1
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Hewitt S, Aragon M, Ashmore PL, Collins TS, Dhingra A. Transcriptome analysis reveals activation of detoxification and defense mechanisms in smoke-exposed Merlot grape (Vitis vinifera) berries. Sci Rep 2024; 14:21330. [PMID: 39266584 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-024-72079-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2024] [Accepted: 09/03/2024] [Indexed: 09/14/2024] Open
Abstract
A significant consequence of climate change is the rising incidence of wildfires. When wildfires occur close to wine grape (Vitis vinifera) production areas, smoke-derived volatile phenolic compounds can be taken up by the grape berries, negatively affecting the flavor and aroma profile of the resulting wine and compromising the production value of entire vineyards. Evidence for the permeation of smoke-associated compounds into grape berries has been provided through metabolomics; however, the basis for grapevines' response to smoke at the gene expression level has not been investigated in detail. To address this knowledge gap, we employed time-course RNA sequencing to observe gene expression-level changes in grape berries in response to smoke exposure. Significant increases in gene expression (and enrichment of gene ontologies) associated with detoxification of reactive compounds, maintenance of redox homeostasis, and cell wall fortification were observed in response to smoke. These findings suggest that the accumulation of volatile phenols from smoke exposure activates mechanisms that render smoke-derived compounds less reactive while simultaneously fortifying intracellular defense mechanisms. The results of this work lend a better understanding of the molecular basis for grapevines' response to smoke and provide insight into the origins of smoke-taint-associated flavor and aroma attributes in wine produced from smoke-exposed grapes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Seanna Hewitt
- Department of Horticultural Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, USA
| | - Mackenzie Aragon
- Department of Viticulture and Enology, Washington State University, Richland, WA, 99354, USA
| | - P Layton Ashmore
- Department of Viticulture and Enology, Washington State University, Richland, WA, 99354, USA
| | - Thomas S Collins
- Department of Viticulture and Enology, Washington State University, Richland, WA, 99354, USA
| | - Amit Dhingra
- Department of Horticultural Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, USA.
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2
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Cui Y, Riley M, Moreno MV, Cepeda MM, Perez IA, Wen Y, Lim LX, Andre E, Nguyen A, Liu C, Lerno L, Nichols PK, Schmitz H, Tagkopoulos I, Kennedy JA, Oberholster A, Siegel JB. Discovery of Potent Glycosidases Enables Quantification of Smoke-Derived Phenolic Glycosides through Enzymatic Hydrolysis. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2024; 72:11617-11628. [PMID: 38728580 PMCID: PMC11117406 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.4c01247] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2024] [Revised: 04/12/2024] [Accepted: 04/16/2024] [Indexed: 05/12/2024]
Abstract
When grapes are exposed to wildfire smoke, certain smoke-related volatile phenols (VPs) can be absorbed into the fruit, where they can be then converted into volatile-phenol (VP) glycosides through glycosylation. These volatile-phenol glycosides can be particularly problematic from a winemaking standpoint as they can be hydrolyzed, releasing volatile phenols, which can contribute to smoke-related off-flavors. Current methods for quantitating these volatile-phenol glycosides present several challenges, including the requirement of expensive capital equipment, limited accuracy due to the molecular complexity of the glycosides, and the utilization of harsh reagents. To address these challenges, we proposed an enzymatic hydrolysis method enabled by a tailored enzyme cocktail of novel glycosidases discovered through genome mining, and the generated VPs from VP glycosides can be quantitated by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). The enzyme cocktails displayed high activities and a broad substrate scope when using commercially available VP glycosides as the substrates for testing. When evaluated in an industrially relevant matrix of Cabernet Sauvignon wine and grapes, this enzymatic cocktail consistently achieved a comparable efficacy of acid hydrolysis. The proposed method offers a simple, safe, and affordable option for smoke taint analysis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Youtian Cui
