 (5%) compared to GV by 2030. The lifecycle cost of FCV will be $527 (or 5%) lower than that of GV by 2030. These results clarify that the costs of vehicle production account for the largest proportion in the total lifecycle cost.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lai Yang
- Center for Energy and Environmental Policy Research, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing, 100081, China
- School of Management and Economics, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing, 100081, China
- Collaborative Innovation Center of Electric Vehicles in Beijing, Beijing, 100081, China
- Beijing Key Lab of Energy Economics and Environmental Management, Beijing, 100081, China
| | - Biying Yu
- Center for Energy and Environmental Policy Research, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing, 100081, China.
- School of Management and Economics, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing, 100081, China.
- Collaborative Innovation Center of Electric Vehicles in Beijing, Beijing, 100081, China.
- Beijing Key Lab of Energy Economics and Environmental Management, Beijing, 100081, China.
| | - Gabriel Malima
- Center for Energy and Environmental Policy Research, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing, 100081, China
- School of Management and Economics, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing, 100081, China
- Beijing Key Lab of Energy Economics and Environmental Management, Beijing, 100081, China
| | - Bo Yang
- Center for Energy and Environmental Policy Research, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing, 100081, China
- Beijing Key Lab of Energy Economics and Environmental Management, Beijing, 100081, China
- School of Resources and Mining Engineering, China University of Mining & Technology-Beijing, Beijing, 100083, China
| | - Hao Chen
- School of Applied Economics, Renmin University of China, Beijing, 100872, China
| | - Yi-Ming Wei
- Center for Energy and Environmental Policy Research, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing, 100081, China
- School of Management and Economics, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing, 100081, China
- Collaborative Innovation Center of Electric Vehicles in Beijing, Beijing, 100081, China
- Beijing Key Lab of Energy Economics and Environmental Management, Beijing, 100081, China
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21
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Tao Y, You F. Can decontamination and reuse of N95 respirators during COVID-19 pandemic provide energy, environmental, and economic benefits? APPLIED ENERGY 2021; 304:117848. [PMID: 34539038 PMCID: PMC8437808 DOI: 10.1016/j.apenergy.2021.117848] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2021] [Revised: 09/01/2021] [Accepted: 09/02/2021] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
The widespread COVID-19 pandemic led to a shortage in the supply of N95 respirators in the United States until May 2021. In this study, we address the energy, environmental, and economic benefits of the decontamination-and-reuse of the N95 masks. Two popular decontamination methods, including dry heat and vapor hydrogen peroxide (VHP), are investigated in this study for their effective pathogen inactivation and favorable performance in preserving filtration efficiency and structural integrity of respirators. Two multiple reuse cases, under which the N95 masks are disinfected and used five times with the dry heat method and 20 times using the VHP method, are considered and compared with a single-use case. Compared to the single-use case, the dry heat-based multiple-use case reduces carbon footprint by 50% and cumulative energy demand (CED) by 17%, while the VHP-based case decreases carbon footprint by 67% and CED by 58%. The dry-heat-based and VHP-based multiple reuse cases also present environmental benefits in most of the other impact categories, primarily due to substituting new N95 respirators with decontaminated ones. Decontaminating and reusing respirators costs 77% and 89% less than the case of single-use and disposal. The sensitivity analysis results show that the geographical variation in the power grid and the times of respirator use are the most influential factors for carbon footprint and CED, respectively. The result also reaffirms the energy, environmental, and economic favorability of the decontamination and reuse of N95 respirators.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yanqiu Tao
- Systems Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
| | - Fengqi You
- Systems Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
- Robert Frederick Smith School of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
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22
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Enabling Intelligent Recovery of Critical Materials from Li-Ion Battery through Direct Recycling Process with Internet-of-Things. MATERIALS 2021; 14:ma14237153. [PMID: 34885314 PMCID: PMC8658619 DOI: 10.3390/ma14237153] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2021] [Revised: 11/09/2021] [Accepted: 11/18/2021] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
The rapid market expansion of Li-ion batteries (LIBs) leads to concerns over the appropriate disposal of hazardous battery waste and the sustainability in the supply of critical materials for LIB production. Technologies and strategies to extend the life of LIBs and reuse the materials have long been sought. Direct recycling is a more effective recycling approach than existing ones with respect to cost, energy consumption, and emissions. This approach has become increasingly more feasible due to digitalization and the adoption of the Internet-of-Things (IoT). To address the question of how IoT could enhance direct recycling of LIBs, we first highlight the importance of direct recycling in tackling the challenges in the supply chain of LIB and discuss the characteristics and application of IoT technologies, which could enhance direct recycling. Finally, we share our perspective on a paradigm where IoT could be integrated into the direct recycling process of LIBs to enhance the efficiency, intelligence, and effectiveness of the recycling process.
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23
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Tao Y, Rahn CD, Archer LA, You F. Second life and recycling: Energy and environmental sustainability perspectives for high-performance lithium-ion batteries. SCIENCE ADVANCES 2021; 7:eabi7633. [PMID: 34739316 PMCID: PMC8570603 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.abi7633] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2021] [Accepted: 09/17/2021] [Indexed: 05/19/2023]
Abstract
Second life and recycling of retired automotive lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) have drawn growing attention, as large volumes of LIBs will retire in the coming decade. Here, we illustrate how battery chemistry, use, and recycling can influence the energy and environmental sustainability of LIBs. We find that LIBs with higher specific energy show better life cycle environmental performances, but their environmental benefits from second life application are less pronounced. Direct cathode recycling is found to be the most effective in reducing life cycle environmental impacts, while hydrometallurgical recycling provides limited sustainability benefits for high-performance LIBs. Battery design with less aluminum and alternative anode materials, such as silicon-based anode, could enable more sustainable LIB recycling. Compared to directly recycling LIBs after their electric vehicle use, carbon footprint and energy use of LIBs recycled after their second life can be reduced by 8 to 17% and 2 to 6%, respectively.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yanqiu Tao
- Robert Frederick Smith School of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
| | - Christopher D. Rahn
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA
| | - Lynden A. Archer
- Robert Frederick Smith School of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
| | - Fengqi You
- Robert Frederick Smith School of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
- Corresponding author.
