Zero-Valent Iron Enhances Biocathodic Carbon Dioxide Reduction to Methane

Atomic Pyridinic Nitrogen as Highly Active Metal-Free Coordination Sites at the Biotic-Abiotic Interface for Bio-Electrochemical CO2 Reduction

Bio-electrochemical conversion of anthropogenic CO2 into value-added products using cost-effective metal-free catalysts represents a promising strategy for sustainable fuel production. Herein, N-doped carbon nanosheets synthesized via pyrolysis of the zeolitic-imidazolate framework (ZIF) are developed for constructing efficient biohybrids to facilitate CO2-to-CH4 conversion. The microbial enrichment and bio-interfacial charge transfer are significantly affected by the proportion of the co-existed graphitic-N, pyridinic-N, and pyrrolic-N in the defective carbon nanosheets. It is unfolded that pyridinic-N and pyrrolic-N with the doped N atoms near the edge can significantly enhance the adsorption of their adjacent C atoms toward O, leading to improved microbe enrichment. Especially, pyridinic-N which can provide one p electron to the aromatic π system, greatly enhances the electron-donating capability of the carbon nanosheets to the microorganisms. Correspondingly, due to its largest amount of pyridinic-N doping, the N-doped carbon nanosheets derived from ZIF pyrolysis at 900 °C (denoted 900-NC) achieve the highest methane production of ≈215.7 mmol m-2 day-1 with a high selectivity (Faradaic efficiency = ≈94.2%) at -0.9 V versus Ag/AgCl. This work demonstrates the effectiveness of N-doped carbon catalysts for bio-electrochemical CO2 fixation and contributes to the understanding of N functionalities toward microbiome response and biotic-abiotic charge transfer in various bio-electrochemical systems.

Re-evaluating the Contribution of a Fe-Based Current Collector to Bioelectrochemical Methanogenesis: Role and Mechanisms

The metal-based current collector has been adopted as an essential component of cathodes for electron delivery in microbial electrosynthesis (MES) cells, while the effect of its corrosion on biofilm development and electromethanogenesis activity was overlooked. In this study, the corrosion of the Fe-based current collector was identified to in situ decorate cathode naturally which substantially boosted the performance of CO2 electromethanogenesis in terms of taking over two-thirds less time starting up MES and increasing the CH4 production rate by 3.5 times. Despite the low concentration of Fe (0.13 at%), the electrochemical analysis indicated that it was possible for these Fe deposits to act as electron shuttles and catalysts for H2 production to benefit methanogenesis. The Fe aggregates weakened the dependence of methanogens on electroactive bacteria (EABs) to conduct methanogenesis via interspecies electron transfer as the proportion of EABs on Bio FeCF (with Fe current collector, where CF is carbon felt) was only 25.5% of that on Bio CF (without Fe current collector). On the contrary, the abundance of genes encoding the proteins to uptake extracellular electrons of methanogens on Bio FeCF was 2.3 times higher than that on Bio CF. The enhanced energy transfer maintained high amounts of methanogens and live microorganisms. This study comprehensively explored the multiple roles of Fe-based current collectors in enhancing CO2 electromethanogenesis.

Co-NC@Co-NP hierarchical nanoforest steering charge exchange efficiency at biotic-abiotic interface for microbial electrochemical carbon reduction

Converting anthropogenic carbon dioxide (CO2) to value-added products using bio-electrochemical conversions represents a promising strategy for producing sustainable fuel. However, the reaction kinetics are hindered by insufficient attachment of microorganisms and limited charge extraction at the bioinorganic interface. A hierarchical nanoforest with doped cobalt‑nitrogen-doped carbon covering cobalt nanoparticle (Co-NC@Co-NP) was integrated with a CO2-to-CH4 conversion microbiome for methane production to address these shortcomings. In-situ nanoforests were developed on the nanosheet by chemical vapor deposition with Co nanoparticles catalyzed. The bio-nanowire-like carbon nanotubes enhanced the electrostatic force for microbe enrichment via the tip effect, providing a maximum of 3.6-fold electron-receiving microbes to utilize reducing equivalents. The Co-NC@Co-NP enhanced the direct electron transfer between microbes and electrodes, reducing the adoption of energy barriers for heme-like proteins. Thus, the optimized electron transfer pathway improved selectivity by a factor of 2.0 compared to the pristine nanosheet biohybrid. Furthermore, the adjusted microbial community structure provided sufficient methanogenesis genes to match the strong electron flow, achieving maximal methane production rates (311.1 mmol/m2/day at -0.9 V vs. Ag/AgCl), 8.62 times higher than those of the counterpart nanosheet biohybrid (36.06 mmol/m2/day). This work demonstrates a comprehensive assessment of biotic-abiotic energy transfer, which may serve as a guiding principle for designing efficient bio-electrochemical systems.