- Genome
Center, University of California, Davis, California 95616, United States
- VinZymes,
LLC, Davis, California 95616, United States
| | - Mary Riley
- Genome
Center, University of California, Davis, California 95616, United States
- Microbiology
Graduate Group, University of California, Davis, California 95616, United States
| | - Marcus V. Moreno
- Genome
Center, University of California, Davis, California 95616, United States
| | - Mateo M. Cepeda
- Department
of Chemistry, University of California, Davis, California 95616, United States
| | - Ignacio Arias Perez
- Department
of Viticulture & Enology, University
of California, Davis, California 95616, United States
| | - Yan Wen
- Department
of Viticulture & Enology, University
of California, Davis, California 95616, United States
| | - Lik Xian Lim
- Department
of Food Science & Technology, University
of California, Davis, California 95616, United States
- UC Davis
Coffee Center, University of California, Davis, California 95616, United States
| | - Eric Andre
- Genome
Center, University of California, Davis, California 95616, United States
| | - An Nguyen
- Genome
Center, University of California, Davis, California 95616, United States
| | - Cody Liu
- Genome
Center, University of California, Davis, California 95616, United States
| | - Larry Lerno
- Department
of Viticulture & Enology, University
of California, Davis, California 95616, United States
- Food
Safety and Measurement Facility, University
of California, Davis, California 95616, United States
| | | | - Harold Schmitz
- March
Capital US, LLC, Davis, California 95616, United States
- T.O.P.,
LLC, Davis, California 95616, United States
- Graduate School of Management, University
of California, Davis, California 95616, United States
| | - Ilias Tagkopoulos
- Genome
Center, University of California, Davis, California 95616, United States
- Department of Computer Science, USDA/NSF
AI Institute for Next Generation
Food Systems (AIFS), University of California, Davis, California 95616, United States
- PIPA, LLC, Davis, California 95616, United States
| | | | - Anita Oberholster
- Department
of Viticulture & Enology, University
of California, Davis, California 95616, United States
| | - Justin B. Siegel
- Genome
Center, University of California, Davis, California 95616, United States
- Microbiology
Graduate Group, University of California, Davis, California 95616, United States
- Department
of Chemistry, University of California, Davis, California 95616, United States
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular
Medicine, University of California, Davis, California 95616, United States
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3
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Yang W, Zheng Z, Shi Y, Reynolds AG, Duan C, Lan Y. Volatile phenols in wine: overview of origin, formation, analysis, and sensory expression. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 2024:1-26. [PMID: 38766770 DOI: 10.1080/10408398.2024.2354526] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/22/2024]
Abstract
Volatile phenols impart particular aromas to wine. Due to their distinctive aroma characteristics and low sensory thresholds, volatile phenols can easily influence and modify the aroma of wine. Since these compounds can be formed in wines in various ways, it is necessary to clarify the possible sources of each volatile phenol to achieve management during the winemaking process. The sources of volatile phenols in wine are divided into berry-derived, fermentation-derived, and oak-derived. The pathways and factors influencing the formation of volatile phenols from each source are then reviewed respectively. In addition, an overview of the sensory impact of volatile phenols is given, both in terms of the aroma these volatile phenols directly bring to the wine and their contribution through aroma interactions. Finally, as an essential basis for exploring the scientific problems of volatile phenols in wine, approaches to quantitation of volatile phenols and their precursors are discussed in detail. With the advancement of analytical techniques, more details on volatile phenols have been discovered. Further exploration is worthwhile to achieve more detailed monitoring and targeted management of volatile phenols in wine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Weixi Yang
- Center for Viticulture and Enology, College of Food Science & Nutritional Engineering, China Agricultural University, Beijing, China
- Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Key Laboratory of Viticulture and Enology, Beijing, China
| | - Ziang Zheng