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24
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Woody M, Vaishnav P, Craig MT, Lewis GM, Keoleian GA. Charging Strategies to Minimize Greenhouse Gas Emissions of Electrified Delivery Vehicles. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2021; 55:10108-10120. [PMID: 34240846 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.1c03483] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Electrification of delivery fleets has emerged as an important opportunity to reduce the transportation sector's environmental impact, including reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. When, where, and how vehicles are charged, however, impact the reduction potential. Not only does the carbon intensity of the grid vary across time and space, but charging decisions also influence battery degradation rates, resulting in more or less frequent battery replacement. Here, we propose a model that accounts for the spatial and temporal differences in charging emissions using marginal emission factors and degradation-induced differences in production emissions using a semi-empirical degradation model. We analyze four different charging strategies and demonstrate that a baseline charging scenario, in which a vehicle is fully charged immediately upon returning to a central depot, results in the highest emissions and employing alternative charging methods can reduce emissions by 8-37%. We show that when, where, and how batteries are charged also impact the total cost of ownership. Although the lowest cost and the lowest emitting charging strategies often align, the lowest cost deployment location for electric delivery vehicles may not be in the same location that maximizes environmental benefits.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maxwell Woody
- Center for Sustainable Systems, School for Environment and Sustainability, University of Michigan, 440 Church Street, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States
| | - Parth Vaishnav
- School for Environment and Sustainability, University of Michigan, 440 Church Street, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States
| | - Michael T Craig
- School for Environment and Sustainability, University of Michigan, 440 Church Street, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States
| | - Geoffrey M Lewis
- Center for Sustainable Systems, School for Environment and Sustainability, University of Michigan, 440 Church Street, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States
| | - Gregory A Keoleian
- Center for Sustainable Systems, School for Environment and Sustainability, University of Michigan, 440 Church Street, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States
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25
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Bhuwalka K, Field FR, De Kleine RD, Kim HC, Wallington TJ, Kirchain RE. Characterizing the Changes in Material Use due to Vehicle Electrification. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2021; 55:10097-10107. [PMID: 34213890 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.1c00970] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Modern automobiles are composed of more than 2000 different compounds comprising 76 different elements. Identifying supply risks across this palette of materials is important to ensure a smooth transition to more sustainable transportation technologies. This paper provides insight into how electrification is changing vehicle composition and how that change drives supply risk vulnerability by providing the first comprehensive, high-resolution (elemental and compound level) snapshot of material use in both conventional and hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) using a consistent methodology. To make these contributions, we analyze part-level data of material use for seven current year models, ranging from internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEV) to plug-in hybrid vehicles (PHEVs). With this data set, we apply a novel machine learning algorithm to estimate missing or unreported composition data. We propose and apply a metric of vulnerability, referred to as exposure, which captures economic importance and susceptibility to price changes. We find that exposure increases from $874 per vehicle for ICEV passenger vehicles to $2344 per vehicle for SUV PHEVs. The shift to a PHEV fleet would double automaker exposure adding approximately $1 billion per year of supply risk to a hypothetical fleet of a million vehicles. The increase in exposure is largely not only due to the increased use of battery elements like cobalt, graphite, and nickel but also some more commonly used materials, most notably copper.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karan Bhuwalka
- Materials Systems Laboratory, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
| | - Frank R Field
- Materials Systems Laboratory, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
| | - Robert D De Kleine
- Research and Innovation Center, Ford Motor Company, Dearborn, Michigan 48121, United States
| | - Hyung Chul Kim
- Research and Innovation Center, Ford Motor Company, Dearborn, Michigan 48121, United States
| | - Timothy J Wallington
- Research and Innovation Center, Ford Motor Company, Dearborn, Michigan 48121, United States
| | - Randolph E Kirchain
- Materials Systems Laboratory, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
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26
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Milovanoff A, Minet L, Cheah L, Posen ID, MacLean HL, Balasubramanian R. Greenhouse Gas Emission Mitigation Pathways for Urban Passenger Land Transport under Ambitious Climate Targets. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2021; 55:8236-8246. [PMID: 34018727 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.0c06671] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/10/2023]
Abstract
Urban passenger land transport is an important source of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions globally, but it is challenging to mitigate these emissions as this sector interacts with many other economic sectors. We develop the Climate change constrained Urban passenger Transport Integrated Life cycle assessment (CURTAIL) model to outline mitigation pathways of urban passenger land transport that are consistent with ambitious climate targets. CURTAIL uses the transport activity of exogenously defined modal shares to simulate the associated annual vehicle stocks, sales, and life cycle GHG emissions. It estimates GHG emission budgets that are consistent with global warming below 2 and 1.5 °C above preindustrial levels and seeks mitigation strategies to remain within the budgets. We apply it to a case study of Singapore, a city-state. Meeting a 1.5 °C target requires strong commitments in the transport and electricity sectors, such as reducing the motorized passenger activity, accelerating the deployment of public transit and of electrification, and decarbonizing the power generation system. Focusing on one mitigation technology or one mode of transport alone will not be sufficient to meet the target. Our novel model could be applied to any city to provide insights relevant to the design of urban climate change mitigation targets and policies.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Laura Minet
- Civil & Mineral Engineering, University of Toronto,Toronto, Ontario M5S, Canada
| | - Lynette Cheah
- Engineering Systems and Design, Singapore University of Technology and Design, Singapore 487372
| | - I Daniel Posen
- Civil & Mineral Engineering, University of Toronto,Toronto, Ontario M5S, Canada
| | - Heather L MacLean
- Civil & Mineral Engineering, University of Toronto,Toronto, Ontario M5S, Canada
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27
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Advances of 2nd Life Applications for Lithium Ion Batteries from Electric Vehicles Based on Energy Demand. SUSTAINABILITY 2021. [DOI: 10.3390/su13105726] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Electromobility is a new approach to the reduction of CO2 emissions and the deceleration of global warming. Its environmental impacts are often compared to traditional mobility solutions based on gasoline or diesel engines. The comparison pertains mostly to the single life cycle of a battery. The impact of multiple life cycles remains an important, and yet unanswered, question. The aim of this paper is to demonstrate advances of 2nd life applications for lithium ion batteries from electric vehicles based on their energy demand. Therefore, it highlights the limitations of a conventional life cycle analysis (LCA) and presents a supplementary method of analysis by providing the design and results of a meta study on the environmental impact of lithium ion batteries. The study focuses on energy demand, and investigates its total impact for different cases considering 2nd life applications such as (C1) material recycling, (C2) repurposing and (C3) reuse. Required reprocessing methods such as remanufacturing of batteries lie at the basis of these 2nd life applications. Batteries are used in their 2nd lives for stationary energy storage (C2, repurpose) and electric vehicles (C3, reuse). The study results confirm that both of these 2nd life applications require less energy than the recycling of batteries at the end of their first life and the production of new batteries. The paper concludes by identifying future research areas in order to generate precise forecasts for 2nd life applications and their industrial dissemination.