Engineered nanomaterials for carbon capture and bioenergy production in microbial electrochemical technologies: A review

The mounting threat of global warming, fuelled by industrialization and anthropogenic activities, is undeniable. In 2017, atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2), the primary greenhouse gas, exceeded 410 ppm for the first time. Shockingly, on April 28, 2023, this figure surged even higher, reaching an alarming 425 ppm. Even though extensive research has been conducted on developing efficient carbon capture and storage technologies, most suffer from high costs, short lifespans, and significant environmental impacts. Recently, the use of engineered nanomaterials (ENM), particularly in microbial electrochemical technologies (METs), has gained momentum owing to their appropriate physicochemical properties and catalytic activity. By implementing ENM, the MET variants like microbial electrosynthesis (MES) and photosynthetic microbial fuel cells (pMFC) can enhance carbon capture efficiency with simultaneous bioenergy production and wastewater treatment. This review provides an overview of ENMs' role in carbon capture within MES and pMFC, highlighting advancements and charting future research directions.

Evaluating the stability and performance of a novel core-shell ZVI@C-montmorillonite particle for anaerobic treatment of chloramphenicol wastewater

ZVI@C-MP is a novel composite particle consisting of zero-valent iron (ZVI) enclosed within a carbon shell. The purpose of this composite material is to enhance the anaerobic treatment of wastewater containing chloramphenicol (CAP). This approach aims to address the initial challenge of excessive corrosion experienced by ZVI, followed by its subsequent passivation and inactivation. ZVI@C-MP was synthesized through a hydrothermal process and calcination, with montmorillonite as binder, it exhibits stability, iron-carbon microelectrolysis (ICME) properties, and strong adsorption for CAP. Its ICME actions include releasing iron ions (0.70 mg/L) and COD (11.3 mg/L), generating hydrogen (3.82%), and raising the pH from 6.30 to 7.71. With minimal structural changes, it achieved release equilibrium. ZVI@C-MP boasts high removal efficiency of CAP (98.96%) by adsorption, attributed to surface characteristics (surface area: 167.985 m2/g; pore volume: 0.248 cm3/g). The addition of ZVI@C-MP increases COD removal (10.16%), methane production (72.86%), and reduces extracellular polymeric substances (EPS) from 70.58 to 52.72 mg/g MLVSS. It reduces microbial by-products and toxic effects, enhancing CAP biodegradation and microbial metabolic activity. ZVI@C-MP's electrical conductivity and biocompatibility bolster functional flora for interspecies electron transfer. It's a novel approach to antibiotic wastewater treatment.

Recovery of methane and acetate during ex-situ biogas upgrading via novel dual-membrane aerated biofilm reactor

Biological biogas upgrading has been well-proven to be a promising approach for renewable bioenergy recovery, but hydrogen (H₂)-assisted ex-situ biogas upgrading is hindered by a large solubility discrepancy between H₂ and carbon dioxide (CO₂). This study established a new dual-membrane aerated biofilm reactor (dMBfR) to improve the upgrading efficiency. Results showed that dMBfR operated at 1.25 atm H₂ partial pressure, 1.5 atm biogas partial pressure, and 1.0 d hydraulic retention time could significantly improve the efficiency. The maximum methane purity of 97.6%, acetate production rate of 34.5 mmol L^-1d^-1, and H₂ and CO₂ utilization ratios of 96.5% and 96.3% were achieved. Further analysis showed that the improved performances of biogas upgrading and acetate recovery were positively correlated with the total abundances of functional microorganisms. Taken together, these results suggest that the dMBfR, which facilitates the precise CO₂ and H₂ supply, is an ideal approach for efficient biological biogas upgrading.

Interactions between arsenic migration and CH4 emission in a soil bioelectrochemical system under the effect of zero-valent iron

