AsChip: A High-Throughput qPCR Chip for Comprehensive Profiling of Genes Linked to Microbial Cycling of Arsenic

Hydrogeochemical differences drive distinct microbial community assembly and arsenic biotransformation in unconfined and confined groundwater of the geothermal system

High‑arsenic (As) groundwater in geothermal aquifers poses a serious threat to public health. Assembly processes governing groundwater microbial community related to As biotransformation are still unexplored in geothermal groundwater across different aquifers. To fill this gap, groundwater microorganisms, community assembly processes, and microbially metabolic coupling of carbon (C), nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), sulfur (S), and arsenic (As) were investigated in unconfined and confined groundwater in the thermal reservoirs of the Guide Basin. The difference in groundwater hydrogeochemicals led to the heterogeneity of the microbial community and microbially mediated C, N, P, S, and As cycling between unconfined and confined groundwater. Higher temperature and As concentrations, low nutrient supply, and reduced conditions in confined groundwater supported stronger interspecific coexistence and environmental selection, thus promoting the proliferation of As-resistant microorganisms (ARMs) and simplifying the community assemblage. Abundant available nutrient supply and oxidizing conditions supported an increased species diversity and metabolic functionality in unconfined groundwater. S oxidizers, C fixation, and C degradation bacteria potentially contributed to the decreased As concentrations in unconfined groundwater. However, ARMs, ammonification, and anaerobic ammonia-oxidizing bacteria potentially caused As mobilization in confined groundwater. Overall, our results give a comprehensive insight into the interaction between As and microorganisms in geothermal groundwater.

Microbial arsenic methylation in soil-water systems and its environmental significance

In this review, we have summarized the current knowledge about the environmental importance, relevance, and consequences of microbial arsenic (As) methylation in various ecosystems. In this regard, we have presented As biomethylation in terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems particularly in rice paddy soils and wetlands. The functions of As biomethylation by microbial consortia in anaerobic and aerobic conditions are extensively discussed. In addition, we have tried to explain the interconnections between As transformation and carbon (C), such as microbial degradation of organic compounds and methane (CH4) emission. These processes can cause As release because of the reduction of arsenate (As(V)) to the more mobile arsenite (As(III)) as well as As methylation and the formation of toxic trivalent methylated As species in anaerobic conditions. Furthermore, the sulfur (S) transformation can form highly toxic thiolated As species owing to its interference with As biomethylation. Besides, we have focused on many other mutual interlinks that remain elusive between As and C, including As biomethylation, thiolation, and CH4 emission, in the soil-water systems. Recent developments have clarified the significant and complex interactions between the coupled microbial process in anoxic and submerged soils. These processes, performed by little-known/unknown microbial taxa or well-known members of microbial communities with unrecognized metabolic pathways, conducted several concurrent reactions that contributed to global warming on our planet and have unfavorable impacts on water quality and human food resources. Finally, some environmental implications in rice production and arsenic removal from soil-water systems are discussed. Generally, our understanding of the ecological and metabolic evidence for the coupling and synchronous processes of As, C, and S are involved in environmental contamination-caused toxicity in human food, including high As content in rice grain, water resources, and global warming through methanogenesis elucidate combating global rice safety, drinking water, and climate changes.

High-risk ARGs (HRA) Chip: A high-throughput qPCR-based array for assessment of high-risk ARGs from the environment

The global surge in antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) presents a serious public health challenge. While methods like metagenomic analysis and qPCR arrays have been instrumental in investigating ARG distributions and dynamics, the vast diversity of ARGs often complicates effective monitoring and risk assessment. Here, we developed a High-Risk ARGs (HRA) chip based on high-capacity quantitative PCR array targeting previously identified high-risk ARGs. These ARGs are known to be prevalent in human-related environments, exhibit gene mobility, and are present in ESKAPE pathogens. The HRA chip include 101 primer sets and the 16S rRNA gene as a reference. These primer sets consist of 34 obtained from previous studies, and 67 newly designed primer sets which were validated in silico and experimentally. Absolute quantification of targeted ARGs is accomplished by generating standard curves for all ARGs with serially ten-fold diluted mixed plasmids containing targeted ARG sequences. The amplification efficiencies of all ARGs exceed 99% via plasmid template dilution tests, suggesting high reliability in quantification. The performance of HRA chip is further evaluated by practical applications in environmental samples from wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) and soils with various land use types and fertilization regimes. The results indicate the dynamics of high-risk ARGs during wastewater treatment process, and reveal the profiles of soil high-risk ARGs which is distinct from those derived via metagenomic approaches. These findings highlight the potentials of HRA Chip in the evaluation of anthropogenic impacts on the environmental resistome with a more focused spectrum of high-risk ARGs. Overall, the HRA Chip emerges as a powerful and efficient high-throughput tool for rapid detection and quantification of high-risk ARGs, facilitating comprehensive profiling of high-risk resistomes in environmental samples which is essential for human health risk assessment of ARGs.