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Erakca M, Baumann M, Bauer W, de Biasi L, Hofmann J, Bold B, Weil M. Energy flow analysis of laboratory scale lithium-ion battery cell production. iScience 2021; 24:102437. [PMID: 33997708 PMCID: PMC8102913 DOI: 10.1016/j.isci.2021.102437] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2020] [Revised: 03/03/2021] [Accepted: 04/12/2021] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) have been proven as an enabling technology for consumer electronics, electro mobility, and stationary storage systems, and the steadily increasing demand for LIBs raises new challenges regarding their sustainability. The rising demand for comprehensive assessments of this technology's environmental impacts requires the identification of energy and materials consumed for its production, on lab to industrial scale. There are no studies available that provide a detailed picture of lab scale cell production, and only a few studies provide detailed analysis of the actual consumption, with large deviations. Thus, the present work provides an analysis of the energy flows for the production of an LIB cell. The analyzed energy requirements of individual production steps were determined by measurements conducted on a laboratory scale lithium-ion cell production and displayed in a transparent and traceable manner. For the comparison with literature values a distinction is made between the different production scales. Energy analysis of lab scale lithium-ion pouch cell production The energy data stem from in-house electricity measurements (primary data) The main contributors are coating, drying, formation process, and the dry room Different production scales such as lab, pilot, and industrial are compared
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Affiliation(s)
- Merve Erakca
- ITAS, Institute for Technology Assessment and Systems Analysis, KIT, Karlsruhe, Germany
- HIU, Helmholtz-Institute for Electrochemical Energy Storage, KIT, Ulm, Germany
- Corresponding author
| | - Manuel Baumann
- ITAS, Institute for Technology Assessment and Systems Analysis, KIT, Karlsruhe, Germany
- CICS.NOVA - OAT, Universidade NOVA de Lisboa, Campolide, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Werner Bauer
- IAM – ESS, Institute for Applied Materials - Energy Storage Systems, KIT, Karlsruhe, Germany
| | - Lea de Biasi
- IAM – ESS, Institute for Applied Materials - Energy Storage Systems, KIT, Karlsruhe, Germany
| | - Janna Hofmann
- wbk, Institute of Production Science, KIT, Karlsruhe, Germany
| | - Benjamin Bold
- wbk, Institute of Production Science, KIT, Karlsruhe, Germany
| | - Marcel Weil
- ITAS, Institute for Technology Assessment and Systems Analysis, KIT, Karlsruhe, Germany
- HIU, Helmholtz-Institute for Electrochemical Energy Storage, KIT, Ulm, Germany
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Abstract
A sustainable shift from internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicles to electric vehicles (EVs) is essential to achieve a considerable reduction in emissions. The production of Li-ion batteries (LIBs) used in EVs is an energy-intensive and costly process. It can also lead to significant embedded emissions depending on the source of energy used. In fact, about 39% of the energy consumption in LIB production is associated with drying processes, where the electrode drying step accounts for about a half. Despite the enormous energy consumption and costs originating from drying processes, they are seldomly researched in the battery industry. Establishing knowledge within the LIB industry regarding state-of-the-art drying techniques and solvent evaporation mechanisms is vital for optimising process conditions, detecting alternative solvent systems, and discovering novel techniques. This review aims to give a summary of the state-of-the-art LIB processing techniques. An in-depth understanding of the influential factors for each manufacturing step of LIBs is then established, emphasising the electrode structure and electrochemical performance. Special attention is dedicated to the convection drying step in conventional water and N-Methyl-2-pyrrolidone (NMP)-based electrode manufacturing. Solvent omission in dry electrode processing substantially lowers the energy demand and allows for a thick, mechanically stable electrode coating. Small changes in the electrode manufacturing route may have an immense impact on the final battery performance. Electrodes used for research and development often have a different production route and techniques compared to those processed in industry. The scalability issues related to the comparison across scales are discussed and further emphasised when the industry moves towards the next-generation techniques. Finally, the critical aspects of the innovations and industrial modifications that aim to overcome the main challenges are presented.
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The Carbon Footprint of Electrified City Buses: A Case Study in Trondheim, Norway. ENERGIES 2021. [DOI: 10.3390/en14030770] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
In August 2019, a new bus fleet of 36 electric and 58 hybrid buses were implemented in Trondheim, Norway. This paper examines the carbon footprint of electrified city buses, by addressing the achieved and potential reduction for the new bus fleet. Important aspects such as geographical location of production, charging electricity mix, and impact from production and operation on lifetime emissions, are also examined. A meta-analysis on life cycle assessment studies was undertaken to investigate greenhouse gas emissions and energy demand in different parts of bus production. This is followed by the production of a bus model using the findings and comparing electrified buses with diesel and HVO buses. The models were then used in a case study of the bus fleet in Trondheim, to understand the specific parameters affecting the carbon footprint. The results show that the overall carbon footprint has been considerably reduced (37%) by implementing biofuel and electrified buses, and that a further reduction of 52% can be achieved through full electrification. The operation emissions for the fleet were found to be 49 g CO2-eq/person-km, which is lower than the average city bus and passenger car in Norway.