Dissimilatory soil arsenic (As) reduction and release are driven by microbial extracellular electron transfer (EET), while reverse EET mediates soil methane (CH₄) emission. Nevertheless, the detailed biogeochemical mechanisms underlying the tight links between soil As migration and methanogenesis are unclear. This study used a bioelectrochemical-based system (BES) to explore the potential effects of zero-valent iron (ZVI) addition on "As migration-CH₄ emission" interactions from chemical and microbiological perspectives. Voltage and ZVI amendment experiments showed that dissolved As was efficiently immobilized with increased CH₄ production in the soil BES, As release and CH₄ production exhibited a high negative exponential correlation, and reductive As dissolution could be entirely inhibited in the methanogenic stage. Gene quantification and bacterial community analysis showed that in contrast to applied voltage, ZVI changed the spatial heterogeneity of the distribution of electroactive microorganisms in the BES, significantly decreasing the relative abundance of arrA and dissimilatory As/Fe-reducing bacteria (e.g., Geobacter) while increasing the abundance of aceticlastic methanogens (Methanosaeta), which then dominated CH₄ production and As immobilization after ZVI incorporation. In addition to biogeochemical activities, coprecipitation with ferric (iron) contributed 77-93% dissolved As removal under ZVI addition. This study will enhance our knowledge of the processes and microorganisms controlling soil As migration and CH₄ emission.

Coupled microscale zero valent iron-autotrophic hydrogen bacteria dechlorination system is not always superior to its standalone counterparts: A sustainable remediation perspective

The coupling of microscale zero-valent iron with autotrophic hydrogen bacteria (mZVI-AHB) are often believed to show greater potential than the single abiotic or biotic systems in remediating chlorinated aliphatic hydrocarbon-contaminated groundwater. However, our understanding of the remediation performance of this system under real field conditions, especially by incorporating the concept of sustainable remediation, remains limited. In this study, the performances of the mZVI, H₂-AHB, and mZVI-AHB systems in dechlorinating groundwater containing complex electron acceptors were compared by evaluating their removal efficiency (RE), reaction products, and electron efficiency (EE), using trichloroethylene (TCE) as the target contaminant and NO₃^- and SO₄^2- as the coexisting natural electron acceptors. Ultimately, which of these systems had TCE removal superiority was dependent on the coexisting electron acceptor. mZVI-AHB and mZVI resulted in more complete dechlorination, whereas H₂-AHB exhibited higher N₂ selectivity in reducing NO₃^-. Regardless of the coexisting electron acceptor, the mZVI-alone system showed the highest EE. Finally, the sustainability concerns and applicability of the three systems were evaluated on the basis of their TCE RE, complete dechlorination ratio, N₂ selectivity, EE, and cost, which were integrated into a comparison of overall benefits. Our findings provide comprehensive and insightful information on the factors that determine remediation scheme selection in real practice.

Synergistic effect of hydrogen and nanoscale zero-valent iron on ex-situ biogas upgrading and acetate recovery

Hydrogen (H₂) assisted ex-situ biogas upgrading and liquid chemicals production can augment the fossil fuel-dominated energy market, and alleviate CO₂-induced global warming. Recent investigations confirmed that nanoscale zero-valent iron (nZVI) enabled the enhancement of anaerobic digestion for biogas production. However, little is known about the effect of nZVI on the downstream ex-situ biogas upgrading. Herein, different levels (0 mg L^-1, 100 mg L^-1, 200 mg L^-1, 500 mg L^-1, 1000 mg L^-1, 2000 mg L^-1) of nZVI were added for H₂-assisted ex-situ biogas upgrading, to study whether nZVI could impact the biomethane purity and acetate yield for the first time. Results showed that all tested nZVI levels were favorable for biogas upgrading in the presence of H₂, the highest biomethane content (94.1 %, v/v), the CO₂ utilization ratio (95.9 %), and acetate yield (19.4 mmol L^-1) were achieved at 500 mg L^-1 nZVI, respectively. Further analysis indicated that increased biogas upgrading efficiency was related to an increase in extracellular polymeric substances, which ensures the microbial activity and stability of the ex-situ biogas upgrading. Microbial community characterization showed that the Petrimonas, Romboutsia, Acidaminococcus, and Clostridium predominated the microbiome during biogas upgrading at 500 mg L^-1 nZVI with H₂ supply. These results suggested that nZVI and H₂ contributed jointly to promoting the bioconversion of CO₂ in biogas to acetate. The findings could be helpful for paving a new way for efficient simultaneous ex-situ biogas upgrading and liquid chemicals recovery.