HPB-Chip: An accurate high-throughput qPCR-based tool for rapidly profiling waterborne human pathogenic bacteria in the environment

Waterborne pathogens are threatening public health globally, but profiling multiple human pathogenic bacteria (HPBs) in various polluted environments is still a challenge due to the absence of rapid, high-throughput and accurate quantification tools. This work developed a novel chip, termed the HPB-Chip, based on high-throughput quantitative polymerase chain reactions (HT-qPCR). The HPB-Chip with 33-nL reaction volume could simultaneously complete 10,752 amplification reactions, quantifying 27 HPBs in up to 192 samples with two technical replicates (including those for generating standard curves). Specific positive bands of target genes across different species and single peak melting curves demonstrated high specificity of the HPB-Chip. The mixed plasmid serial dilution test validated its high sensitivity with the limit of quantification (LoD) of averaged 82 copies per reaction for 25 target genes. PCR amplification efficiencies and R2 coefficients of standard curves of the HPB-Chip averaged 101 % and 0.996, respectively. Moreover, a strong positive correlation (Pearson' r: 0.961-0.994, P < 0.001) of HPB concentrations (log10 copies/L) between HPB-Chip and conventional qPCR demonstrated high accuracy of the HPB-Chip. Subsequently, the HPB-Chip has been successfully applied to absolutely quantify 27 HPBs in municipal and hospital wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) after PMA treatment. A total of 17 HPBs were detected in the 6 full-scale WWTPs, with an additional 19 in the hospital WWTP. Remarkably, Acinetobacter baumannii, Legionella pneumophila, and Arcobacter butzler were present in the final effluent of each municipal WWTP. Overall, the HPB-Chip is an efficient and accurate high-throughput quantification tool to comprehensively and rapidly quantify 27 HPBs in the environment.

Geogenic high arsenic elevates the groundwater antibiotic resistomes: A blind spot of resistance in Anthropocene

Metals/metalloids, being ubiquitous in the environment, can function as a co-selective pressure on antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) threatening human health. However, the effect of geogenic arsenic (As) on groundwater antibiotic resistomes and their health risks remain largely unknown. Here, we systematically analyzed bacterial communities, pathogenic bacteria, antibiotic resistomes, and in-situ multidrug-resistant isolates with the assessment of the health risk of ARGs and the pathogenicity of their hosts in high As groundwater from the Hetao basin, Northwestern China. We found that long-term geogenic As exposure shifted the assembly of resistomes and resulted in a high abundance and diversity of ARGs in groundwater. Significantly positive associations among As, As cycling genes, ARGs, and mobile genetic elements (MGEs) revealed by network and pathway analyses, together with genetic evidence of As-tolerant multidrug-resistant isolates by whole genomic sequencing, robustly indicate the geogenic As-induced co-selection for antibiotic resistance in groundwater. Variance partitioning analysis further confirmed the determinative role of geogenic As in groundwater resistomes, with As species and As cycling genes as the core abiotic and biotic drivers, respectively. More seriously, geogenic As accelerated the prevalence of high-risk ARGs and multidrug-resistant bacteria. Our findings highlight the significance of geogenic As-induced co-selection for antibiotic resistance in groundwater and the hidden role of geogenic metals/metalloids in increasing antibiotic resistance. This study provides a basis for groundwater management of both high As and ARGs for human health.

Occurrence and spatiotemporal distribution of arsenic biotransformation genes in urban dust

Microbially-mediated arsenic biotransformation plays a pivotal role in the biogeochemical cycling of arsenic; however, the presence of arsenic biotransformation genes (ABGs) in urban dust remains unclear. To investigate the occurrence and spatiotemporal distributions of ABGs, a total of one hundred and eighteen urban dust samples were collected from different districts of Xiamen city, China in summer and winter. Although inorganic arsenic species, including arsenate [As(V)] and arsenite [As(III)], were found to be predominant, the methylated arsenicals, particularly trimethylarsine oxide [TMAs(V)O] and dimethylarsenate [DMAs(V)], were detected in urban dust. Abundant ABGs were identified in urban dust via AsChip analysis (a high-throughput qPCR chip for ABGs), of which As(III) S-adenosylmethionine methyltransferase genes (arsM), As(V) reductase genes (arsC), As(III) oxidase genes (aioA), As(III) transporter genes (arsB), and arsenic-sensing regulator genes (arsR) were the most prevalent, collectively constituting more than 90 % of ABGs in urban dust. Microbes involved in arsenic methylation were assigned to bacteria (e.g., Actinomycetes and Alphaproteobacteria), archaea (e.g., Halobacteria), and eukaryotes (e.g., Chlamydomonadaceae) in urban dust via the arsM amplicon sequencing. Temperature, a season-dependent environmental factor, profoundly affected the abundance of ABGs and the composition of microbes involved in arsenic methylation. This study provides new insights into the presence of ARGs within the urban dust.

A novel sulfidogenic process via sulfur reduction to remove arsenate in acid mine drainage: Insights into the performance and microbial mechanisms

Biological sulfidogenic processes based on sulfate-reducing bacteria (SRB) are not suitable for arsenic (As)-containing acid mine drainage (AMD) treatment because of the formation of the mobile thioarsenite during sulfate reduction. In contrast, biological sulfidogenic processes based on sulfur-reducing bacteria (S0RB) produce sulfide without pH increase, which could achieve more effective As removal than the SRB-based process. However, the reduction ability and toxicity tolerance of S0RB to As remains mysterious, which may substantially affect the practical applicability of this process when treating arsenate (As(V))-containing AMD. Thus, this study aims to develop a biological sulfur reduction process driven by S0RB, and explore its long-term performance on As(V) removal and microbial community evolution. Operating under moderately acidic conditions (pH=4.0), the presence of 10 mg/L As(V) significantly suppressed the activity of S0RB, leading to the failure of As(V) removal. Surprisingly, a drop in pH to 3.0 enhanced the tolerance of S0RB to As toxicity, allowing for efficient sulfide production (396±102 mg S/L) through sulfur reduction. Consequently, effective and stable removal of As(V) (99.9 %) was achieved, even though the sulfidogenic bacteria were exposed to high levels of As(V) (42 mg/L) in long-term trials. Spectral and spectroscopic analysis showed that As-bearing sulfide minerals were present in the bioreactor. Remarkably, the presence of As(V) induced notable changes in the microbial community composition, with Desulfurella and Clostridium identified as predominate sulfur reducers. The qPCR result further revealed an increase in the concentration of functional genes related to As transport (asrA and arsB) in the bioreactor sludge as the pH decreased from 4.0 to 3.0. This suggests the involvement of microorganisms carrying asrA and arsB in an As transport process. Furthermore, metagenomic binning demonstrated that Desulfurella contained essential genes associated with sulfur reduction and As transportation, indicating its genetic potential for sulfide production and As tolerance. In summary, this study underscores the effectiveness of the biological sulfur reduction process driven by S0RB in treating As(V)-contaminated AMD. It offers insights into the role of S0RB in remediating As contamination and provides valuable knowledge for practical applications.