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Wang S, Yu J. A comparative life cycle assessment on lithium-ion battery: Case study on electric vehicle battery in China considering battery evolution. WASTE MANAGEMENT & RESEARCH : THE JOURNAL OF THE INTERNATIONAL SOLID WASTES AND PUBLIC CLEANSING ASSOCIATION, ISWA 2021; 39:156-164. [PMID: 33100173 DOI: 10.1177/0734242x20966637] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
China has become the largest electric vehicle (EV) market in the world since 2015. Consequently, the lithium-ion battery (LiB) market in China is also expanding fast. LiB makers are continually introducing new types of LiBs into the market to improve LiBs' performance. However, there will be a considerable amount of waste LiBs generated in China. These waste LiBs should be appropriately recycled to avoid resources' waste or environmental pollution problems. Yet, because LiBs' type keeps changing, the environmental impact and profitability of the waste LiB recycling industry in China become uncertain. In this research, we reveal the detailed life cycle process of EVs' LiBs in China first. Then, the environmental impact of each type of LiB is speculated using the life cycle assessment (LCA) method. Moreover, we clarify how LiBs' evolution will affect the economic effect of the waste battery recycling industry in China. We perform a sensitivity analysis focusing on waste LiBs' collection rate. We found that along with LiBs' evolution, their environmental impact is decreasing. Furthermore, if waste LiBs could be appropriately recycled, their life cycle environmental impact would be further dramatically decreased. On the other hand, the profitability of the waste battery recycling industry in China would decrease in the future. Moreover, it is essential to improve waste LiBs' collection rate to establish an efficient waste LiB industry. Such a trend should be noticed by the Chinese government and waste LiB recycling operators to establish a sustainable waste LiB recycling industry in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shuoyao Wang
- Graduate School of International Cultural Studies, Tohoku University, Sendai, Japan
| | - Jeongsoo Yu
- Graduate School of International Cultural Studies, Tohoku University, Sendai, Japan
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32
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Environmental Life Cycle Impacts of Automotive Batteries Based on a Literature Review. ENERGIES 2020. [DOI: 10.3390/en13236345] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
We compiled 50 publications from the years 2005–2020 about life cycle assessment (LCA) of Li-ion batteries to assess the environmental effects of production, use, and end of life for application in electric vehicles. Investigated LCAs showed for the production of a battery pack per kWh battery capacity a median of 280 kWh/kWh_bc (25%-quantile–75%-quantile: 200–500 kWh/kWh_bc) for the primary energy consumption and a median of 120 kg CO2-eq/kWh_bc (25%-quantile–75%-quantile: 70–175 kg CO2-eq/kWh_bc) for greenhouse gas emissions. We expect results for current batteries to be in the lower range. Over the lifetime of an electric vehicle, these emissions relate to 20 g CO2-eq/km (25%-quantile–75%-quantile: 10–50 g CO2-eq/km). Considering recycling processes, greenhouse gas savings outweigh the negative environmental impacts of recycling and can reduce the life cycle greenhouse gas emissions by a median value of 20 kg CO2-eq/kWh_bc (25%-quantile–75%-quantile: 5–29 kg CO2-eq/kWh_bc). Overall, many LCA results overestimated the environmental impact of cell manufacturing, due to the assessments of relatively small or underutilized production facilities. Material emissions, like from mining and especially processing from metals and the cathode paste, could have been underestimated, due to process-based assumptions and non-regionalized primary data. Second-life applications were often not considered.
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Pan M, Hu M. Numerical Simulation of Manifold Microchannel Heat Sinks for Thermal Management in a Li‐Ion Battery. Chem Eng Technol 2020. [DOI: 10.1002/ceat.202000316] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Minqiang Pan
- South China University of Technology School of Mechanical and Automotive Engineering 510640 Guangzhou China
| | - Minglong Hu
- South China University of Technology School of Mechanical and Automotive Engineering 510640 Guangzhou China
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Kamath D, Shukla S, Arsenault R, Kim HC, Anctil A. Evaluating the cost and carbon footprint of second-life electric vehicle batteries in residential and utility-level applications. WASTE MANAGEMENT (NEW YORK, N.Y.) 2020; 113:497-507. [PMID: 32513441 DOI: 10.1016/j.wasman.2020.05.034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2020] [Revised: 05/19/2020] [Accepted: 05/25/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
The volume of end-of-life automotive batteries is increasing rapidly as a result of growing electric vehicle adoption. Most automotive lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) are recycled but could be repurposed as second-life batteries (SLBs) since they have 70-80% residual capacity, which can be adequate for stationary applications. SLBs have been proposed as potential, inexpensive, low-carbon energy storage for residential and utility-level applications, with or without photovoltaics (PV). However, it is unknown whether SLBs will be better than new batteries and whether SLBs will provide similar cost and carbon emission reduction for the different stationary applications in all locations. This work compared the levelized cost of electricity and life-cycle carbon emissions associated with using SLBs and new LIBs in the US for three energy storage applications: (1) residential energy storage with rooftop PV, (2) utility-level PV firming, and (3) utility-level peak-shaving, leading to a total of 41 scenarios. SLBs reduced the levelized cost of electricity by 12-57% and carbon emissions by 7-31% compared to new LIBs in the considered applications, with higher reductions for utility-level applications. SLBs still provided benefits at the residential level when compared to rooftop PV alone by reducing the levelized cost by 15-25% and carbon emissions by 22-51%, making SLBs attractive to residential consumers as well. SLBs offer an opportunity to utilize an end-of-life product for energy storage applications, provided the uncertainty in SLB quality and availability is addressed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dipti Kamath
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA
| | - Siddharth Shukla
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA
| | - Renata Arsenault
- Research & Innovation Center, Ford Motor Company, Dearborn, MI 48121, USA
| | - Hyung Chul Kim
- Research & Innovation Center, Ford Motor Company, Dearborn, MI 48121, USA
| | - Annick Anctil
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA.