Roles of zero-valent iron in anaerobic digestion: Mechanisms, advances and perspectives

With the rapid growth of population and urbanization, more and more bio-wastes have been produced. Considering organics contained in bio-wastes, to recover resource from bio-wastes is of great significance, which can not only achieve the resource recycle, but also protect the environment. Anaerobic digestion (AD) has been proved as one of the most promising strategies to recover bio-energy from bio-wastes, as well as to realize the reduction of bio-wastes. However, the conventional interspecies electron transfer is sensitive to environmental shocks, such as high ammonia, organic pollutants, metal ions, etc., which lead to instability or failure of AD. The recent findings have proved that the introduction of zero-valent iron (ZVI) in AD system can significantly enhance methane production from bio-wastes. This review systematically highlighted the recent advances on the roles of ZVI in AD, including underlying mechanisms of ZVI on AD, performance enhancement of AD contributed by ZVI, and impact factors of AD regulated by ZVI. Furthermore, current limitations and outlooks have been analyzed and concluded. The roles of ZVI on underlying mechanisms in AD include regulating reaction conditions, electron transfer mode and function of microbial communities. The addition of ZVI in AD can not only enhance bio-energy recovery and toxic contaminants removal from bio-wastes, but also have the potential to buffer adverse effect caused by inhibitors. Moreover, the electron transfer modes induced by ZVI include both interspecies hydrogen transfer and direct interspecies electron transfer pathways. How to comprehensively evaluate the effects of ZVI on AD and further improve the roles of ZVI in AD is urgently needed for practical application of ZVI in AD. This review aims to provide some references for the introduction of ZVI in AD for enhancing bio-energy recovery from bio-wastes.

Mutual effects of CO2 absorption and H2-mediated electromethanogenesis triggering efficient biogas upgrading

Anaerobic digestion coupled with bioelectrochemical system (BES) is a promising approach for biogas upgrading with low energy input. However, the alkalinity generation from electromethanogenesis is invariably ignored which could serve as a potential assistant for CO₂ removal through the transformation into dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC). Herein, a novel bioelectrochemical CO₂ conversion in the methanogenic BES was proposed based on active CO₂ capture and in-situ microbial utilization. It was found that the BES using a stainless steel/carbon felt hybrid biocathode (BES-SSCF reactor) achieved a CH₄ yield of 0.33 ± 0.03 LCH₄/gCOD_removal and increased CH₄ production rate by 28.3% of BES-CF reactor at 1.0 V applied voltage. As the experiment progressed, CH₄ content increased to 93.1% and CO₂ content in the upgraded biogas maintained at below 3%. The continuous proton consumption from H₂ evolution reaction in the hybrid biocathode was capable of creating a slightly alkaline condition in the BES-SSCF reactor and thereby the CO₂ capture as bicarbonate was enhanced through endogenous alkalinity absorption. Microbial community analysis revealed that significant enrichment of Methanobacterium and Methanosarcina at the BES-SSCF cathodic biofilm was favorable for bicarbonate reduction into CH₄ via establishment of H₂-mediated electron transfer. Consequently, the remained CO₂ and DIC only accounted for 12% of total carbon in the BES-SSCF reactor and the high conversion rate of CO₂ to CH₄ (82.3%) was achieved. These results unraveled an innovative CO₂ utilization mechanism integrating CO₂ absorption with H₂-mediated electromethanogenesis.

Recovery of Iron-Dependent Autotrophic Denitrification Activity from Cell-Iron Mineral Aggregation-Induced Reversible Inhibition by Low-Intensity Ultrasonication

Iron-dependent autotrophic denitrification (IDAD) has garnered increasing interests as an efficient method for removing nitrogen from wastewater with a low carbon to nitrogen ratio. However, an inevitable deterioration of IDAD performance casts a shadow over its further development. In this work, the hidden cause for such a deterioration is uncovered, and a viable solution to this problem is provided. Batch test results reveal that the aggregation of microbial cells and iron-bearing minerals induced a cumulative and reversible inhibition on the activity of IDAD sludge. Extracellular polymeric substances were found to play a glue-like role in the cell-iron mineral aggregates, where microbial cells were caged, and their metabolisms were suppressed. Adopting low-intensity ultrasound treatment efficiently restored the IDAD activity by disintegrating such aggregates rather than stimulating the microbial metabolism. Moreover, the ultrasonication-assisted IDAD bioreactor exhibited an advantageous nitrogen removal efficiency (with a maximum enhancement of 72.3%) and operational stability compared to the control one, demonstrating a feasible strategy to achieve long-term stability of the IDAD process. Overall, this work provides a better understanding about the mechanism for the performance deterioration and a simple approach to maintain the stability of IDAD.

