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Plewa-Tutaj K, Twarużek M, Kosicki R, Soszczyńska E. Analysis of Mycotoxins and Cytotoxicity of Airborne Molds Isolated from the Zoological Garden-Screening Research. Pathogens 2024; 13:294. [PMID: 38668249 PMCID: PMC11053870 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens13040294] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2024] [Revised: 03/28/2024] [Accepted: 03/29/2024] [Indexed: 04/29/2024] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE The objective of this paper was to assess the airborne mold contamination, secondary metabolite profiles, and cytotoxicity of the dominant fungal species isolated from the air in selected rooms at a Zoological Garden. MATERIALS AND METHODS Fungal concentrations were measured with MAS-100 air samplers. The collected airborne fungi were identified using a combination of morphological and molecular methods. The cytotoxicity of 84 strains belonging to two Penicillium and Aspergillus genera was determined using the quantitative colorimetric MTT (3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium salt) assay. The mycotoxins were detected using high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) with a mass spectrometry detector. RESULTS The ITS gene was amplified and sequenced to identify the 132 species. For mycotoxicological and cytotoxicity analyses, 52 Penicillium isolates and 32 Aspergillus representatives were selected. Cytotoxicity was confirmed in 97.6% of cases analyzed. Using the LC-MS/MS method, 42 out of 84 strains produced at least one of the following toxins: ochratoxin A, ochratoxin B, patulin, gliotoxin, roquefortine C, griseofulvin, sterigmatocystin, fumonisin B2, moniliformin, and mycophenolic acid. CONCLUSIONS Analytical methods for assessing the presence of mycotoxins in fungal isolates collected directly from the air have proven to be an effective tool. Our research provides new information on the occurrence of potentially toxin-producing molds within a zoo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kinga Plewa-Tutaj
- Department of Microbial Ecology and Acaroentomology, Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Wrocław, 51-148 Wrocław, Poland
| | - Magdalena Twarużek
- Department of Physiology and Toxicology, Faculty of Biological Sciences, Kazimierz Wielki University, 85-064 Bydgoszcz, Poland; (M.T.); (R.K.); (E.S.)
| | - Robert Kosicki
- Department of Physiology and Toxicology, Faculty of Biological Sciences, Kazimierz Wielki University, 85-064 Bydgoszcz, Poland; (M.T.); (R.K.); (E.S.)
| | - Ewelina Soszczyńska
- Department of Physiology and Toxicology, Faculty of Biological Sciences, Kazimierz Wielki University, 85-064 Bydgoszcz, Poland; (M.T.); (R.K.); (E.S.)
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Radić B, Radović R, Janić Hajnal E, Mandić A, Đekić S, Stojanović Z, Kos J. Moniliformin Occurrence in Serbian Maize over Four Years: Understanding Weather-Dependent Variability. Toxins (Basel) 2023; 15:634. [PMID: 37999497 PMCID: PMC10675640 DOI: 10.3390/toxins15110634] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2023] [Revised: 10/16/2023] [Accepted: 10/18/2023] [Indexed: 11/25/2023] Open
Abstract
Moniliformin (MON) represents one of the most widespread emerging mycotoxins, whose presence in food and feed can potentially cause harmful effects on the health of both the public and animals. In order to investigate MON occurrence, a total of four hundred (n = 400) samples of unprocessed maize were sampled from different regions (Bačka, Banat, and Srem) of Serbia during a period of four years (2018-2021) and were analyzed using a validated liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) method. The influence of regional differences and variations from year to year in terms of weather conditions on the occurrence of MON was also assessed. The obtained validation parameters indicated that the LC-MS/MS method is applicable to the determination of MON in maize samples. It can be observed from the acquired findings that all samples were contaminated with MON, while concentration levels varied between the samples, especially from different sampling years. The maize samples showed the greatest levels of MON concentration during the dry and hot climatic conditions experienced in 2021. In maize samples harvested in the period 2018-2020, the MON concentration levels detected were about two to three times lower compared to the year 2021. Additionally, a comprehensive investigation into the correlation between weather conditions and the occurrence of MON in maize grown in Serbia was undertaken by reviewing the outcomes of research undertaken in the past decade.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bojana Radić
- Institute of Food Technology in Novi Sad, University of Novi Sad, Bulevar Cara Lazara 1, 21000 Novi Sad, Serbia; (R.R.); (E.J.H.); (A.M.); (J.K.)
- Faculty of Technology Novi Sad, University of Novi Sad, Bulevar Cara Lazara 1, 21000 Novi Sad, Serbia;
| | - Radmila Radović
- Institute of Food Technology in Novi Sad, University of Novi Sad, Bulevar Cara Lazara 1, 21000 Novi Sad, Serbia; (R.R.); (E.J.H.); (A.M.); (J.K.)
| | - Elizabet Janić Hajnal
- Institute of Food Technology in Novi Sad, University of Novi Sad, Bulevar Cara Lazara 1, 21000 Novi Sad, Serbia; (R.R.); (E.J.H.); (A.M.); (J.K.)
| | - Anamarija Mandić
- Institute of Food Technology in Novi Sad, University of Novi Sad, Bulevar Cara Lazara 1, 21000 Novi Sad, Serbia; (R.R.); (E.J.H.); (A.M.); (J.K.)
| | - Sanja Đekić
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Belgrade, Sudentski Trg 12-16, 11158 Belgrade, Serbia;
| | - Zorica Stojanović
- Faculty of Technology Novi Sad, University of Novi Sad, Bulevar Cara Lazara 1, 21000 Novi Sad, Serbia;
| | - Jovana Kos
- Institute of Food Technology in Novi Sad, University of Novi Sad, Bulevar Cara Lazara 1, 21000 Novi Sad, Serbia; (R.R.); (E.J.H.); (A.M.); (J.K.)