- Center for Viticulture and Enology, College of Food Science & Nutritional Engineering, China Agricultural University, Beijing, China
- Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Key Laboratory of Viticulture and Enology, Beijing, China
| | - Ying Shi
- Center for Viticulture and Enology, College of Food Science & Nutritional Engineering, China Agricultural University, Beijing, China
- Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Key Laboratory of Viticulture and Enology, Beijing, China
| | | | - Changqing Duan
- Center for Viticulture and Enology, College of Food Science & Nutritional Engineering, China Agricultural University, Beijing, China
- Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Key Laboratory of Viticulture and Enology, Beijing, China
| | - Yibin Lan
- Center for Viticulture and Enology, College of Food Science & Nutritional Engineering, China Agricultural University, Beijing, China
- Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Key Laboratory of Viticulture and Enology, Beijing, China
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4
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Yang W, You Y, Ling M, Ye D, Shi Y, Duan C, Lan Y. Identification of the key odor-active compounds responsible for varietal smoky aroma in wines made from the East Asian species. Food Res Int 2023; 171:113052. [PMID: 37330853 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodres.2023.113052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2023] [Revised: 05/23/2023] [Accepted: 05/24/2023] [Indexed: 06/19/2023]
Abstract
A smoky aroma was found in wines made from East Asian species that had not been treated with oak products or exposed to smoke. In this study, a combined method of sensory analysis and quantitation of aroma compounds was used to identify the chemical basis of this smoky aroma. Syringol, eugenol, 4-ethylguaiacol, and 4-ethylphenol were confirmed as the key odor-active compounds contributing to the varietal smoky notes in wines of East Asian species. The concentrations of these compounds showed significant variation between grape species. The highest levels of syringol were found in Vitis amurensis wines, with an average of 178.8 μg/L. The average concentration of eugenol in V. davidii wines was 101.5 μg/L, about 10 times higher than in other species. 4-Ethylphenol and 4-ethylguaiacol were both abundant in the wines of the East Asian species. The results of the sensory interaction between the four compounds showed a complete addition effect for eugenol, a partial addition effect for syringol, and a hyper-addition effect for 4-ethylguaiacol and 4-ethylphenol on the smoky attribute.
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Affiliation(s)
- Weixi Yang
- Center for Viticulture and Enology, College of Food Science & Nutritional Engineering, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100083, China; Key Laboratory of Viticulture and Enology, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Beijing 100083, China
| | - Yunzhu You
- Center for Viticulture and Enology, College of Food Science & Nutritional Engineering, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100083, China; Key Laboratory of Viticulture and Enology, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Beijing 100083, China
| | - Mengqi Ling
- Center for Viticulture and Enology, College of Food Science & Nutritional Engineering, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100083, China; Key Laboratory of Viticulture and Enology, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Beijing 100083, China
| | - Dongqing Ye
- Guangxi Key Laboratory of Fruits and Vegetables Storage-Processing Technology, Guangxi Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Nanning 530007, Guangxi, China
| | - Ying Shi
- Center for Viticulture and Enology, College of Food Science & Nutritional Engineering, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100083, China; Key Laboratory of Viticulture and Enology, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Beijing 100083, China
| | - Changqing Duan
- Center for Viticulture and Enology, College of Food Science & Nutritional Engineering, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100083, China; Key Laboratory of Viticulture and Enology, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Beijing 100083, China
| | - Yibin Lan
- Center for Viticulture and Enology, College of Food Science & Nutritional Engineering, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100083, China; Key Laboratory of Viticulture and Enology, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Beijing 100083, China.