An integrated anaerobic digestion and microbial electrolysis system for the enhancement of methane production from organic waste: Fundamentals, innovative design and scale-up deliberation

In the foreseeable future, renewable energy generation from electromethanogenesis to be more cost-effective energy. Electromethanogenesis system is a recent and efficient CO₂ to methane technology to upgrade biogas to 100% methane for power generation. And this can be attained through by integrating anaerobic digestion with microbial electrolysis system. Microbial electrolysis system can able to support carbon reduction on cathode and oxidation on anode by CO₂ capture thereby provides more CH₄ production from an integrated anaerobic digestion system. Scale-up the recent advance technique of microbial electrolysis system in the anaerobic digestion process for 100% methane production for power generation is need of the hour. The overall objective of this review is to facilitate the recent technology of microbial electrolysis system in the anaerobic digestion process. At first, the function of electromethanogenesis system and innovative integrated design method are outlined. Secondly, different external parameters such as applied voltage, operating temperature, pH etc are examined for the significance on process optimization. Eventually, electrode selections, electrode spacing, surface chemistry and surface area are critically reviewed for the scale-up considerations of integration process.

Response of Methanogen Communities to the Elevation of Cathode Potentials in Bioelectrochemical Reactors Amended with Magnetite

Electromethanogenesis refers to the process whereby methanogens utilize current for the reduction of CO₂ to CH₄. Setting low cathode potentials is essential for this process. In this study, we tested if magnetite, an iron oxide mineral widespread in the environment, can facilitate the adaptation of methanogen communities to the elevation of cathode potentials in electrochemical reactors. Two-chamber electrochemical reactors were constructed with inoculants obtained from paddy field soil. We elevated cathode potentials stepwise from the initial -0.6 V versus the standard hydrogen electrode (SHE) to -0.5 V and then to -0.4 V over the 130 days of acclimation. Only weak current consumption and CH₄ production were observed in the bioreactors without magnetite. However, significant current consumption and CH₄ production were recorded in the magnetite bioreactors. The robustness of electroactivity of the magnetite bioreactors was not affected by the elevation of cathode potentials from -0.6 V to -0.4 V. However, the current consumption and CH₄ production were halted in the bioreactors without magnetite when the cathode potentials were elevated to -0.4 V. Methanogens related to Methanospirillum were enriched on the cathode surfaces of magnetite bioreactors at -0.4 V, while Methanosarcina relatively dominated in the bioreactors without magnetite. Methanobacterium also increased in the magnetite bioreactors but stayed off electrodes at -0.4 V. Apparently, the magnetite greatly facilitates the development of biocathodes, and it appears that with the aid of magnetite, Methanospirillum spp. can adapt to the high cathode potentials, performing efficient electromethanogenesis. IMPORTANCE Converting CO₂ to CH₄ through bioelectrochemistry is a promising approach to the development of green energy biotechnology. This process, however, requires low cathode potentials, which entails a cost. In this study, we tested if magnetite, a conductive iron mineral, can facilitate the adaptation of methanogens to the elevation of cathode potentials. In two-chamber reactors constructed by using inoculants obtained from paddy field soil, biocathodes developed robustly in the presence of magnetite, whereas only weak activities in CH₄ production and current consumption were observed in the bioreactors without magnetite. The elevation of cathode potentials did not affect the robustness of electroactivity of the magnetite bioreactors over the 130 days of acclimation. Methanospirillum strains were identified as the key methanogens associated with the cathode surfaces during the operation at high potentials. The findings reported in this study shed new light on the adaptation of methanogen communities to the elevated cathode potentials in the presence of magnetite.

Emerging bioelectrochemical technologies for biogas production and upgrading in cascading circular bioenergy systems

Biomethane is suggested as an advanced biofuel for the hard-to-abate sectors such as heavy transport. However, future systems that optimize the resource and production of biomethane have yet to be definitively defined. This paper assesses the opportunity of integrating anaerobic digestion (AD) with three emerging bioelectrochemical technologies in a circular cascading bioeconomy, including for power-to-gas AD (P2G-AD), microbial electrolysis cell AD (MEC-AD), and AD microbial electrosynthesis (AD-MES). The mass and energy flow of the three bioelectrochemical systems are compared with the conventional AD amine scrubber system depending on the availability of renewable electricity. An energy balance assessment indicates that P2G-AD, MEC-AD, and AD-MES circular cascading bioelectrochemical systems gain positive energy outputs by using electricity that would have been curtailed or constrained (equivalent to a primary energy factor of zero). This analysis of technological innovation, aids in the design of future cascading circular biosystems to produce sustainable advanced biofuels.