Exploring ecological effects of arsenic and cadmium combined exposure on cropland soil: from multilevel organisms to soil functioning by multi-omics coupled with high-throughput quantitative PCR

Arsenic (As) and cadmium (Cd) pose potential ecological threats to cropland soils; however, few studies have investigated their combined effects on multilevel organisms and soil functioning. Here, we used collembolans and soil microbiota as test organisms to examine their responses to soil As and Cd co-contamination at the gene, individual, and community levels, respectively, and further uncovered ecological relationships between pollutants, multilevel organisms, and soil functioning. At the gene level, collembolan transcriptome revealed that elevated As concentrations stimulated As-detoxifying genes AS3MT and GST, whereas the concurrent Cd restrained GST gene expression. At the individual level, collembolan reproduction was sensitive to pollutants while collembolan survival wasn't. At the community level, significant but inconsistent correlations were observed between the biodiversity of different soil keystone microbial clusters and soil As levels. Moreover, soil functioning related to nutrient (e.g., carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, and sulfur) cycles was inhibited under As and Cd co-exposure only through the mediation of plant pathogens. Overall, these findings suggested multilevel bioindicators (i.e., AS3MT gene expression in collembolans, collembolan reproduction, and biodiversity of soil keystone microbial clusters) in cropland soils co-contaminated with As and Cd, thus improving the understanding of the ecotoxicological impact of heavy metal co-contamination on soil ecosystems.

Metabolic coupling of arsenic, carbon, nitrogen, and sulfur in high arsenic geothermal groundwater: Evidence from molecular mechanisms to community ecology

Groundwater arsenic (As) poses a global environmental problem and is regulated by complex biogeochemical processes. However, the As biogeochemistry and its metabolic coupling with carbon (C), nitrogen (N), and sulfur (S) in high As geothermal groundwater remain unclear. Here, we reported significant shifts in the geothermal groundwater microbiome and its functional ecological clusters along the flow path with increased As levels and dynamic As-C-N-S biogeochemical cycle from the Guide Basin, China. Strong associations among As(III), NH4+, HCO3-, and corresponding functional microbial taxa suggest that microbe-mediated As transformation, ammonification, and organic carbon biodegradation potentially contributed to the As mobilization in the discharge area. And As oxidizers (coupling with denitrification or carbon fixation) and S oxidizers were closely linked to the transformation of As(III) to immobile As(V) in the recharge area. Our study provides a comprehensive insight into the complex microbial As-C-N-S coupling network and its potential role in groundwater As mobilization under hydrological disturbances.

The effects of arsenic on dechlorination of trichloroethene by consortium DH: Microbial response and resistance

Inorganic arsenic and organochlorines are frequently co-occurring contaminants in anoxic groundwater environments, and the bioremediation of their composite pollution has long been a rigorous predicament. Currently, the dechlorination behaviors and stress responses of microbial dechlorination consortia to arsenic are not yet fully understood. This study assessed the reductive dechlorination performance of a Dehalococcoides-bearing microcosm DH under gradient concentrations of arsenate [As(V)] or arsenite [As(III)] and investigated the response patterns of different functional microorganisms. Our results demonstrated that although the dechlorination rates declined with increasing arsenic concentrations in both As(III/V) scenarios, the inhibitory impact was more pronounced in As(III)-amended groups compared to As(V)-amended groups. Moreover, the vinyl chloride (VC)-to-ethene step was more susceptible to arsenic exposure compared to the trichloroethene (TCE)-to-dichloroethane (DCE) step, while high levels of arsenic exposure [e.g. As(III) > 75 μM] can induce significant accumulation of VC. Functional gene variations and microbial community analyses revealed that As(III/V) affected reductive dechlorination by directly inhibiting organohalide-respiring bacteria (OHRB) and indirectly inhibiting synergistic populations such as acetogens. Metagenomic results indicated that arsenic metabolic and efflux mechanisms were identical among different Dhc strains, and variations in arsenic uptake pathways were possibly responsible for their differential responses to arsenic exposures. By comparison, fermentative bacteria showed high potential for arsenic resistance due to their inherent advantages in arsenic detoxification and efflux mechanisms. Collectively, our findings expanded the understanding of the response patterns of different functional populations to arsenic stress in the dechlorinating consortium and provided insights into modifying bioremediation strategies at co-contaminated sites for furtherance.