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35
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Kamath D, Arsenault R, Kim HC, Anctil A. Economic and Environmental Feasibility of Second-Life Lithium-Ion Batteries as Fast-Charging Energy Storage. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2020; 54:6878-6887. [PMID: 32343124 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.9b05883] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Energy storage can reduce peak power consumption from the electricity grid and therefore the cost for fast-charging electric vehicles (EVs). It can also enable EV charging in areas where grid limitations would otherwise preclude it. To address both the need for a fast-charging infrastructure as well as management of end-of-life EV batteries, second-life battery (SLB)-based energy storage is proposed for EV fast-charging systems. The electricity grid-based fast-charging configuration was compared to lithium-ion SLB-based configurations in terms of economic cost and life cycle environmental impact in five U.S. cities. Compared to using new batteries, SLB reduced the levelized cost of electricity (LCOE) by 12-41% and the global warming potential (GWP) by 7-77%. Photovoltaics along with SLB reduced the use of grid electricity and provided higher GWP and cumulative energy demand (CED) reduction compared to only using SLB. The LCOE of the SLB-based configurations was sensitive to SLB cost, lifetime, efficiency, and discount rate, whereas the GWP and CED were affected by SLB lifetime, efficiency, and the required enclosure materials. Solar insolation and electricity pricing structures were key in determining the configuration, which was economically and environmentally suitable for a location.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dipti Kamath
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan 48824, United States
| | - Renata Arsenault
- Research & Innovation Center, Ford Motor Company, Dearborn, Michigan 48121, United States
| | - Hyung Chul Kim
- Research & Innovation Center, Ford Motor Company, Dearborn, Michigan 48121, United States
| | - Annick Anctil
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan 48824, United States
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Abstract
Lithium ion batteries are experiencing an increased success thanks to their interesting performances, in particular for electric vehicles applications. Their continuous technological improvements in the last years are providing higher energy density and lower manufacturing costs. However, the environmental performance of their supply chain is of paramount importance to guarantee a cleaner alternative to fossil-based solutions on the entire life cycle of the applications. This paper carries out a comprehensive review on the main aspects related to Li-ion batteries manufacturing, to support the readers in understanding the complexity of the subject and the main challenges and opportunities for the future developments of this technology. The paper discusses the expected future demand of batteries; the main aspects related to the supply chain, including existing assets, input materials and alternative technologies; the end-of-life of batteries; the environmental impacts; and the main geopolitical implications.
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37
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Bridging Tools to Better Understand Environmental Performances and Raw Materials Supply of Traction Batteries in the Future EU Fleet. ENERGIES 2020. [DOI: 10.3390/en13102513] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Sustainable and smart mobility and associated energy systems are key to decarbonise the EU and develop a clean, resource efficient, circular and carbon-neutral future. To achieve the 2030 and 2050 targets, technological and societal changes are needed. This transition will inevitably change the composition of the future EU fleet, with an increasing share of electric vehicles (xEVs). To assess the potential contribution of lithium-ion traction batteries (LIBs) in decreasing the environmental burdens of EU mobility, several aspects should be included. Even though environmental assessments of batteries along their life-cycle have been already conducted using life-cycle assessment, a single tool does not likely provide a complete overview of such a complex system. Complementary information is provided by material flow analysis and criticality assessment, with emphasis on supply risk. Bridging complementary aspects can better support decision-making, especially when different strategies are simultaneously tackled. The results point out that the future life-cycle GWP of traction LIBs will likely improve, mainly due to more environmental-friendly energy mix and improved recycling. Even though second-use will postpone available materials for recycling, both these end-of-life strategies allow keeping the values of materials in the circular economy, with recycling also contributing to mitigate the supply risk of Lithium and Nickel.
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38
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Jiang S, Zhang L, Li F, Hua H, Liu X, Yuan Z, Wu H. Environmental impacts of lithium production showing the importance of primary data of upstream process in life-cycle assessment. JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT 2020; 262:110253. [PMID: 32250776 DOI: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2020.110253] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2019] [Revised: 01/01/2020] [Accepted: 02/06/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Life-cycle assessment (LCA) emphasizes obtaining primary data from an on-site process to reduce uncertainties. However, data of the upstream process from secondary sources also yield significant uncertainties, which have not been drawn enough attention. This study aims to explore the importance of primary data of the upstream process in LCAs. Here, we choose lithium, a key component of lithium-ion (Li-ion) battery, as a case to present a cradle-to-gate LCA for its production by rock-based technology (LRT). Then, we compare the environmental impacts of lithium by LRT with that by brine-based technology (LBT) and the Li-ion battery using lithium by the two methods. The result shows that the impacts of rock-based lithium production are dominated by the leaching process, which has the highest levels of impacts for 8 of 10 environmental categories. Besides, all 10 impact categories of lithium produced by LRT are much larger than that by LBT, with differences up to 60.4 -fold. We also find that the Li-ion battery pack by rock-based lithium offers a 17-32% increase in acidification and global warming potential relative to that by brine-based lithium. Our results contribute by providing the first mass-produced life-cycle inventory of rock-based lithium and showing the importance of primary data of the upstream process in LCAs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Songyan Jiang
- School of Management Science and Engineering, Nanjing University of Information Science and Technology, Nanjing, 210044, PR China
| | - Ling Zhang
- College of Economics and Management, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing, 210037, PR China
| | - Fengying Li
- Collaborative Innovation Center of Atmospheric Environment and Equipment Technology, Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Atmospheric Environment Monitoring and Pollution Control (AEMPC), Nanjing University of Information Science & Technology, Nanjing, 210044, PR China
| | - Hui Hua
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of the Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing, 210023, PR China
| | - Xin Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of the Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing, 210023, PR China.