Hydrogen sulfide affects the performance of a methanogenic bioelectrochemical system used for biogas upgrading

Methanogenic bioelectrochemical systems (BESs) can convert carbon dioxide (CO₂) to methane (CH₄) and may be used for anaerobic digester biogas upgrading. However, the effect of hydrogen sulfide (H₂S), a common biogas component, on BES performance is unknown. Thus, the objective of this study was to assess the effect of H₂S addition to the cathode headspace on BES performance at a range of initial gas-phase H₂S concentrations (0-6% v/v), as well as its effect on the anode and cathode microbial communities. As the initial cathode headspace H₂S increased from 0 to 2% (v/v), biocathodic CH₄ production increased by two-fold to 3.56 ± 0.36 mmol/L-d, due to dissolved H₂S transport from the cathode to the anode where H₂S was oxidized. Elemental sulfur and sulfate were H₂S oxidation products detected in the anode. Above 3% initial cathode headspace H₂S, biocathodic CH₄ production declined due to inhibition. A phylotype most closely related to Methanobrevibacter arboriphilus dominated the cathode archaeal communities. In the sulfide-amended BES, a phylotype similar to the exoelectrogen Ochrobactrum anthropi was enriched in both the anode and cathode, whereas phylotypes related to sulfate-reducing and sulfur oxidizing Bacteria were detected in the bioanode. Thus, sulfide transport and oxidation in the anode play an important role in methanogenic BESs treating sulfide-bearing biogas.

Hydrogen-driven microbial biogas upgrading: Advances, challenges and solutions

As a clean and renewable energy, biogas is an important alternative to fossil fuels. However, the high carbon dioxide (CO₂) content in biogas limits its value as a fuel. 'Biogas upgrading' is an advanced process which removes CO₂ from biogas, thereby converting biogas to biomethane, which has a higher commercial value. Microbial technologies offer a sustainable and cost-effective way to upgrade biogas, removing CO₂ using hydrogen (H₂) as electron donor, generated by surplus electricity from renewable wind or solar energy. Hydrogenotrophic methanogens can be applied to convert CO₂ with H₂ to methane (CH₄), or alternatively, homoacetogens can convert both CO₂ and H₂ into value-added chemicals. Here, we comprehensively review the current state of biogas generation and utilization, and describe the advances in biological, H₂-dependent biogas upgrading technologies, with particular attention to key challenges associated with the processes, e.g., metabolic limitations, low H₂ transfer rate, and finite CO₂ conversion rate. We also highlight several new strategies for overcoming technical barriers to achieve efficient CO₂ conversion, including process optimization to eliminate metabolic limitation, novel reactor designs to improve H₂ transfer rate and utilization efficiency, and employing advanced genetic engineering tools to generate more efficient microorganisms. The insights offered in this review will promote further exploration into microbial, H₂-driven biogas upgrading, towards addressing the global energy crisis and climate change associated with use of fossil fuels.

Tetracycline inhibition and transformation in microbial fuel cell systems: Performance, transformation intermediates, and microbial community structure

Tetracycline (TC) transformation in the anode of an air cathode microbial fuel cell (MFC) and in the cathode of an MFC-Fenton system was investigated. TC at 10 mg/L in the anolyte was removed by 43-74% in 14-d cycles, mainly attributed to adsorption. The electrochemical activity, COD and acetate consumption of the anodic biofilm were inhibited by TC; inhibition was reversed when TC addition was stopped. Over 84 d of MFC operation with TC, Geobacter and Mycobacterium in the anode biofilm decreased, while Janthinobacterium and Comamonas increased. Over 99% of TC at 10-40 mg/L was removed within 8 h in the MFC-Fenton cathode. O₂^-•/HO₂• and •OH were responsible for the cathodic TC degradation. The maximum current was 0.93 mA (at 250 Ω) and increased by 36.3% by the MFC-Fenton reaction. Cathodic MFC-Fenton is an efficient and energy-saving process for TC removal, compared to slow and problematic anodic TC bio-oxidation.

The bio-chemical cycle of iron and the function induced by ZVI addition in anaerobic digestion: A review

Zero-valent iron (ZVI) is known to be an additive in facilitating waste treatment and improving biogas production in anaerobic digestion (AD) systems. This review concentrates on the chemical cycle of iron as well as the function of the iron cycle in the removal of four kinds of pollutants: organic carbon, nitrogen, sulphur and phosphorus, which are commonly encountered in waste treatment. In recent studies, the addition of ZVI to an AD system promoted the in-situ production of CH₄ from CO₂, enabling carbon capture through biotechnology. Additionally, using iron-carbon microbial electrolytic cells in AD systems in order to accelerate electron transport, as well as specific pollutant degradation mechanisms, are illustrated in the present study. Particularly, the main factors affecting the removal efficiency of contaminants in a ZVI-AD system such as pH, VFA/ Alkalinity (ALK), oxidation-reduction potential and particle size are reviewed. According to the above characteristics, combined with technical model and economic analyses, an AD system based on ZVI was considered to be an economical, efficient and carbon-neutral pollutant treatment technology. Accordingly, Iron-based AD is suggested to be a promising and sustainable approach orientated to a circular economy, which may be applied to many waste treatments fields.