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Electrochemistry Applied to Mycotoxin Determination in Food and Beverages. FOOD ANAL METHOD 2022. [DOI: 10.1007/s12161-022-02434-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
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Sá SVMD, Monteiro C, Fernandes JO, Pinto E, Faria MA, Cunha SC. Emerging mycotoxins in infant and children foods: A review. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 2021; 63:1707-1721. [PMID: 34486889 DOI: 10.1080/10408398.2021.1967282] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
A proper nutrition is crucial for children's healthy development. Regardless of the usual recommendations to follow a varied diet, some foods can be a source of toxic natural contaminants such as mycotoxins, potent secondary metabolites produced by filamentous fungi. In addition to the most well-known mycotoxins, many of which are subject to tight regulation regarding the maximum levels allowed in different types of food, there is a large group of mycotoxins, the so-called emerging mycotoxins, about which less knowledge has already been acquired, which have gradually been the target of interest from the scientific community due to their prevalence in most foodstuffs, particularly in cereals and cereal-based products. Alternariol and his metabolite alternariol mono-methyl ether, beauvericin, citrinin, culmorin, enniatins, ergot alkaloids, fusaproliferin, kojic acid, moniliformin, sterigmatocystin, tentoxin and tenuazonic acid are the most representative of them. The current review gathered the information of the last ten years that have been published on the levels of emerging mycotoxins in food products dedicated for infants and children. European Union countries are responsible for most of the reported studies, which showed levels that can reach hundreds of mg/kg.
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Affiliation(s)
- Soraia V M de Sá
- LAQV-REQUIMTE, Laboratory of Bromatology and Hydrology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Carolina Monteiro
- LAQV-REQUIMTE, Laboratory of Bromatology and Hydrology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - José O Fernandes
- LAQV-REQUIMTE, Laboratory of Bromatology and Hydrology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Eugénia Pinto
- Laboratory of Microbiology, Biological Sciences Department, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal.,Interdisciplinary Centre of Marine and Environmental Research (CIIMAR/CIMAR), University of Porto, Matosinhos, Portugal
| | - Miguel A Faria
- LAQV-REQUIMTE, Laboratory of Bromatology and Hydrology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Sara C Cunha
- LAQV-REQUIMTE, Laboratory of Bromatology and Hydrology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
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Guan W, You Y, Li J, Hong J, Wu H, Rao Y. Penicillic acid in fruits: method development, validation by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry and survey in southern China. JOURNAL OF THE SCIENCE OF FOOD AND AGRICULTURE 2021; 101:2779-2787. [PMID: 33140404 DOI: 10.1002/jsfa.10906] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2020] [Revised: 10/13/2020] [Accepted: 11/02/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Penicillic acid (PA) is produced by Aspergillus spp. and Penicillium spp., which are common postharvest and storage fungi of fruits. PA can be of concern for human health because of its toxicity and high fruit consumption by the population. However, no data on PA occurrence in various fruits have yet been reported. A quick, easy, cheap, effective, rugged and safe (QuEChERS) approach for PA determination in various fruits was developed and applied to explore PA incidence in fruits. RESULTS The modified QuEChERS procedure with extraction by ethyl acetate and purification by multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs), primary secondary amine (PSA) and octadecyl silane (C18) was established to determine PA in various fruits by high-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS/MS). The average recoveries were 72.9-102.2% and relative standard deviations (RSDs) were 1.3-7.9%. A total of 161 fruits samples, including kiwi, apple, peach, grape and mandarin/orange, were collected in southern China. The incidence of PA in fruits was 14.9% and the levels of PA contamination were 0.200-0.596 μg kg-1 . Our results suggested that orange/mandarin, grape and kiwi were favorable matrices for Aspergillus spp. and Penicillium spp. to produce PA, rather than peach and apple. CONCLUSION To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report about PA contamination in various fruits in China. Our study emphasizes the necessity of the current established method, which could be used for continuous monitoring of PA and reducing the health risk to Chinese consumers. © 2020 Society of Chemical Industry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenbi Guan
- School of Food and Pharmaceutical Engineering, Zhaoqing University, Zhaoqing Avenue, Duanzhou District, Zhaoqing, China
- Guangdong Engineering Technology Research Center of Food and Agricultural Product Safety Analysis and Testing, Department of Science and Technology of Guangdong Province, Zhaoqing, Guangdong Province, China
| | - Yingxin You
- School of Food and Pharmaceutical Engineering, Zhaoqing University, Zhaoqing Avenue, Duanzhou District, Zhaoqing, China
| | - Jialing Li
- School of Food and Pharmaceutical Engineering, Zhaoqing University, Zhaoqing Avenue, Duanzhou District, Zhaoqing, China
| | - Jiaying Hong
- School of Food and Pharmaceutical Engineering, Zhaoqing University, Zhaoqing Avenue, Duanzhou District, Zhaoqing, China
| | - Haiying Wu
- School of Food and Pharmaceutical Engineering, Zhaoqing University, Zhaoqing Avenue, Duanzhou District, Zhaoqing, China
| | - Yanna Rao
- School of Food and Pharmaceutical Engineering, Zhaoqing University, Zhaoqing Avenue, Duanzhou District, Zhaoqing, China
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Current role of modern chromatography and mass spectrometry in the analysis of mycotoxins in food. Trends Analyt Chem 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.trac.2020.116156] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