Impacts of biochar materials on copper speciation, bioavailability, and toxicity in chromated copper arsenate polluted soil

Trace element polluted soils pose risks to human and environmental health. Biochar can decrease trace element bioavailability in soils, but their resulting ability to reduce soil toxicity may vary significantly depending on feedstocks used, pyrolysis conditions, and the target pollutants. Chromated copper arsenate (CCA) polluted sites are common, but only very few types of biochar have been tested for these sites. Hence, we tested fourteen well-characterized biochar materials for their ability to bind Cu and reduce toxicity in a CCA polluted soil in a 56-day experiment. Biochar (1%, wt/wt) increased plant (wheat, Triticum aestivum L.) shoot and root growth by 6-58% and 0-73%, reduced soil toxicity to Arthrobacter globiformis by 7-55%, decreased bioavailable Cu (Pseudomonas fluorescens bioreporter) by 5-65%, and decreased free Cu2+ ion activities by 27-89%. The A. globiformis solid-contact test constituted a sensitive ecotoxicological endpoint and deserves further attention for assessment of soil quality. Oil seed rape straw biochar generally performed better than other tested biochar materials. Biochar performance was positively correlated with its high cation exchange capacity, multiple surface functional groups, and high nitrogen and phosphorus content. Our results pave the way for future selection of feedstocks for creation of modified biochar materials with optimal performance in CCA polluted soil.

Viability and transcriptional responses of multidrug resistant E. coli to chromium stress

The viability of multidrug resistant (MDR) bacteria in environment is critical for the spread of antimicrobial resistance. In this study, two Escherichia coli strains, MDR LM13 and susceptible ATCC25922, were used to elucidate differences in their viability and transcriptional responses to hexavalent chromium (Cr(VI)) stress. The results show that the viability of LM13 was notably higher than that of ATCC25922 under 2-20 mg/L Cr(VI) exposure with bacteriostatic rates of 3.1%-57%, respectively, for LM13 and 0.9%-93.1%, respectively, for ATCC25922. The levels of reactive oxygen species and superoxide dismutase in ATCC25922 were much higher than those in LM13 under Cr(VI) exposure. Additionally, 514 and 765 differentially expressed genes were identified from the transcriptomes of the two strains (log₂|FC| > 1, p < 0.05). Among them, 134 up-regulated genes were enriched in LM13 in response to external pressure, but only 48 genes were annotated in ATCC25922. Furthermore, the expression levels of antibiotic resistance genes, insertion sequences, DNA and RNA methyltransferases, and toxin-antitoxin systems were generally higher in LM13 than in ATCC25922. This work shows that MDR LM13 has a stronger viability under Cr(VI) stress, and therefore may promote the dissemination of MDR bacteria in environment.

Deciphering roles of microbiota in arsenic biotransformation from the earthworm gut and skin

Biotransformation mediated by microbes can affect the biogeochemical cycle of arsenic. However, arsenic biotransformation mediated by earthworm-related microorganisms has not been well explored, especially the role played by earthworm skin microbiota. Herein, we reveal the profiles of arsenic biotransformation genes (ABGs) and elucidate the microbial communities of the earthworm gut, skin, and surrounding soil from five different soil environments in China. The relative abundance of ABGs in the earthworm skin microbiota, which were dominated by genes associated with arsenate reduction and transport, was approximately three times higher than that in the surrounding soil and earthworm gut microbiota. The composition and diversity of earthworm skin microbiota differed significantly from those of the soil and earthworm gut, comprising a core bacterial community with a relative abundance of 96% Firmicutes and a fungal community with relative abundances of 50% Ascomycota and 13% Mucoromycota. In addition, stochastic processes mainly contributed to the microbial community assembly across all samples. Moreover, fungal genera such as Vishniacozyma and Oomyces were important mediators of ABGs involved in the biogeochemical cycle of arsenic. This is the first study to investigate earthworm skin as a reservoir of microbial diversity in arsenic biotransformation. Our findings broaden the current scientific knowledge of the involvement of earthworms in the arsenic biogeochemical cycle.

Co-occurrence of genes for antibiotic resistance and arsenic biotransformation in paddy soils

Paddy soils are potential hotspots of combined contamination with arsenic (As) and antibiotics, which may induce co-selection of antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) and As biotransformation genes (ABGs), resulting in dissemination of antimicrobial resistance and modification in As biogeochemical cycling. So far, little information is available for these co-selection processes and specific patterns between ABGs and ARGs in paddy soils. Here, the 16S rRNA amplicon sequencing and high-throughput quantitative PCR and network analysis were employed to investigate the dynamic response of ABGs and ARGs to As stress and manure application. The results showed that As stress increased the abundance of ARGs and mobile genetic elements (MGEs), resulting in dissemination risk of antimicrobial resistance. Manure amendment increased the abundance of ABGs, enhanced As mobilization and methylation in paddy soil, posing risk to food safety. The frequency of the co-occurrence between ABGs and ARGs, the host bacteria carrying both ARGs and ABGs were increased by As or manure treatment, and remarkably boosted in soils amended with both As and manure. Multidrug resistance genes were found to have the preference to be co-selected with ABGs, which was one of the dominant co-occurring ARGs in all treatments, and manure amendment increased the frequency of Macrolide-Lincosamide-Streptogramin B resistance (MLSB) to co-occur with ABGs. Bacillus and Clostridium of Firmicutes are the dominant host bacteria carrying both ABGs and ARGs in paddy soils. This study would extend our understanding on the co-selection between genes for antibiotics and metals, also unveil the hidden environmental effects of combined pollution.