Comparison of Carbon Dioxide with Anaerobic Digester Biogas as a Methanogenic Biocathode Feedstock

BES biogas upgrading studies have typically used bicarbonate or commercial gas mixtures as a biocathode substrate instead of anaerobic digester biogas. Therefore, the objective of this study was to (i) compare the performance of a methanogenic BES between CO₂-fed and biogas-fed cycles; (ii) investigate possible factors that may account for observed performance differences; and (iii) assess the performance of a biogas-fed biocathode at various applied cathode potentials. The maximum 1-d CH₄ production rate in a biogas-fed biocathode (3003 mmol/m²-d) was 350% higher than in a CO₂-fed biocathode (666 mmol/m²-d), and the biogas-fed biocathode was capable of maintaining high performance despite a variable biogas feed composition. Anode oxidation of reduced gases (e.g., CH₄ and H₂S) from biogas may theoretically contribute 4% to 35% of the total charge transfer from anode to cathode at applied cathode potentials of -0.80 to -0.55 V (vs SHE). The introduction of biogas did not significantly change the biocathode archaeal community (dominated by a Methanobrevibacter sp. phylotype), but the bacterial community shifted away from Bacteroidetes and toward Proteobacteria, which may have contributed to the improved performance of the biogas-fed system. This study shows that anaerobic digester biogas is a promising biocathode feedstock for BES biogas upgrading.

Surface Modulation and Chromium Complexation: All-in-One Solution for the Cr(VI) Sequestration with Bifunctional Molecules

The sulfidation of zero valent iron (ZVI) to an Fe@FeS_x (S-ZVI) composite has been intensively explored in the ZVI field. Yet, further benefits from the FeS_x coating layer are seldom realized, especially those effectively using its intrinsic physical and chemical properties for elaborate design. Here, we demonstrate that in a traditional Cr(VI) sequestration reaction, the FeS_x layer displays a great utility in immobilizing molecules containing hydroxyl groups (-OH) and hence, attracting Cr(VI) complexes chelated with carboxyl organics (RCOOH). Such intermolecular attraction readily promotes the diffusion of the Cr(VI) complexes to the S-ZVI surface, affording a higher reaction rate for the Cr(VI) sequestration process. In addition, the above mechanism was used to guide a rational selection of molecules incorporating both hydroxyl and carboxyl functional groups with a proper ratio and thereby, a significantly improved reaction efficiency was achieved. Furthermore, the FeS_x phase was revealed to be consumed in the reaction, acting as a supplementary reductant. This work is the first to unveil the relationship between molecules with specific functionalization and the FeS_x phase, providing a general rule in choosing appropriate reaction media for Cr(VI) sequestration and related reactions.

Methanothrix enhances biogas upgrading in microbial electrolysis cell via direct electron transfer

Bioelectrochemical conversion of CO₂ to CH₄ is a promising way to increase the calorific value of biogas produced during anaerobic digestion. There are two groups of methanogens enriched in these systems, hydrogenotrophs and acetoclastic methanogens that can also directly accept electrons from an electrode or another microorganism. In this study, a microbial electrolysis cell (MEC) poised at -500 mV (vs. SHE) was operated for biogas upgrading. Methane content in the biogas increased from 71% to >90%, and 8.2% of the CO₂ was converted to methane. Methanothrix, an acetoclastic methanogen that can participate in direct electron transfer (DET), and Azonexus, an acetate-oxidizing electrogen, were enriched on the cathode. Transcriptomics revealed that Methanothrix on the cathode were using the CO₂ reduction pathway, while Methanothrix in the bulk sludge were using the acetate decarboxylation pathway for production of methane. These results show that stimulation of DET in MEC enhances biogas-upgrading processes.

Electro-conversion of carbon dioxide (CO2) to low-carbon methane by bioelectromethanogenesis process in microbial electrolysis cells: The current status and future perspective

Given the aggravated greenhouse effect caused by CO₂ and the current energy shortage, CO₂ capture and reuse has been gaining ever-increasing concerns. Microbial Electrolysis Cells (MECs) has been considered to be a promising alternative to recycle CO₂ bioelectrochemically to low-carbon electrofuels such as CH₄ by combining electroactive microorganisms with electrochemical stimulation, enabling both CO₂ fixation and energy recovery. In spite of the numerous efforts dedicated in this field in recent years, there are still many problems that hinder CO₂ bioelectroconversion technique from the scaling-up and potential industrialization. This review comprehensively summarized the working principles, extracellular electron transfers behaviors, and the critical factors limiting the wide-spread utilization of CO₂ electromethanogenesis. Various characterization and electrochemical testing methods for helping to uncover the underlying mechanisms in CO₂ electromethanogenesis have been introduced. In addition, future research needs for pushing forward the development of MECs technology in real-world CO₂ fixation and recycling were elaborated.