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First Report of the Production of Mycotoxins and Other Secondary Metabolites by Macrophomina phaseolina (Tassi) Goid. Isolates from Soybeans ( Glycine max L.) Symptomatic with Charcoal Rot Disease. J Fungi (Basel) 2020; 6:jof6040332. [PMID: 33287215 PMCID: PMC7761776 DOI: 10.3390/jof6040332] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2020] [Revised: 11/17/2020] [Accepted: 12/01/2020] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
Macrophomina phaseolina (Tassi) Goid., the causal agent of charcoal rot disease of soybean, is capable of causing disease in more than 500 other commercially important plants. This fungus produces several secondary metabolites in culture, including (-)-botryodiplodin, phaseolinone and mellein. Given that independent fungal isolates may differ in mycotoxin and secondary metabolite production, we examined a collection of 89 independent M. phaseolina isolates from soybean plants with charcoal rot disease using LC-MS/MS analysis of culture filtrates. In addition to (-)-botryodiplodin and mellein, four previously unreported metabolites were observed in >19% of cultures, including kojic acid (84.3% of cultures at 0.57–79.9 µg/L), moniliformin (61.8% of cultures at 0.011–12.9 µg/L), orsellinic acid (49.4% of cultures at 5.71–1960 µg/L) and cyclo[L-proline-L-tyrosine] (19.1% of cultures at 0.012–0.082 µg/L). In addition, nine previously unreported metabolites were observed at a substantially lower frequency (<5% of cultures), including cordycepin, emodin, endocrocin, citrinin, gliocladic acid, infectopyron, methylorsellinic acid, monocerin and N-benzoyl-L-phenylalanine. Further studies are needed to investigate the possible effects of these mycotoxins and metabolites on pathogenesis by M. phaseolina and on food and feed safety, if any of them contaminate the seeds of infected soybean plants.
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Ling S, Li X, Zhao Q, Wang R, Tan T, Wang S. Preparation of monoclonal antibody against penicillic acid (PA) and its application in the immunological detection. Food Chem 2020; 319:126505. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2020.126505] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2019] [Revised: 02/18/2020] [Accepted: 02/25/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
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Ezekiel CN, Oyedele OA, Kraak B, Ayeni KI, Sulyok M, Houbraken J, Krska R. Fungal Diversity and Mycotoxins in Low Moisture Content Ready-To-Eat Foods in Nigeria. Front Microbiol 2020; 11:615. [PMID: 32328050 PMCID: PMC7161469 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2020.00615] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2020] [Accepted: 03/19/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Low moisture content ready-to-eat foods vended in Nigerian markets could be pre-packaged or packaged at point of sale. These foods are widely and frequently consumed across Nigeria as quick foods. Despite their importance in the daily diets of Nigerians, a comprehensive study on the diversity of fungi, fungal metabolite production potential, and mycotoxin contamination in the foods has not yet been reported. Therefore, this study assessed the diversity of fungi in 70 samples of low moisture content ready-to-eat foods [cheese balls, garri (cassava-based), granola (a mix of cereals and nuts) and popcorn] in Nigeria by applying a polyphasic approach including morphological examination, genera/species-specific gene marker sequencing and secondary metabolite profiling of fungal cultures. Additionally, mycotoxin levels in the foods were determined by LC-MS/MS. Fungal strains (n = 148) were recovered only from garri. Molecular analysis of 107 representative isolates revealed 27 species belonging to 12 genera: Acremonium, Allophoma, Aspergillus, Cladosporium, Fusarium, Microdochium, Penicillium, Sarocladium, Talaromyces, and Tolypocladium in the Ascomycota, and Fomitopsis and Trametes in the Basidiomycota. To the best of our knowledge Allophoma, Fomitopsis, Microdochium, Tolypocladium, and Trametes are reported in African food for the first time. A total of 21 uncommon metabolites were found in cultures of the following species: andrastin A and sporogen AO1 in Aspergillus flavus; paspalin in A. brunneoviolaceus; lecanoic acid and rugulusovin in A. sydowii; sclerotin A in P. citrinum and Talaromyces siamensis; barceloneic acid, festuclavine, fumigaclavine, isochromophilons (IV, VI, and IX), ochrephilone, sclerotioramin, and sclerotiorin in P. sclerotium; epoxyagroclavine, infectopyron, methylorsellinic acid and trichodermamide C in P. steckii; moniliformin and sporogen AO1 in P. copticola; and aminodimethyloctadecanol in Tolypocladium. Twenty-four mycotoxins in addition to other 73 fungal and plant toxins were quantified in the foods. In garri, cheeseballs, popcorn and granola were 1, 6, 12, and 23 mycotoxins detected, respectively. Deoxynivalenol, fumonisins, moniliformin, aflatoxins and citrinin contaminated 37, 31, 31, 20, and 14% of all food samples, respectively. Overall, citrinin had the highest mean concentration of 1481 μg/kg in the foods, suggesting high citrinin exposures in the Nigerian populace. Fungal and mycotoxin contamination of the foods depend on pre-food and post-food processing practices.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chibundu N. Ezekiel
- Department of Microbiology, Babcock University, Ilishan Remo, Nigeria
- Department of Agrobiotechnology (IFA–Tulln), Institute of Bioanalytics and Agro-Metabolomics, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences Vienna (BOKU), Tulln, Austria
| | | | - Bart Kraak
- Westerdijk Fungal Biodiversity Institute, Uppsalalaan, Netherlands
| | - Kolawole I. Ayeni
- Department of Microbiology, Babcock University, Ilishan Remo, Nigeria
| | - Michael Sulyok
- Department of Agrobiotechnology (IFA–Tulln), Institute of Bioanalytics and Agro-Metabolomics, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences Vienna (BOKU), Tulln, Austria