| | - Zengwei Yuan
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of the Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing, 210023, PR China
| | - Huijun Wu
- School of Earth and Environment, Anhui University of Science and Technology, Huainan, 232001, PR China
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39
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Electrodialytic Energy Storage System: Permselectivity, Stack Measurements and Life-Cycle Analysis. ENERGIES 2020. [DOI: 10.3390/en13051247] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Reverse electrodialysis and electrodialysis can be combined into a closed energy storage system, allowing for storing surplus energy through a salinity difference between two solutions. A closed system benefits from simple temperature control, the ability to use higher salt concentrations and mitigation of membrane fouling. In this work, the permselectivity of two membranes from Fumatech, FAS-50 and FKS-50, is found to be ranging from 0.7 to 0.5 and from 0.8 to 0.7 respectively. The maximum unit cell open-circuit voltage was measured to be 115 ± 9 mV and 118 ± 8 mV at 25 ° C and 40 ° C, respectively, and the power density was found to be 1.5 ± 0.2 W m uc − 2 at 25 ° C and 2.0 ± 0.3 W m uc − 2 at 40 ° C. Given a lifetime of 10 years, three hours of operation per day and 3% downtime, the membrane price can be 2.5 ± 0.3 $ m − 2 and 1.4 ± 0.2 $ m − 2 to match the energy price in the EU and the USA, respectively. A life-cycle analysis was conducted for a storage capacity of 1 GWh and 2 h of discharging. The global warming impact is 4.53 · 10 5 kg CO2 equivalents/MWh and the cumulative energy demand is 1.61 · 10 3 MWh/MWh, which are 30% and 2 times higher than a lithium-ion battery pack with equivalent capacity, respectively. An electrodialytic energy storage system reaches a comparable global warming impact and a lower cumulative energy demand than a lithium-ion battery for an average life span of 20 and 3 years, respectively.
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Fan E, Li L, Wang Z, Lin J, Huang Y, Yao Y, Chen R, Wu F. Sustainable Recycling Technology for Li-Ion Batteries and Beyond: Challenges and Future Prospects. Chem Rev 2020; 120:7020-7063. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.9b00535] [Citation(s) in RCA: 470] [Impact Index Per Article: 117.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Ersha Fan
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Environmental Science and Engineering, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081, China
| | - Li Li
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Environmental Science and Engineering, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081, China
- Collaborative Innovation Center of Electric Vehicles in Beijing, Beijing 100081, China
| | - Zhenpo Wang
- National Engineering Laboratory for EVs, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081, China
- Collaborative Innovation Center of Electric Vehicles in Beijing, Beijing 100081, China
| | - Jiao Lin
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Environmental Science and Engineering, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081, China
| | - Yongxin Huang
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Environmental Science and Engineering, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081, China
| | - Ying Yao
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Environmental Science and Engineering, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081, China
| | - Renjie Chen
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Environmental Science and Engineering, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081, China
- Collaborative Innovation Center of Electric Vehicles in Beijing, Beijing 100081, China
| | - Feng Wu
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Environmental Science and Engineering, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081, China
- Collaborative Innovation Center of Electric Vehicles in Beijing, Beijing 100081, China
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41
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A Critical Review of Lithium-Ion Battery Recycling Processes from a Circular Economy Perspective. BATTERIES-BASEL 2019. [DOI: 10.3390/batteries5040068] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
Lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) are currently one of the most important electrochemical energy storage devices, powering electronic mobile devices and electric vehicles alike. However, there is a remarkable difference between their rate of production and rate of recycling. At the end of their lifecycle, only a limited number of LIBs undergo any recycling treatment, with the majority go to landfills or being hoarded in households. Further losses of LIB components occur because the the state-of-the-art LIB recycling processes are limited to components with high economic value, e.g., Co, Cu, Fe, and Al. With the increasing popularity of concepts such as “circular economy” (CE), new LIB recycling systems have been proposed that target a wider spectrum of compounds, thus reducing the environmental impact associated with LIB production. This review work presents a discussion of the current practices and some of the most promising emerging technologies for recycling LIBs. While other authoritative reviews have focused on the description of recycling processes, the aim of the present was is to offer an analysis of recycling technologies from a CE perspective. Consequently, the discussion is based on the ability of each technology to recover every component in LIBs. The gathered data depicted a direct relationship between process complexity and the variety and usability of the recovered fractions. Indeed, only processes employing a combination of mechanical processing, and hydro- and pyrometallurgical steps seemed able to obtain materials suitable for LIB (re)manufacture. On the other hand, processes relying on pyrometallurgical steps are robust, but only capable of recovering metallic components.
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42
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Abstract
With increasing interest in reducing fossil fuel emissions, more and more development is focused on electric mobility. For electric vehicles, the main challenge is the mass of the batteries, which significantly increase the mass of the vehicles and limits their range. One possible concept to solve this is incorporating structural batteries; a structural material that both stores electrical energy and carries mechanical load. The concept envisions constructing the body of an electric vehicle with this material and thus reducing the need for further energy storage. This research is investigating a future structural battery that is incorporated in the roof of an electric vehicle. The structural battery is replacing the original steel roof of the vehicle, and part of the original traction battery. The environmental implications of this structural battery roof are investigated with a life cycle assessment, which shows that a structural battery roof can avoid climate impacts in substantive quantities. The main emissions for the structural battery stem from its production and efforts should be focused there to further improve the environmental benefits of the structural battery. Toxicity is investigated with a novel chemical risk assessment from a life cycle perspective, which shows that two chemicals should be targeted for substitution.
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43
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Salgado Delgado MA, Usai L, Pan Q, Hammer Strømman A. Comparative Life Cycle Assessment of a Novel Al-Ion and a Li-Ion Battery for Stationary Applications. MATERIALS 2019; 12:ma12193270. [PMID: 31597317 PMCID: PMC6803941 DOI: 10.3390/ma12193270] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2019] [Revised: 09/24/2019] [Accepted: 09/27/2019] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
The foreseen high penetration of fluctuant renewable energy sources, such as wind and solar, will cause an increased need for batteries to store the energy produced and not instantaneously consumed. Due to the high production cost and significant environmental impacts associated with the production of lithium-ion nickel-manganese-cobalt (Li-ion NMC) batteries, several chemistries are proposed as a potential substitute. This study aims to identify and compare the lifecycle environmental impacts springing from a novel Al-ion battery, with the current state-of-the-art chemistry, i.e., Li-ion NMC. The global warming potential (GWP) indicator was selected to express the results due to its relevance to society, policy and to facilitate the comparison of our results with other research. The cradle-to-grave process-based assessment uses two functional units: (1) per-cell manufactured and (2) per-Wh of storage capacity. The results identified the battery's production as the highest carbon intensity phase, being the energy usage the main contributor to GWP. In general, the materials and process involved in the manufacturing and recycling of the novel battery achieve a lower environmental impact in comparison to the Li-ion technology. However, due to the Al-ion's low energy density, a higher amount of materials are needed to deliver equivalent performance than a Li-ion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mario Amin Salgado Delgado
- Industrial Ecology Program, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, E1-Høgskoleringen 5, 7491 Trondheim, Norway.
| | - Lorenzo Usai
- Industrial Ecology Program, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, E1-Høgskoleringen 5, 7491 Trondheim, Norway.
| | - Qiaoyan Pan
- ACCUREC Recycling GmbH, Bataverstraße 21, DE-47809 Krefeld, Germany.
| | - Anders Hammer Strømman
- Industrial Ecology Program, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, E1-Høgskoleringen 5, 7491 Trondheim, Norway.