Geochemical and Isotope Study of Trichloroethene Degradation in a Zero-Valent Iron Permeable Reactive Barrier: A Twenty-Two-Year Performance Evaluation

This study provides a twenty-two-year record of in situ degradation of chlorinated organic compounds by a granular iron permeable reactive barrier (PRB). Groundwater concentrations of trichloroethene (TCE) entering the PRB were as high as 10670 μg/L. Treatment efficiency ranged from 81 to >99%, and TCE concentrations from <1 μg/L to 165 μg/L were detected within and hydraulically down-gradient of the PRB. After 18 years, effluent TCE concentrations were above the maximum contaminant level (MCL) along segments of the PRB exhibiting upward trending influent TCE. Degradation products included cis-dichloroethene ( cis-DCE), vinyl chloride (VC), ethene, ethane, >C4 compounds, and possibly CO_2(aq) and methane. Abiotic patterns of TCE degradation were indicated by compound-specific stable isotope data and the distribution of degradation products. δ¹³C values of methane within and down-gradient of the PRB varied widely from -94‰ to -16‰; these values cover most of the isotopic range encountered in natural methanogenic systems. Methanogenesis is a sink for inorganic carbon in zerovalent iron PRBs that competes with carbonate mineralization, and this process is important for understanding pore-space clogging and longevity of iron-based PRBs. The carbon isotope signatures of methane and inorganic carbon were consistent with open-system behavior and 22% molar conversion of CO_2(aq) to methane.

A comprehensive comparison of five different carbon-based cathode materials in CO2 electromethanogenesis: Long-term performance, cell-electrode contact behaviors and extracellular electron transfer pathways

Each carbon-based material, due to the discrepancy in critical properties, has distinct capability to enrich electroactive microbes able to electrosynthesize methane from CO₂. To optimize electromethanogenesis process, this study physically prepared and examined several carbon-based cathode materials: carbon stick (CS), CS twined by Ti wire (CS-Ti) or covered with carbon fiber (CS-CF), graphite felt (CS-GF) and carbon cloth (CS-CC). CS-GF electrode had constantly stable methane production (75.8 mL/L/d at -0.9 V vs. Ag/AgCl) while CS-CC showed a suppressed performance over time caused by the desposition of inorganic shell. Electrode material properties affected biofilms growth, cell-electrode contact behaviors and electron exchange. Methane formation with CS-CC biocathode was H₂-concnetration dependent; CS-GF cathode possessed high antifouling properties and extensive space, enriching the microorganisms capable of catalyzing electromethanogenesis through more efficient non-H₂ route. This study re-interpreted the application potentials of carbon-based materials in CO₂ electroreduction and electrofuel recovery, providing valuable guidance for materials' selection.

Bioelectrochemically assisted anaerobic digestion system for biogas upgrading and enhanced methane production

The objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of biofilm and external voltage on the performance and microbial community composition of batch-fed, combined anaerobic digestion-bioelectrochemical cell (AD-BEC) systems under different operational conditions. A dextrin/peptone mixture was fed at a range of organic loading rates (0.34 to 1.37g COD/L-d). The hybrid system with both suspended biomass and biofilm without any external potential application achieved a substantially higher initial soluble COD consumption (53.7±2.3% vs. 39.7±3.7) and methane (CH₄) production (331 vs. 225mL) within one day of feeding than the conventional AD system (suspended biomass only). Compared to the conventional AD system, the hybrid systems had higher resilience to shock organic loadings. A range of external potential (0.5 to 2.0V vs. Ag/AgCl) was applied to AD-BEC reactors, developed with two different start-up procedures. A potential of 2.0V resulted in water electrolysis leading to a higher CH₄ production rate (105 vs. 84mL/L-d) and biogas CH₄ content (88.5±1.4 vs. 64.5±1.9%) in the AD-BEC reactor (closed vs. open circuit condition, respectively). Application of external potential enriched putative exoelectrogens at the anode biofilm and hydrogenotrophic methanogens at the cathode biofilm, which may have contributed to the observed enhanced CH₄ production in the AD-BEC system. A phylotype related to Methanobacterium formicicum, a hydrogenotrophic methanogen, dominated the archaeal community in the AD-BEC cathode biofilm.