VFG-Chip: A high-throughput qPCR microarray for profiling virulence factor genes from the environment

As zoonotic pathogens are threatening public health globally, the virulence factor genes (VFGs) they carry underlie latent risk in the environment. However, profiling VFGs in the environment is still in its infancy due to lack of efficient and reliable quantification tools. Here, we developed a novel high-throughput qPCR (HT-qPCR) chip, termed as VFG-Chip, to comprehensively quantify the abundances of targeted VFGs in the environment. A total of 96 VFGs from four bacterial pathogens including Klebsiella pneumoniae, Acinetobacter baumannii, Escherichia coli, and Salmonella enterica were targeted by 120 primer pairs, which were involved in encoding five types of virulence factors (VFs) like toxin, adherence, secretion system, immune evasion/invasion, and iron uptake. The specificity of VFG-Chip was both verified computationally and experimentally, with high identity of amplicon sequencing and melting curves analysis proving its robust capability. The VFG-Chip also displayed high sensitivity (by plasmid serial dilution test) and amplification efficiency averaging 97.7%. We successfully applied the VFG-Chip to profile the distribution of VFGs along a wastewater treatment system with 69 VFGs detected in total. Overall, the VFG-Chip provides a robust tool for comprehensively quantifying VFGs in the environment, and thus provides novel information in assessing the health risks of zoonotic pathogens in the environment.

Arsenic biotransformation genes and As transportation in soil-rice system affected by iron-oxidizing strain (Ochrobactrum sp.)

Arsenic (As) biotransformation in soil affects As biogeochemical cycling and is associated with As accumulation in rice. After inoculation with 1% iron-oxidizing bacteria (FeOB) in paddy soil, As speciation, As biotransformation genes in soil, As/Fe in Fe plaques, and As accumulation in rice were characterized. Compared with the control, the available As concentrations in soils decreased while amorphous and poorly crystalline Fe-Al oxidized As and crystalline Fe-Al oxidized As fractions increased of F (FeOB) and RF (rice and FeOB) treatments. Fe concentrations increased and positively correlated with As concentrations in Fe plaques on the rice root surface (***P < 0.001). Compared with R (rice), Monomethyl As (MMA), dimethyl As (DMA), arsenate (As(V)), and arsenite (As(III)) concentrations in rice plants showed a downwards trend of RF treatment. The As concentration in grains was below the National Standard for Food Safety (GB 2762-2017). A total of 16 As biotransformation genes in rhizosphere soils of different treatments (CK, F, R and RF were quantified by high-throughput qPCR (HT-qPCR). Compared with the control, the As(V) reduction and As transport genes abundance in other treatments increased respectively by 54.54%-69.17% and 54.63%-73.71%; the As(III) oxidation and As (de) methylation genes did not change significantly; however, several As(III) oxidation genes (aoxA, aoxB, aoxS, and arsH) increased. These results revealed that FeOB could reduce, transport As, and maybe also oxidize As. In addition, As(III) oxidation gene (aoxC) in rhizosphere soil was more abundant than in non-rhizosphere soil. It indicated that radial oxygen loss (ROL) promoted As(III) oxidation in rhizosphere soils. The results provide evidence for As biotransformation by ROL and FeOB in soil-rice system. ROL affects As oxidation and immobilization, and FeOB affects As reduction, transportation and may also affect As oxidation.

Interaction between arsenic metabolism genes and arsenic leads to a lose-lose situation

Microorganisms are essential for modifying arsenic morphology, mobility, and toxicity. Still, knowledge of the microorganisms responsible for arsenic metabolism in specific arsenic-contaminated fields, such as metallurgical plants is limited. We sampled on-field soils from three depths at 70 day intervals to explore the distribution and transformation of arsenic in the soil. Arsenic-metabolizing microorganisms were identified from the mapped gene sequences. Arsenic metabolism pathways were constructed with metagenomics and AsChip analysis (a high-throughput qPCR chip for arsenic metabolism genes). It has been shown in the result that 350 genera of arsenic-metabolizing microorganisms carrying 17 arsenic metabolism genes in field soils were identified, as relevant to arsenic reduction, arsenic methylation, arsenic respiration, and arsenic oxidation, respectively. Arsenic reduction genes were the only genes shared by the 10 high-ranking arsenic-metabolizing microorganisms. Arsenic reduction genes (arsABCDRT and acr3) accounted for 73.47%-78.11% of all arsenic metabolism genes. Such genes dominated arsenic metabolism, mediating the reduction of 14.11%-19.86% of As(V) to As(III) in 0-100 cm soils. Arsenic reduction disrupts microbial energy metabolism, DNA replication and repair and membrane transport. Arsenic reduction led to a significant decrease in the abundance of 17 arsenic metabolism genes (p < 0.0001). The critical role of arsenic-reducing microorganisms in the migration and transformation of arsenic in metallurgical field soils, was emphasized with such results. These results were of pronounced significance for understanding the transformation behavior of arsenic and the precise regulation of arsenic in field soil.