| | - Jos Houbraken
- Westerdijk Fungal Biodiversity Institute, Uppsalalaan, Netherlands
| | - Rudolf Krska
- Department of Agrobiotechnology (IFA–Tulln), Institute of Bioanalytics and Agro-Metabolomics, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences Vienna (BOKU), Tulln, Austria
- Institute for Global Food Security, School of Biological Sciences, Queen’s University Belfast, Belfast, United Kingdom
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Cowger C, Ward TJ, Nilsson K, Arellano C, McCormick SP, Busman M. Regional and field-specific differences in Fusarium species and mycotoxins associated with blighted North Carolina wheat. Int J Food Microbiol 2020; 323:108594. [PMID: 32229393 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2020.108594] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2019] [Revised: 03/06/2020] [Accepted: 03/18/2020] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
Worldwide, while Fusarium graminearum is the main causal species of Fusarium head blight (FHB) in small-grain cereals, a diversity of FHB-causing species belonging to different species complexes has been found in most countries. In the U.S., FHB surveys have focused on the Fusarium graminearum species complex (FGSC) and the frequencies of 3-ADON, 15-ADON, and nivalenol (NIV) chemotypes. A large-scale survey was undertaken across the state of North Carolina in 2014 to explore the frequency and distribution of F. graminearum capable of producing NIV, which is not monitored at grain intake points. Symptomatic wheat spikes were sampled from 59 wheat fields in 24 counties located in three agronomic zones typical of several states east of the Appalachian Mountains: Piedmont, Coastal Plain, and Tidewater. Altogether, 2197 isolates were identified to species using DNA sequence-based methods. Surprisingly, although F. graminearum was the majority species detected, species in the Fusarium tricinctum species complex (FTSC) that produce "emerging mycotoxins" were frequent, and even dominant in some fields. The FTSC percentage was 50-100% in four fields, 30-49% in five fields, 20-29% in five fields, and < 20% in the remaining 45 fields. FTSC species were at significantly higher frequency in the Coastal Plain than in the Piedmont or Tidewater (P < .05). Moniliformin concentrations in samples ranged from 0.0 to 38.7 μg g-1. NIV producing isolates were rare statewide (2.2%), and never >12% in a single field, indicating that routine testing for NIV is probably unnecessary. The patchy distribution of FTSC species in wheat crops demonstrated the need to investigate the potential importance of their mycotoxins and the factors that allow them to sometimes outcompete trichothecene producers. An increased sampling intensity of wheat fields led to the unexpected discovery of a minority FHB-causing population.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christina Cowger
- United States Department of Agriculture-Agricultural Research Service (USDA-ARS), USA; Department of Entomology and Plant Pathology, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695, USA.
| | - Todd J Ward
- USDA-ARS, 1815 North University Street, Peoria, IL 61604, USA
| | - Kathryn Nilsson
- Department of Entomology and Plant Pathology, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695, USA
| | - Consuelo Arellano
- Department of Statistics, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695, USA
| | | | - Mark Busman
- USDA-ARS, 1815 North University Street, Peoria, IL 61604, USA
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Bertuzzi T, Rastelli S, Mulazzi A, Pietri A. LC-MS/MS and LC-UV Determination of Moniliformin by Adding Lanthanide Ions to the Mobile Phase. Toxins (Basel) 2019; 11:E570. [PMID: 31569516 PMCID: PMC6832282 DOI: 10.3390/toxins11100570] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2019] [Revised: 09/26/2019] [Accepted: 09/27/2019] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
An innovative chromatographic analysis was developed for the determination of moniliformin (MON). Because of its ionic nature, MON is weakly retained in reversed-phase chromatography and the separation may be tricky. Nevertheless, this technique is normally used either with the formation of ion pairs or employing specific RP columns for polar compounds, or combining anion exchange and hydrophobic interactions. Hydrophilic interaction chromatography (HILIC) was also used, but a non-negligible peak tailing was observed. Besides its ionic nature, MON is a di-ketone and di-ketones, mainly β-di-ketones, can easily form complexes with lanthanide ions. Then, in this work the addition of lanthanide ions to the mobile phase was investigated, aiming at improving peak shape and MON separation. La3+, Tb3+ or Eu3+ aqueous solutions were used as mobile phase and MON was chromatographed using a LC-NH2 column. The probable formation of coordination complexes lanthanide-MON in the HPLC mobile phase allowed to obtain a symmetrical peak shape and a satisfactory chromatographic separation by both mass spectrometry (MS/MS) and UV detection. Finally, a suitable extraction and purification method for MON determination in cereal samples was developed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Terenzio Bertuzzi
- Department of Animal Science, Food and Nutrition-DIANA, Faculty of Agriculture, Food and Environmental Sciences, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Via Emilia Parmense, 84-29122 Piacenza, Italy.
| | - Silvia Rastelli
- Department of Animal Science, Food and Nutrition-DIANA, Faculty of Agriculture, Food and Environmental Sciences, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Via Emilia Parmense, 84-29122 Piacenza, Italy.
| | - Annalisa Mulazzi
- Department of Animal Science, Food and Nutrition-DIANA, Faculty of Agriculture, Food and Environmental Sciences, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Via Emilia Parmense, 84-29122 Piacenza, Italy.
| | - Amedeo Pietri
- Department of Animal Science, Food and Nutrition-DIANA, Faculty of Agriculture, Food and Environmental Sciences, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Via Emilia Parmense, 84-29122 Piacenza, Italy.