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44
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Liu Q, Hu Z, Chen M, Zou C, Jin H, Wang S, Chou SL, Dou SX. Recent Progress of Layered Transition Metal Oxide Cathodes for Sodium-Ion Batteries. SMALL (WEINHEIM AN DER BERGSTRASSE, GERMANY) 2019; 15:e1805381. [PMID: 30773813 DOI: 10.1002/smll.201805381] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2018] [Revised: 01/23/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Sodium-ion batteries (SIBs) are attracting increasing attention and considered to be a low-cost complement or an alternative to lithium-ion batteries (LIBs), especially for large-scale energy storage. Their application, however, is limited because of the lack of suitable host materials to reversibly intercalate Na+ ions. Layered transition metal oxides (Nax MO2 , M = Fe, Mn, Ni, Co, Cr, Ti, V, and their combinations) appear to be promising cathode candidates for SIBs due to their simple structure, ease of synthesis, high operating potential, and feasibility for commercial production. In the present work, the structural evolution, electrochemical performance, and recent progress of Nax MO2 as cathode materials for SIBs are reviewed and summarized. Moreover, the existing drawbacks are discussed and several strategies are proposed to help alleviate these issues. In addition, the exploration of full cells based on Nax MO2 cathodes and future perspectives are discussed to provide guidance for the future commercialization of such systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qiannan Liu
- College of Chemistry and Materials Engineering, Wenzhou University, Wenzhou, Zhejiang, 325027, China
- Institute for Superconducting and Electronic Materials, Australian Institute for Innovative Materials, University of Wollongong, Innovation Campus, Squires Way, North Wollongong, NSW, 2522, Australia
| | - Zhe Hu
- Institute for Superconducting and Electronic Materials, Australian Institute for Innovative Materials, University of Wollongong, Innovation Campus, Squires Way, North Wollongong, NSW, 2522, Australia
| | - Mingzhe Chen
- Institute for Superconducting and Electronic Materials, Australian Institute for Innovative Materials, University of Wollongong, Innovation Campus, Squires Way, North Wollongong, NSW, 2522, Australia
| | - Chao Zou
- College of Chemistry and Materials Engineering, Wenzhou University, Wenzhou, Zhejiang, 325027, China
| | - Huile Jin
- College of Chemistry and Materials Engineering, Wenzhou University, Wenzhou, Zhejiang, 325027, China
| | - Shun Wang
- College of Chemistry and Materials Engineering, Wenzhou University, Wenzhou, Zhejiang, 325027, China
| | - Shu-Lei Chou
- Institute for Superconducting and Electronic Materials, Australian Institute for Innovative Materials, University of Wollongong, Innovation Campus, Squires Way, North Wollongong, NSW, 2522, Australia
| | - Shi-Xue Dou
- Institute for Superconducting and Electronic Materials, Australian Institute for Innovative Materials, University of Wollongong, Innovation Campus, Squires Way, North Wollongong, NSW, 2522, Australia
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Boldrin P, Brandon NP. Progress and outlook for solid oxide fuel cells for transportation applications. Nat Catal 2019. [DOI: 10.1038/s41929-019-0310-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 97] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
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Methodological Approaches to End-Of-Life Modelling in Life Cycle Assessments of Lithium-Ion Batteries. BATTERIES-BASEL 2019. [DOI: 10.3390/batteries5030051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
This study presents a review of how the end-of-life (EOL) stage is modelled in life cycle assessment (LCA) studies of lithium-ion batteries (LIBs). Twenty-five peer-reviewed journal and conference papers that consider the whole LIB life cycle and describe their EOL modelling approach sufficiently were analyzed. The studies were categorized based on two archetypal EOL modelling approaches in LCA: The cutoff (no material recovery, possibly secondary material input) and EOL recycling (material recovery, only primary material input) approaches. It was found that 19 of the studies followed the EOL recycling approach and 6 the cutoff approach. In addition, almost a third of the studies deviated from the expected setup of the two methods by including both material recovery and secondary material input. Such hybrid approaches may lead to double counting of recycling benefits by both including secondary input (as in the cutoff approach) and substituting primary materials (as in the EOL recycling approach). If the archetypal EOL modelling approaches are not followed, it is imperative that the modelling choices are well-documented and motivated to avoid double counting that leads to over- or underestimations of the environmental impacts of LIBs. Also, 21 studies model hydrometallurgical treatment, and 17 completely omit waste collection.
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Towards an Energy Efficient Solution for Bike-Sharing Rebalancing Problems: A Battery Electric Vehicle Scenario. ENERGIES 2019. [DOI: 10.3390/en12132503] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
A free-float bike-sharing system faces various operational challenges to maintain good service quality while optimizing the operational cost. The primary problems include the fulfillment of the users demand at all stations, and the replacement of faulty bikes presented in the system. This study focuses on a free-float bike-sharing system rebalancing problem (FFBP) with faulty bikes using battery electric vehicles (BEVs). The target inventory of bikes at each station is obtained while minimizing the total traveling time through the presented formulation. Using CPLEX solver, the model is demonstrated through numerical experiments considering the various vehicle and battery capacities, and a cost–benefit analysis is performed for BEV and conventional internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEVs) while taking the BEV manufacturing and indirect emission into account. The results show that the annual cost incurred on an ICEV is 56.9% more as compared to the cost of using an equivalent BEV. Since BEVs consume less energy than conventional ICEVs, the use of BEVs for rebalancing the bike-sharing systems results in significant energy savings for an urban transport network. Moreover, the life cycle emissions of an ICEV are 48.3% more as compared to an equivalent BEV. Furthermore, the operational cost of a BEV significantly reduces with the increase in battery capacity.