Microbial community composition in the rhizosphere of Pteris vittata and its effects on arsenic phytoremediation under a natural arsenic contamination gradient

Arsenic contamination causes numerous health problems for humans and wildlife via bioaccumulation in the food chain. Phytoremediation of arsenic-contaminated soils with the model arsenic hyperaccumulator Pteris vittata provides a promising way to reduce the risk, in which the growth and arsenic absorption ability of plants and the biotransformation of soil arsenic may be greatly affected by rhizosphere microorganisms. However, the microbial community composition in the rhizosphere of P. vittata and its functional role in arsenic phytoremediation are still poorly understood. To bridge this knowledge gap, we carried out a field investigation and pot experiment to explore the composition and functional implications of microbial communities in the rhizosphere of four P. vittata populations with a natural arsenic contamination gradient. Arsenic pollution significantly reduced bacterial and fungal diversity in the rhizosphere of P. vittata (p < 0.05) and played an important role in shaping the microbial community structure. The suitability of soil microbes for the growth of P. vittata gradually decreased following increased soil arsenic levels, as indicated by the increased abundance of pathogenic fungi and parasitic bacteria and the decrease in symbiotic fungi. The analysis of arsenic-related functional gene abundance with AsChip revealed the gradual enrichment of the microbial genes involved in As(III) oxidation, As(V) reduction, and arsenic methylation and demethylation in the rhizosphere of P. vittata following increased arsenic levels (p < 0.05). The regulation of indigenous soil microbes through the field application of fungicide, but not bactericide, significantly reduced the remediation efficiency of P. vittata grown under an arsenic contamination gradient, indicating the important role of indigenous fungal groups in the remediation of arsenic-contaminated soil. This study has important implications for the functional role and application prospects of soil microorganisms in the phytoremediation of arsenic-polluted soil.

MRG Chip: A High-Throughput qPCR-Based Tool for Assessment of the Heavy Metal(loid) Resistome

Bacterial metal detoxification mechanisms have been well studied for centuries in pure culture systems. However, profiling metal resistance determinants at the community level is still a challenge due to the lack of comprehensive and reliable quantification tools. Here, a novel high-throughput quantitative polymerase chain reaction (HT-qPCR) chip, termed the metal resistance gene (MRG) chip, has been developed for the quantification of genes involved in the homeostasis of 9 metals. The MRG chip contains 77 newly designed degenerate primer sets and 9 published primer sets covering 56 metal resistance genes. Computational evaluation of the taxonomic coverage indicated that the MRG chip had a broad coverage matching 2 kingdoms, 29 phyla, 64 classes, 130 orders, 226 families, and 382 genera. Temperature gradient PCR and HT-qPCR verified that 57 °C was the optimal annealing temperature, with amplification efficiencies of over 94% primer sets achieving 80-110%, with R² > 0.993. Both computational evaluation and the melting curve analysis of HT-qPCR validated a high specificity. The MRG chip has been successfully applied to characterize the distribution of diverse metal resistance determinants in natural and human-related environments, confirming its wide scope of application. Collectively, the MRG chip is a powerful and efficient high-throughput quantification tool for exploring the microbial metal resistome.

Effects and Mechanisms of Copper Oxide Nanoparticles with Regard to Arsenic Availability in Soil-Rice Systems: Adsorption Behavior and Microbial Response

Copper oxide nanoparticles (CuO NPs) are widely used as fungicides in agriculture. Arsenic (As) is a ubiquitous contaminant in paddy soil. The present study was focused on the adsorption behavior of CuO NPs with regard to As as well as the characteristics of the microbial community changes in As-contaminated soil-rice systems in response to CuO NPs. The study found that CuO NPs could be a temporary sink of As in soil; a high dose of CuO NPs promoted the release of As from crystalline iron oxide, which increased the As content in the liquid phase. The study also found that the As bioavailability changed significantly when the dose of CuO NPs was higher than 50 mg kg^-1 in the soil-rice system. The addition of 100 mg kg^-1 CuO NPs increased the microbial diversity and the abundance of genes involved in As cycling, decreased the abundance of Fe(III)-reducing bacteria and sulfate-reducing genes, and decreased As accumulation in grains. Treatment with 500 mg kg^-1 CuO NPs increased the abundance of Fe(III)-reducing bacteria and sulfate-reducing genes, decreased Fe plaques, and increased As accumulation in rice. The adverse effects of CuO NPs on crops and associated risks need to be considered carefully.

Inhibition of methanogenesis leads to accumulation of methylated arsenic species and enhances arsenic volatilization from rice paddy soil

Flooded soils are important environments for the biomethylation and subsequent volatilization of arsenic (As), a contaminant of global concern. Conversion of inorganic to methylated oxyarsenic species is thought to be the rate-limiting step in the production and emission of volatile (methyl)arsines. While methanogens and sulfate-reducing bacteria (SRB) have been identified as important regulators of methylated oxyarsenic concentrations in anaerobic soils, the effects of these microbial groups on biovolatilization remain unclear. Here, microcosm and batch incubation experiments with an Arkansas, USA, rice paddy soil were performed in conjunction with metabolic inhibition to test the effects of methanogenic activity on As speciation and biovolatilization. Inhibition of methanogenesis with 2-bromoethanesulfonate (BES) led to the accumulation of methylated oxyarsenic species, primarily dimethylarsinic acid (DMAs(V)), and a four-fold increase in As biovolatilization compared to a control soil. Our results support a conceptual model that methanogenic activity suppresses biovolatilization by enhancing As demethylation rates. This work refines understanding of biogeochemical processes regulating As biovolatilization in anaerobic soil environments, and extends recent insights into links between methanogenesis and As metabolism to soils from the mid-South United States rice production region.