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12
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Fremy JM, Alassane-Kpembi I, Oswald I, Cottrill B, Van Egmond H. A review on combined effects of moniliformin and co-occurring Fusarium toxins in farm animals. WORLD MYCOTOXIN J 2019. [DOI: 10.3920/wmj2018.2405] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Co-occurrence of mycotoxins in food and feed represents the rule rather than the exception. Information about combinatory toxic effects of co-occurring mycotoxins is scarce, in particular the effects that mixtures of mycotoxins in feed may have on farm animals. This review focusses on studies on the combined effects of moniliformin and co-occurring mycotoxins in feed on farm animals. Moniliformin is a mycotoxin of emerging scientific interest, which may co-occur with many other mycotoxins, especially Fusarium mycotoxins. Oral exposure to moniliformin reduces feed consumption and body weight gain in poultry, in pigs and catfish, and induces cardiotoxic effects and/or alterations in serum biochemical and haematological parameters. In this review only experiments comparing effects as a result of the exposure to a combination of mycotoxins with effects due to the exposure to single mycotoxins were considered. Identified published studies on combined toxicity have been limited to combinations of moniliformin with either fumonisin B1 or deoxynivalenol, and were performed with poultry, pigs, and catfish. Most of the moniliformin/fumonisin B1 investigations involved poultry and focussed on adverse effects on feed intake, weight gain and immune response, as well as organ lesions. These studies mainly reported an interactive toxicity of moniliformin and fumonisin B1 but did not allow identification of the type of interaction. Likewise, no indication could be given for the interaction detected for both mycotoxins on weight gains of catfish. For the moniliformin/deoxynivalenol combination, only one study with broiler chickens was found relevant. This study concluded additive or less than additive toxicity, using kidney lesions and renal tubular epithelial degeneration as endpoints. While possible interactions between moniliformin and fumonisin B1 or deoxynivalenol were identified, the conclusions are based on limited studies and experimental designs. Further studies on the combined toxicity of moniliformin with other mycotoxins and other animal species would be needed.
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Affiliation(s)
- J.-M. Fremy
- Retired, 10 rue Labrousse, 92160 Antony, France
| | - I. Alassane-Kpembi
- Hôpital d’Instruction des Armées – Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Cotonou Camp Guézo, Cotonou 01BP517, Benin
- Toxalim Research Center in Food Toxicology, Université de Toulouse, INRA, ENVT, INP-Purpan, UPS, 180 Chemin de Tournefeuille, 31027 Toulouse, France
| | - I.P. Oswald
- Toxalim Research Center in Food Toxicology, Université de Toulouse, INRA, ENVT, INP-Purpan, UPS, 180 Chemin de Tournefeuille, 31027 Toulouse, France
| | - B. Cottrill
- Retired, 34 Danescourt Road, Wolverhampton, WV6 9BG, United Kingdom
| | - H.P. Van Egmond
- Retired, Willem de Zwijgerlaan 17, 3722 JR, Bilthoven, the Netherlands
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Guo Z, Wang M, Wu J, Tao F, Chen Q, Wang Q, Ouyang Q, Shi J, Zou X. Quantitative assessment of zearalenone in maize using multivariate algorithms coupled to Raman spectroscopy. Food Chem 2019; 286:282-288. [PMID: 30827607 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2019.02.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2018] [Revised: 01/13/2019] [Accepted: 02/02/2019] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Zearalenone is a contaminant in food and feed products which are hazardous to humans and animals. This study explored the feasibility of the Raman rapid screening technique for zearalenone in contaminated maize. For representative Raman spectra acquisition, the ground maize samples were collected by extended sample area to avoid the adverse effect of heterogeneous component. Regression models were built with partial least squares (PLS) and compared with those built with other variable selection algorithms such as synergy interval PLS (siPLS), ant colony optimization PLS (ACO-PLS) and siPLS-ACO. SiPLS-ACO algorithm was superior to others in terms of predictive power performance for zearalenone analysis. The best model based on siPLS-ACO achieved coefficients of correlation (Rp) of 0.9260 and RMSEP of 87.9132 μg/kg in the prediction set, respectively. Raman spectroscopy combined multivariate calibration showed promising results for the rapid screening large numbers of zearalenone maize contaminations in bulk quantities without sample-extraction steps.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhiming Guo
- School of Food and Biological Engineering, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang 212013, China.