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Abstract
In light of the increasing penetration of electric vehicles (EVs) in the global vehicle market, understanding the environmental impacts of lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) that characterize the EVs is key to sustainable EV deployment. This study analyzes the cradle-to-gate total energy use, greenhouse gas emissions, SOx, NOx, PM10 emissions, and water consumption associated with current industrial production of lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide (NMC) batteries, with the battery life cycle analysis (LCA) module in the Greenhouse Gases, Regulated Emissions, and Energy Use in Transportation (GREET) model, which was recently updated with primary data collected from large-scale commercial battery material producers and automotive LIB manufacturers. The results show that active cathode material, aluminum, and energy use for cell production are the major contributors to the energy and environmental impacts of NMC batteries. However, this study also notes that the impacts could change significantly, depending on where in the world the battery is produced, and where the materials are sourced. In an effort to harmonize existing LCAs of automotive LIBs and guide future research, this study also lays out differences in life cycle inventories (LCIs) for key battery materials among existing LIB LCA studies, and identifies knowledge gaps.
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Cusenza MA, Bobba S, Ardente F, Cellura M, Di Persio F. Energy and environmental assessment of a traction lithium-ion battery pack for plug-in hybrid electric vehicles. JOURNAL OF CLEANER PRODUCTION 2019; 215:634-649. [PMID: 31007414 PMCID: PMC6472661 DOI: 10.1016/j.jclepro.2019.01.056] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
Abstract
Traction batteries are a key factor in the environmental sustainability of electric mobility and, therefore, it is necessary to evaluate their environmental performance to allow a comprehensive sustainability assessment of electric mobility. This article presents an environmental assessment of a lithium-ion traction battery for plug-in hybrid electric vehicles, characterized by a composite cathode material of lithium manganese oxide (LiMn2O4) and lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide Li(NixCoyMn1-x-y)O2. Composite cathode material is an emerging technology that promises to combine the merits of several active materials into a hybrid electrode to optimize performance and reduce costs. In this study, the environmental assessment of one battery pack (with a nominal capacity of 11.4 kWh able to be used for about 140,000 km of driving) is carried out by using the Life Cycle Assessment methodology consistent with ISO 14040. The system boundaries are the battery production, the operation phase and recycling at the end of life, including the recovery of various material fractions. The composite cathode technology examined besides a good compromise between the higher and the lower performance of NMC and LMO cathodes, can present good environmental performances. The results of the analysis show that the manufacturing phase is relevant to all assessed impact categories (contribution higher than 60%). With regard to electricity losses due to battery efficiency and battery transport, the contribution to the use phase impact of battery efficiency is larger than that of battery transport. Recycling the battery pack contributes less than 11% to all of the assessed impact categories, with the exception of freshwater ecotoxicity (60% of the life cycle impact). The environmental credits related to the recovery of valuable materials (e.g. cobalt and nickel sulphates) and other metal fractions (e.g. aluminium and steel) are particularly relevant to impact categories such as marine eutrophication, human toxicity and abiotic resource depletion. The main innovations of this article are that (1) it presents the first bill of materials of a lithium-ion battery cell for plug-in hybrid electric vehicles with a composite cathode active material; (2) it describes one of the first applications of the life cycle assessment to a lithium-ion battery pack for plug-in hybrid electric vehicles with a composite cathode active material with the aim of identifying the "hot spots" of this technology and providing useful information to battery manufacturers on potentially improving its environmental sustainability; (3) it evaluates the impacts associated with the use phase based on primary data about the battery pack's lifetime, in terms of kilometres driven; and (4) it models the end-of-life phase of the battery components through processes specifically created for or adapted to the case study.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Anna Cusenza
- University of Palermo, Department of Energy, Information Engineering and Mathematical Models (DEIM), Viale delle Scienze Building 9, Palermo, Italy
| | - Silvia Bobba
- European Commission, Joint Research Centre, Directorate for Sustainable Resources, via Enrico Fermi, 2749, Ispra, VA, Italy
- DIATI – Department of Environment, Land and Infrastructure Engineering, Politecnico di Torino, Corso Duca degli Abruzzi 24, Turin, Italy
| | - Fulvio Ardente
- European Commission, Joint Research Centre, Directorate for Sustainable Resources, via Enrico Fermi, 2749, Ispra, VA, Italy
- Corresponding author.
| | - Maurizio Cellura
- University of Palermo, Department of Energy, Information Engineering and Mathematical Models (DEIM), Viale delle Scienze Building 9, Palermo, Italy
| | - Franco Di Persio
- European Commission, Joint Research Centre, Directorate for Energy, Transport and Climate, Energy Storage Unit, Westerduinweg 3, NL-1755 LE, Petten, the Netherlands
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Eco-Efficiency of a Lithium-Ion Battery for Electric Vehicles: Influence of Manufacturing Country and Commodity Prices on GHG Emissions and Costs. BATTERIES-BASEL 2019. [DOI: 10.3390/batteries5010023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Lithium-ion battery packs inside electric vehicles represents a high share of the final price. Nevertheless, with technology advances and the growth of the market, the price of the battery is getting more competitive. The greenhouse gas emissions and the battery cost have been studied previously, but coherent boundaries between environmental and economic assessments are needed to assess the eco-efficiency of batteries. In this research, a detailed study is presented, providing an environmental and economic assessment of the manufacturing of one specific lithium-ion battery chemistry. The relevance of parameters is pointed out, including the manufacturing place, the production volume, the commodity prices, and the energy density. The inventory is obtained by dismantling commercial cells. The correlation between the battery cost and the commodity price is much lower than the correlation between the battery cost and the production volume. The developed life cycle assessment concludes that the electricity mix that is used to power the battery factory is a key parameter for the impact of the battery manufacturing on climate change. To improve the battery manufacturing eco-efficiency, a high production capacity and an electricity mix with low carbon intensity are suggested. Optimizing the process by reducing the electricity consumption during the manufacturing is also suggested, and combined with higher pack energy density, the impact on climate change of the pack manufacturing is as low as 39.5 kg CO2 eq/kWh.
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