Responses of earthworm Metaphire vulgaris gut microbiota to arsenic and nanoplastics contamination

The growing contamination of arsenic and plastics has severely effects on the soil fauna health, including shifts of gut microbiota community. A few studies have focused on effects of microplastics and metal(loid) in soil and fauna gut microbiome. However, the environmental effect of nanoplastics and arsenic on the earthworm gut microbiota, especially on arsenic biotransformation in the gut, remain largely unknown. Here, a microcosm study was performed to explore the effects of nanoplastics and arsenic on the microbiota characteristics in earthworm Metaphire vulgaris gut using Illumina high throughput sequencing, and to investigate changes in the gut microbiota-mediated arsenic biotransformation genes (ABGs) by using high-throughput quantitative PCR. Our results demonstrated that the concentration of arsenic in the earthworm body tissues after exposure to arsenic and nanoplastics was significantly lower from that with arsenic alone exposure. Moreover, the clearly different bacterial community was observed in the soil compared with the earthworm gut, which was dominated by Proteobacteria, Actinobacteria, and Firmicutes at phylum level. Arsenic exposure significantly disturbed bacterial community structure in the earthworm gut, but exposure to nanoplastics did not induce gut microbiota changes. More interestingly, nanoplastics can relieve adverse effect of arsenic on the gut microbiota possibly by adsorbing arsenic. In addition, a total of 16 ABGs were detected, and predominant genes involved in arsenic reduction and transport process were observed in the earthworm guts. In short, this study provides a new picture of the effects of nanoplastics and arsenic on the gut microbiota and arsenic biotransformation in soil fauna gut.

Global genomic analysis of microbial biotransformation of arsenic highlights the importance of arsenic methylation in environmental and human microbiomes

Arsenic is a ubiquitous toxic element, the global cycle of which is highly affected by microbial redox reactions and assimilation into organoarsenic compounds through sequential methylation reactions. While microbial biotransformation of arsenic has been studied for decades, the past years have seen the discovery of multiple new genes related to arsenic metabolism. Still, most studies focus on a small set of key genes or a small set of cultured microorganisms. Here, we leveraged the recently greatly expanded availability of microbial genomes of diverse organisms from lineages lacking cultivated representatives, including those reconstructed from metagenomes, to investigate genetic repertoires of taxonomic and environmental controls on arsenic metabolic capacities. Based on the collection of arsenic-related genes, we identified thirteen distinct metabolic guilds, four of which combine the aio and ars operons. We found that the best studied phyla have very different combinations of capacities than less well-studied phyla, including phyla lacking isolated representatives. We identified a distinct arsenic gene signature in the microbiomes of humans exposed or likely exposed to drinking water contaminated by arsenic and that arsenic methylation is important in soil and in human microbiomes. Thus, the microbiomes of humans exposed to arsenic have the potential to exacerbate arsenic toxicity. Finally, we show that machine learning can predict bacterial arsenic metabolism capacities based on their taxonomy and the environment from which they were sampled.

Arsenic bioaccumulation in the soil fauna alters its gut microbiome and microbial arsenic biotransformation capacity

The biotransformation of arsenic mediated by microorganisms plays an important role in the arsenic biogeochemical cycle. However, the fate and biotransformation of arsenic in different soil fauna gut microbiota are largely unknown. Herein the effects of arsenic contamination on five types of soil fauna were compared by examining variations in arsenic bioaccumulation, gut microbiota, and arsenic biotransformation genes (ABGs). Significant difference was observed in the arsenic bioaccumulation across several fauna body tissues, and Metaphire californica had the highest arsenic bioaccumulation, with a value of 107 ± 1.41 mg kg^-1. Arsenic exposure significantly altered overall patterns of ABGs; however, dominant genes involved in arsenic redox and other genes involved in arsenic methylation and demethylation were not significantly changed across animals. Except for M. californica, the abundance of ABGs in other animal guts firstly increased and then decreased with increasing arsenic concentrations. In addition, exposure of soil fauna to arsenic led to shifts in the unique gut-associated bacterial community, but the magnitude of these changes varied significantly across ecological groups of soil fauna. A good correlation between the gut bacterial communities and ABG profiles was observed, suggesting that gut microbiota plays important roles in the biotransformation of arsenic. Overall, these results provide a universal profiling of a microbial community capable of arsenic biotransformation in different fauna guts. Considering the global distribution of soil fauna in the terrestrial ecosystem, this finding broadens our understanding of the hidden role of soil fauna in the arsenic bioaccumulation and biogeochemical cycle.

Arsenic behavior across soil-water interfaces in paddy soils: Coupling, decoupling and speciation

The sharp redox gradient at soil-water interfaces (SWI) plays a key role in controlling arsenic (As) translocation and transformation in paddy soils. When Eh drops, As is released to porewater from solid iron (Fe) and manganese (Mn) minerals and reduced to arsenite. However, the coupling or decoupling processes operating within the redox gradient at the SWI in flooded paddy soils remain poorly constrained due to the lack of direct evidence. In this paper, we reported the mm-scale mapping of Fe, As and other associated elements across the redox gradient in the SWI of five different paddy soils. The results showed a strong positive linear relationship between dissolved Fe, Mn, As, and phosphorus (P) in 4 out of the 5 paddy soils, indicating the general coupling of these elements. However, decoupling of Fe, Mn and As was observed in one of the paddy soils. In this soil, distinct releasing profiles of Mn, As and Fe were observed, and the releasing order followed the redox ladder. Further investigation of As species showed the ratio of arsenite to total As dropped from 100% to 75.5% and then kept stable along depth of the soil profile, which indicates a dynamic equilibrium between arsenite oxidization and arsenate reduction. This study provides direct evidence of multi-elements' interaction along redox gradient of SWI in paddy soils.