| | - Mingming Wang
- School of Food and Biological Engineering, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang 212013, China
| | - Jingzhu Wu
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Big Data Technology for Food Safety, Beijing Technology & Business University, Beijing 100048, China
| | - Feifei Tao
- Geosystems Research Institute, Mississippi State University, Building 1021, Stennis Space Center, MS 39529, USA
| | - Quansheng Chen
- School of Food and Biological Engineering, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang 212013, China
| | - Qingyan Wang
- National Engineering Research Center of Intelligent Equipment for Agriculture, Beijing 100097, China
| | - Qin Ouyang
- School of Food and Biological Engineering, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang 212013, China
| | - Jiyong Shi
- School of Food and Biological Engineering, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang 212013, China; Sino-British Joint Laboratory of Food Nondestructive Detection, Zhenjiang 212013, China
| | - Xiaobo Zou
- School of Food and Biological Engineering, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang 212013, China; Sino-British Joint Laboratory of Food Nondestructive Detection, Zhenjiang 212013, China
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14
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Radić B, Kos J, Kocić-Tanackov S, Janić-Hajnal E, Mandić A. Occurrence of moniliformin in cereals. FOOD AND FEED RESEARCH 2019. [DOI: 10.5937/ffr1902149r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/02/2022] Open
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15
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Hallas-Møller M, Nielsen KF, Frisvad JC. Secondary metabolite production by cereal-associated penicillia during cultivation on cereal grains. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2018; 102:8477-8491. [PMID: 29995241 DOI: 10.1007/s00253-018-9213-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2018] [Revised: 06/29/2018] [Accepted: 06/30/2018] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Cereals are vulnerable substrates for fungal growth and subsequent mycotoxin contamination. One of the major fungal genera to colonize the ecosystem of stored grain is Penicillium, especially species in the series of Viridicata and Verrucosa. Culturing these species on grains, we hoped to induce the production of relevant secondary metabolites produced by these fungi in the early stage of cereal breakdown. In a multivariate setup six different cereal grains (wheat, rye, barley, oat, rice, and maize), one kind of white beans, and two standard fungal media, Yeast Extract Sucrose agar (YES agar) and Czapek Yeast Autolysate agar (CYA agar), were inoculated with the ten most important cereal-associated species from Penicillium (P. aurantiogriseum, P. cyclopium, P. freii, P. melanoconidium, P. neoechinulatum, P. polonicum, P. tricolor, P. viridicatum, P. hordei, and P. verrucosum). P. nordicum is a meat-associated species, which was included due to its chemical association with P. verrucosum, in addition to see if a substrate change would alter the profile of known chemistry. We found that cereals function very well as substrates for secondary metabolite production, but did not present significantly different secondary metabolite profiles, concerning known chemistry, as compared to standard laboratory agar media. However, white beans altered the semi-quantitative secondary metabolite profiles for several species. Correlations between substrates and certain metabolites were observed, as illuminated by principal component analysis. Many bioactive secondary metabolites were observed for the first time in the analyzed fungal species, including ergot type alkaloids in P. hordei.
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Affiliation(s)
- Magnus Hallas-Møller
- Department of Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Technical University of Denmark, Kongens Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Kristian Fog Nielsen
- Department of Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Technical University of Denmark, Kongens Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Jens Christian Frisvad
- Department of Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Technical University of Denmark, Kongens Lyngby, Denmark.
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16
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Schaarschmidt S, Fauhl-Hassek C. The Fate of Mycotoxins During the Processing of Wheat for Human Consumption. Compr Rev Food Sci Food Saf 2018; 17:556-593. [PMID: 33350125 DOI: 10.1111/1541-4337.12338] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2017] [Revised: 01/07/2018] [Accepted: 01/08/2018] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
Mycotoxins are a potential health threat in cereals including wheat. In the European Union (EU), mycotoxin maximum levels are laid down for cereal raw materials and final food products. For wheat and wheat-based products, the EU maximum levels apply to deoxynivalenol (DON), zearalenone, aflatoxins, and ochratoxin A. This review provides a comprehensive overview on the different mycotoxins and their legal limits and on how processing of wheat can affect such contaminants, from raw material to highly processed final products, based on relevant scientific studies published in the literature. The potential compliance with EU maximum levels is discussed. Of the four mycotoxins regulated in wheat-based foods in the EU, most data are available for DON, whereas aflatoxins were rarely studied in the processing of wheat. Furthermore, available data on the effect of processing are outlined for mycotoxins not regulated by EU law-including modified and emerging mycotoxins-and which cover DON derivatives (DON-3-glucoside, mono-acetyl-DONs, norDONs, deepoxy-DON), nivalenol, T-2 and HT-2 toxins, enniatins, beauvericin, moniliformin, and fumonisins. The processing steps addressed in this review cover primary processing (premilling and milling operations) and secondary processing procedures (such as fermentation and thermal treatments). A special focus is on the production of baked goods, and processing factors for DON in wheat bread production were estimated. For wheat milling products derived from the endosperm and for white bread, compliance with legal requirements seems to be mostly achievable when applying good practices. In the case of wholemeal products, bran-enriched products, or high-cereal low-moisture bakery products, this appears to be challenging and improved technology and/or selection of high-quality raw materials would be required.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara Schaarschmidt
- Dept. Safety in the Food Chain, German Federal Inst. for Risk Assessment (BfR), Max-Dohrn-St. 8-10, D-10589 Berlin, Germany
| | - Carsten Fauhl-Hassek
- Dept. Safety in the Food Chain, German Federal Inst. for Risk Assessment (BfR), Max-Dohrn-St. 8-10, D-10589 Berlin, Germany
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17