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5
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Crews P, Dorenbach P, Amberchan G, Keiffer RF, Lizama-Chamu I, Ruthenburg TC, McCauley EP, McGourty G. Natural Product Phenolic Diglycosides Created from Wildfires, Defining Their Impact on California and Oregon Grapes and Wines. JOURNAL OF NATURAL PRODUCTS 2022; 85:547-561. [PMID: 35239347 PMCID: PMC8961875 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jnatprod.2c00028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2022] [Indexed: 05/08/2023]
Abstract
Forest fires produce malodorous phenols, bioaccumulated in grapes as odorless phenol glycosides (mono- to tri-), and produce unpleasant smoke tainted wines when these complexes are transformed by glycosidases in saliva. Metabolomic analyses were used to further understand smoke taint by quantitating marker phenolic diglycosides via UHPLC separations and MS/MS multiple reaction monitoring. A collection of grapes and wines provided data to forecast wine quality of grapes subjected to wildfire smoke infestations; the analytics used a panel of reference compounds (1-6). Overall, eight different Vitis vinifera varietals were examined from 2017-2021 vintages involving >218 distinct samples (wines and/or grapes) from 21 different American Viticulture Areas. Results acquired allowed correlation of phenolic diglycoside levels as a function of grape cultivar, varietal clones, and intensity of wildfire smoke. Baseline data were tabulated for nonsmoked samples (especially, Cabernet Sauvignon having a sum 1-6 of <6 μg/L) and then compared to those exposed to six other levels of smoke. Outcomes established that (1) analyzing paired samples (bottled wines versus smoke-exposed grapes) can provide diagnostic metabolomic data, (2) phenolic diglycosides are stable in wines aged for >2.5 years, and (3) major gaps exist in our current understanding of this pool of metabolites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Phillip Crews
- Department
of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University
of California, Santa
Cruz, California 95064, United States
| | - Paul Dorenbach
- SC
Laboratories Inc, Santa Cruz, California 95060, United States
| | - Gabriella Amberchan
- Department
of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University
of California, Santa
Cruz, California 95064, United States
| | - Ryan F. Keiffer
- University
of California Cooperative Extension, Mendocino County, Ukiah, California 95482, United States
| | - Itzel Lizama-Chamu
- Department
of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University
of California, Santa
Cruz, California 95064, United States
| | | | - Erin P. McCauley
- Department
of Chemistry and Biochemistry, California
State University−Dominguez Hills, Carson, California 90747, United States
| | - Glenn McGourty
- University
of California Cooperative Extension, Mendocino County, Ukiah, California 95482, United States
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6
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Szeto C, Ristic R, Wilkinson K. Thinking Inside the Box: A Novel Approach to Smoke Taint Mitigation Trials. MOLECULES (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2022; 27:molecules27051667. [PMID: 35268767 PMCID: PMC8911903 DOI: 10.3390/molecules27051667] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2022] [Revised: 02/21/2022] [Accepted: 03/01/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
When bushfires occur near wine regions, grapevine exposure to smoke can taint grapes due to the uptake of smoke-derived volatile compounds that can subsequently impart unpleasant smoky, medicinal, burnt rubber and ashy characters to wine. Whereas early research sought to understand the effects of smoke on grapevine physiology, and grape and wine chemistry, research efforts have shifted towards the strategic imperative for effective mitigation strategies. This study evaluated the extent to which excised grape bunches could be reproducibly tainted during smoke exposure in a purpose-built ‘smoke box’. The volatile phenol composition of grapes exposed to smoke for 30 min was similar to that of smoke-affected grapes from field trials involving grapevine exposure to smoke. Some variation was observed between replicate smoke treatments, but implementing appropriate controls and experimental replication enabled the smoke box to be used to successfully evaluate the efficacy of several agrochemical sprays and protective coverings as methods for mitigating the smoke exposure of grapes. Whereas the agrochemical sprays did not provide effective protection from smoke, enclosing grape bunches in activated carbon fabric prevented the uptake of up to 98% of the smoke-derived volatile phenols observed in smoke-affected grapes. As such, the study demonstrated not only a convenient, efficient approach to smoke taint research that overcomes the constraints associated with vineyard-based field trials, but also a promising new strategy for preventing smoke taint.
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Affiliation(s)
- Colleen Szeto
- Department of Wine Science, Waite Research Institute, The University of Adelaide, PMB 1, Glen Osmond, SA 5064, Australia; (C.S.); (R.R.)
- The Australian Research Council Training Centre for Innovative Wine Production, PMB 1, Glen Osmond, SA 5064, Australia
| | - Renata Ristic
- Department of Wine Science, Waite Research Institute, The University of Adelaide, PMB 1, Glen Osmond, SA 5064, Australia; (C.S.); (R.R.)
| | - Kerry Wilkinson
- Department of Wine Science, Waite Research Institute, The University of Adelaide, PMB 1, Glen Osmond, SA 5064, Australia; (C.S.); (R.R.)