Arsenic resistance in fungi conferred by extracellular bonding and vacuole-septa compartmentalization

Microbes play a crucial role in arsenic (As) biogeochemical cycling and show great potential for environmental detoxification and bioremediation. Efflux, transformation, and compartmentalization are key processes in microbial As resistance. However, organelle specific As detoxification and fate during intracellular transfer and compartmentalization is not well understood. We conducted a time course experiment (2-5 days) of the organelle separation for fungal strains to explore subcellular As distributions. After exposure to 10 mg L^-1 of arsenate (As(V)), the As accumulation among fungal organelles was generally in the order of extracellular (65 %) > cell wall (15 %) > vacuole (10 %) > other organelles (8 %). The vacuole As accounted for 55 % of the protoplast As. Extracellular bonding and vacuole compartmentalization were the main mechanisms of As resistance in the fungal strains tested. Glutathione (GSH) increases in fungal protoplast in response to As toxicity, acting as a reasonable indicator of As tolerance. Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy indicated that carboxyl and amines groups within fungal cell walls potentially bind with As preventing As influx. Further analysis using scanning transmission X-ray microscopy (STXM) identified that fungal septa besides vacuole could also immobilize As.

Recent advances in exploring the heavy metal(loid) resistant microbiome

Heavy metal(loid)s exert selective pressure on microbial communities and evolution of metal resistance determinants. Despite increasing knowledge concerning the impact of metal pollution on microbial community and ecological function, it is still a challenge to identify a consistent pattern of microbial community composition along gradients of elevated metal(loid)s in natural environments. Further, our current knowledge of the microbial metal resistome at the community level has been lagging behind compared to the state-of-the-art genetic profiling of bacterial metal resistance mechanisms in a pure culture system. This review provides an overview of the core metal resistant microbiome, development of metal resistance strategies, and potential factors driving the diversity and distribution of metal resistance determinants in natural environments. The impacts of biotic factors regulating the bacterial metal resistome are highlighted. We finally discuss the advances in multiple technologies, research challenges, and future directions to better understand the interface of the environmental microbiome with the metal resistome. This review aims to highlight the diversity and wide distribution of heavy metal(loid)s and their corresponding resistance determinants, helping to better understand the resistance strategy at the community level.

High-throughput diagnosis of human pathogens and fecal contamination in marine recreational water

Waterborne pathogens and their associated diseases are major threats to public health, and surveillance of pathogens and identification of the sources of pollution are imperative for preventing infections. However, simultaneously quantitative detection of multiple pathogens and pollution sources in water environments is the major challenge. In this study, we developed and validated a highly sensitive (mostly >80%) and highly specific (>99%) high-throughput quantitative PCR (HT-qPCR) approach, which could simultaneously quantify 68 marker genes of 33 human pathogens and 23 fecal markers of 10 hosts. The HT-qPCR approach was then successfully used to investigate pathogens and fecal pollution in marine recreational water samples of Xiamen, China. Totally, seven pathogenic marker genes were found in 13 beach bathing waters, which targeted Acanthamoeba spp., Clostridium perfringens, enteropathogenic Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Vibrio cholera/V. parahaemolyticus and Legionella spp.. Fecal markers from human and dog were the most frequently detected, indicating human and dog feces were the main contamination in the recreational waters. Nanopore sequencing of full-length 16S rRNA gene revealed that 28 potential human pathogens were detected and electrical conductivity, salinity, oxidation-reduction potential and dissolved oxygen were significantly correlated with the variation in bacterial community. Our results demonstrated that HT-qPCR approach had the potential rapid quantification of microbial contamination, providing useful data for assessment of microbial pathogen associated health risk and development of management practices to protect human health.

A review of arsenic interfacial geochemistry in groundwater and the role of organic matter

Recent discoveries on arsenic (As) biogeochemistry in aquifer-sediment system have strongly improved our understanding of As enrichment mechanisms in groundwater. We summarize here the research results since 2015 focusing on the As interfacial geochemistry including As speciation, transformation, and mobilization. We discuss the chemical extraction and speciation of As in environmental matrices, followed by As redox change and (im)mobilization in typical minerals and aquifer system. Then, the microbial-assisted reductive dissolution of Fe (hydr)oxides and As transformation and liberation are summarized from the aspects of bacterial isolates, microbial community and gene analysis by comparing As rich groundwater cases worldwide. Finally, the potential effect of organic matter on As interfacial geochemistry are addressed in the aspects of chemical interactions and microbial respiring activities for Fe and As reductive release.

Effects of Arsenic on Gut Microbiota and Its Biotransformation Genes in Earthworm Metaphire sieboldi

Arsenic biotransformation mediated by gut microbiota can affect arsenic bioavailability and microbial community. Arsenic species, arsenic biotransformation genes (ABGs), and the composition of gut microbial community were characterized after the earthworm Metaphire sieboldi was cultured in soils spiked with different arsenic concentrations. Arsenite (As(III)) was the major component in the earthworm gut, whereas arsenate (As(V)) was predominant in the soil. A total of 16 ABGs were quantified by high-throughput quantitative polymerase chain reaction (HT-qPCR). Genes involved in arsenic redox and efflux were predominant in all samples, and the abundance of ABGs involved in arsenic methylation and demethylation in the gut was very low. These results reveal that the earthworm gut can be a reservoir of microbes with the capability of reducing As(V) and extruding As(III) but with little methylation of arsenic. Moreover, gut microbial communities were dominated by Actinobacteria, Firmicutes, and Proteobacteria at the phylum level and were considerably different from those in the surrounding soil. Our work demonstrates that exposure to As(V) disturbs the gut microbiota of earthworms and provides some insights into arsenic biotransformation in the earthworm gut.