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Knutsen HK, Alexander J, Barregård L, Bignami M, Brüschweiler B, Ceccatelli S, Cottrill B, Dinovi M, Grasl-Kraupp B, Hogstrand C, Hoogenboom LR, Nebbia CS, Oswald IP, Petersen A, Rose M, Roudot AC, Schwerdtle T, Vleminckx C, Vollmer G, Wallace H, De Saeger S, Eriksen GS, Farmer P, Fremy JM, Gong YY, Meyer K, Naegeli H, Parent-Massin D, van Egmond H, Altieri A, Colombo P, Eskola M, van Manen M, Edler L. Risks to human and animal health related to the presence of moniliformin in food and feed. EFSA J 2018; 16:e05082. [PMID: 32625822 PMCID: PMC7009678 DOI: 10.2903/j.efsa.2018.5082] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Moniliformin (MON) is a mycotoxin with low molecular weight primarily produced by Fusarium fungi and occurring predominantly in cereal grains. Following a request of the European Commission, the CONTAM Panel assessed the risk of MON to human and animal health related to its presence in food and feed. The limited information available on toxicity and on toxicokinetics in experimental and farm animals indicated haematotoxicity and cardiotoxicity as major adverse health effects of MON. MON causes chromosome aberrations in vitro but no in vivo genotoxicity data and no carcinogenicity data were identified. Due to the limitations in the available toxicity data, human acute or chronic health‐based guidance values (HBGV) could not be established. The margin of exposure (MOE) between the no‐observed‐adverse‐effect level (NOAEL) of 6.0 mg/kg body weight (bw) for cardiotoxicity from a subacute study in rats and the acute upper bound (UB) dietary exposure estimates ranged between 4,000 and 73,000. The MOE between the lowest benchmark dose lower confidence limit (for a 5% response ‐ BMDL05) of 0.20 mg MON/kg bw per day for haematological hazards from a 28‐day study in pigs and the chronic dietary human exposure estimates ranged between 370 and 5,000,000 for chronic dietary exposures. These MOEs indicate a low risk for human health but were associated with high uncertainty. The toxicity data available for poultry, pigs, and mink indicated a low or even negligible risk for these animals from exposure to MON in feed at the estimated exposure levels under current feeding practices. Assuming similar or lower sensitivity as for pigs, the CONTAM Panel considered a low or even negligible risk for the other animal species for which no toxicity data suitable for hazard characterisation were identified. Additional toxicity studies are needed and depending on their outcome, the collection of more occurrence data on MON in food and feed is recommended to enable a comprehensive human risk assessment.
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18
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Frisvad J. A critical review of producers of small lactone mycotoxins: patulin, penicillic acid and moniliformin. WORLD MYCOTOXIN J 2018. [DOI: 10.3920/wmj2017.2294] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
A very large number of filamentous fungi has been reported to produce the small lactone mycotoxins patulin, penicillic acid and moniliformin. Among the 167 reported fungal producers of patulin, only production by 29 species could be confirmed. Patulin is produced by 3 Aspergillus species, 3 Paecilomyces species, 22 Penicillium species from 7 sections of Penicillium, and one Xylaria species. Among 101 reported producers of penicillic acid, 48 species could produce this mycotoxin. Penicillic acid is produced by 23 species in section Aspergillus subgenus Circumdati section Circumdati, by Malbranchea aurantiaca and by 24 Penicillium species from 9 sections in Penicillium and one species that does not actually belong to Penicillium (P. megasporum). Among 40 reported producers of moniliformin, five species have been regarded as doubtful producers of this mycotoxin or are now regarded as taxonomic synonyms. Moniliformin is produced by 34 Fusarium species and one Penicillium species. All the accepted producers of patulin, penicillic acid and moniliformin were revised according to the new one fungus – one name nomenclatural system, and the most recently accepted taxonomy of the species.
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Affiliation(s)
- J.C. Frisvad
- Department of Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Technical University of Denmark, Søltofts Plads Building 221, 2800 Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark
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19
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Kalinina SA, Jagels A, Hickert S, Mauriz Marques LM, Cramer B, Humpf HU. Detection of the Cytotoxic Penitrems A-F in Cheese from the European Single Market by HPLC-MS/MS. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2018; 66:1264-1269. [PMID: 29338236 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.7b06001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Penitrems are fungal indole diterpene-derived tremorgenic secondary metabolites, which are mainly produced by Penicillium spp. Several cases of intoxications with penitrems and subsequent occurrences of penitrem A in foodstuff underline the need for reliable quantitation methods for the detection of these mycotoxins in food. In this study, a simple and fast high-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS/MS) method for the quantitative analysis of penitrems A-F in cheese was developed. Therefore, penitrems A-F were isolated from Penicillium crustosum as analytical reference standards. The analysis of 60 cheese samples from the European single market (EU) revealed the occurrence of penitrem A in 10% of the analyzed samples with an average concentration of 28.4 μg/kg and a maximum concentration of 429 μg/kg. In addition to penitrem A, other members of the group of penitrems, namely, penitrems B, C, D, E, and F, were for the first time quantitatively detected in food samples, although in lower concentrations and with lower incidence in comparison to penitrem A. Moreover, we report cytotoxic effects of all penitrems on two cell lines (HepG2 and CCF-STTG1). This clearly underlines their relevance and the importance to analyze food samples in order to get insights into the human exposure toward these mycotoxins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Svetlana A Kalinina
- Institute of Food Chemistry, Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität Münster , Corrensstraße 45, 48149 Münster, Germany
- NRW Graduate School of Chemistry , Wilhelm-Klemm-Str. 10, 48149 Münster, Germany
| | - Annika Jagels
- Institute of Food Chemistry, Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität Münster , Corrensstraße 45, 48149 Münster, Germany
| | - Sebastian Hickert
- Institute of Food Chemistry, Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität Münster , Corrensstraße 45, 48149 Münster, Germany
- NRW Graduate School of Chemistry , Wilhelm-Klemm-Str. 10, 48149 Münster, Germany
| | - Lucas M Mauriz Marques
- Department of Physics and Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences of Ribeirão Preto, University of São Paulo , Ribeirão Preto, São Paulo CEP 14049-900, Brazil
| | - Benedikt Cramer
- Institute of Food Chemistry, Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität Münster , Corrensstraße 45, 48149 Münster, Germany
| | - Hans-Ulrich Humpf
- Institute of Food Chemistry, Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität Münster , Corrensstraße 45, 48149 Münster, Germany
- NRW Graduate School of Chemistry , Wilhelm-Klemm-Str. 10, 48149 Münster, Germany
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20
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Gruber-Dorninger C, Novak B, Nagl V, Berthiller F. Emerging Mycotoxins: Beyond Traditionally Determined Food Contaminants. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2017; 65:7052-7070. [PMID: 27599910 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.6b03413] [Citation(s) in RCA: 220] [Impact Index Per Article: 31.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Modern analytical techniques can determine a multitude of fungal metabolites contaminating food and feed. In addition to known mycotoxins, for which maximum levels in food are enforced, also currently unregulated, so-called "emerging mycotoxins" were shown to occur frequently in agricultural products. The aim of this review is to critically discuss the relevance of selected emerging mycotoxins to food and feed safety. Acute and chronic toxicity as well as occurrence data are presented for enniatins, beauvericin, moniliformin, fusaproliferin, fusaric acid, culmorin, butenolide, sterigmatocystin, emodin, mycophenolic acid, alternariol, alternariol monomethyl ether, and tenuazonic acid. By far not all of the detected compounds are toxicologically relevant at their naturally occurring levels and are therefore of little or no health concern to consumers. Still, gaps in knowledge have been identified for several compounds. These gaps should be closed by the scientific community in the coming years to allow a proper risk assessment.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Barbara Novak
- BIOMIN Research Center , Technopark 1, 3430 Tulln, Austria
| | - Veronika Nagl
- BIOMIN Research Center , Technopark 1, 3430 Tulln, Austria
| | - Franz Berthiller
- Christian Doppler Laboratory for Mycotoxin Metabolism and Center for Analytical Chemistry, Department of Agrobiotechnology (IFA-Tulln), University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna (BOKU) , Konrad-Lorenz-Strasse 20, 3430 Tulln, Austria
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21
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Survey of moniliformin in wheat- and corn-based products using a straightforward analytical method. Mycotoxin Res 2017; 33:333-341. [PMID: 28791630 PMCID: PMC5644698 DOI: 10.1007/s12550-017-0287-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2017] [Revised: 07/07/2017] [Accepted: 07/11/2017] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
A straightforward analytical method was developed and validated to determine the mycotoxin moniliformin in cereal-based foods. Moniliformin is extracted with water and quantified with liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry, and its presence confirmed with liquid chromatography-Orbitrap-high-resolution mass spectrometry. The method was validated for flour, bread, pasta and maize samples in terms of linearity, matrix effect, recovery, repeatability and limit of quantification. Quantification was conducted by matrix-matched calibration. Positive samples were confirmed by standard addition. Recovery ranged from 77 to 114% and repeatability from 1 to 14%. The limit of quantification, defined as the lowest concentration tested at which the validation criteria of recovery and repeatability were fulfilled, was 10 μg/kg. The method was applied to 102 cereal-based food samples collected in the Netherlands and Germany. Moniliformin was not detected in bread samples. One of 22 flour samples contained moniliformin at 10.6 μg/kg. Moniliformin occurred in seven out of 25 pasta samples at levels around 10 μg/kg. Moniliformin (MON) was present in eight out of 23 maize products at levels ranging from 12 to 207 μg/kg.
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22
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Fraeyman S, Croubels S, Devreese M, Antonissen G. Emerging Fusarium and Alternaria Mycotoxins: Occurrence, Toxicity and Toxicokinetics. Toxins (Basel) 2017; 9:toxins9070228. [PMID: 28718805 PMCID: PMC5535175 DOI: 10.3390/toxins9070228] [Citation(s) in RCA: 178] [Impact Index Per Article: 25.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2017] [Accepted: 07/15/2017] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Emerging Fusarium and Alternaria mycotoxins gain more and more interest due to their frequent contamination of food and feed, although in vivo toxicity and toxicokinetic data are limited. Whereas the Fusarium mycotoxins beauvericin, moniliformin and enniatins particularly contaminate grain and grain-based products, Alternaria mycotoxins are also detected in fruits, vegetables and wines. Although contamination levels are usually low (µg/kg range), higher contamination levels of enniatins and tenuazonic acid may occasionally occur. In vitro studies suggest genotoxic effects of enniatins A, A1 and B1, beauvericin, moniliformin, alternariol, alternariol monomethyl ether, altertoxins and stemphyltoxin-III. Furthermore, in vitro studies suggest immunomodulating effects of most emerging toxins and a reproductive health hazard of alternariol, beauvericin and enniatin B. More in vivo toxicity data on the individual and combined effects of these contaminants on reproductive and immune system in both humans and animals is needed to update the risk evaluation by the European Food Safety Authority. Taking into account new occurrence data for tenuazonic acid, the complete oral bioavailability, the low total body clearance in pigs and broiler chickens and the limited toxicity data, a health risk cannot be completely excluded. Besides, some less known Alternaria toxins, especially the genotoxic altertoxins and stemphyltoxin III, should be incorporated in risk evaluation as well.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sophie Fraeyman
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Biochemistry, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, 9820 Merelbeke, Belgium.
| | - Siska Croubels
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Biochemistry, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, 9820 Merelbeke, Belgium.
| | - Mathias Devreese
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Biochemistry, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, 9820 Merelbeke, Belgium.
| | - Gunther Antonissen
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Biochemistry, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, 9820 Merelbeke, Belgium.
- Department of Pathology, Bacteriology and Avian Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, 9820 Merelbeke, Belgium.
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