- The Australian Research Council Training Centre for Innovative Wine Production, PMB 1, Glen Osmond, SA 5064, Australia
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +61-8-8313-7360
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7
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Culbert JA, Jiang W, Bilogrevic E, Likos D, Francis IL, Krstic MP, Herderich MJ. Compositional Changes in Smoke-Affected Grape Juice as a Consequence of Activated Carbon Treatment and the Impact on Phenolic Compounds and Smoke Flavor in Wine. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2021; 69:10246-10259. [PMID: 34428045 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.1c02642] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
An increase in bushfires and wildfires globally and consequent smoke exposure of grapevines has seen an elevated need for remediation options to manage the impact of smoke taint in the wine industry. Two commercially available activated carbons (PS1300 and CASPF) were evaluated at 1, 2, and 4 g/L with juice from smoke-affected Pinot Noir and Chardonnay grapes. PS1300 and CASPF treatments removed up to 75 and 92% of the phenolic glycosides in the smoke-affected Pinot Noir rosé juice, respectively, and both carbons removed virtually all (i.e., 98-99%) of the phenolic glycosides in the smoke-affected Chardonnay juice at the highest dose rate (4 g/L). The free volatile phenols in the wines were similarly lower in concentration following treatment. Sensory analysis confirmed that the wines made from carbon fined juice had reduced smoke aroma and flavor compared to those from the nontreated controls. However, desirable sensory properties such as color and fruity attributes were also negatively affected by the treatment. The dose rate should be optimized in industry practice to find a balance between reducing the intensity of smoke-related sensory attributes while maintaining or enhancing positive attributes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julie A Culbert
- The Australian Wine Research Institute, P.O. Box 197, Glen Osmond, SA 5064, Australia
| | - WenWen Jiang
- The Australian Wine Research Institute, P.O. Box 197, Glen Osmond, SA 5064, Australia
| | - Eleanor Bilogrevic
- The Australian Wine Research Institute, P.O. Box 197, Glen Osmond, SA 5064, Australia
| | - Desireé Likos
- The Australian Wine Research Institute, P.O. Box 197, Glen Osmond, SA 5064, Australia
| | - I Leigh Francis
- The Australian Wine Research Institute, P.O. Box 197, Glen Osmond, SA 5064, Australia
| | - Mark P Krstic
- The Australian Wine Research Institute, P.O. Box 197, Glen Osmond, SA 5064, Australia
| | - Markus J Herderich
- The Australian Wine Research Institute, P.O. Box 197, Glen Osmond, SA 5064, Australia
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8
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Glycosylation of Volatile Phenols in Grapes following Pre-Harvest (On-Vine) vs. Post-Harvest (Off-Vine) Exposure to Smoke. Molecules 2021; 26:molecules26175277. [PMID: 34500710 PMCID: PMC8433723 DOI: 10.3390/molecules26175277] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2021] [Revised: 08/18/2021] [Accepted: 08/27/2021] [Indexed: 12/01/2022] Open
Abstract
Taint in grapes and wine following vineyard exposure to bushfire smoke continues to challenge the financial viability of grape and wine producers worldwide. In response, researchers are studying the chemical, sensory and physiological consequences of grapevine smoke exposure. However, studies involving winemaking trials are often limited by the availability of suitable quantities of smoke-affected grapes, either from vineyards exposed to smoke or from field trials involving the application of smoke to grapevines. This study compared the accumulation of volatile phenol glycosides (as compositional markers of smoke taint) in Viognier and Cabernet Sauvignon grapes exposed to smoke pre- vs. post-harvest, and found post-harvest smoke exposure of fruit gave similar levels of volatile phenol glycosides to fruit exposed to smoke pre-harvest. Furthermore, wines made from smoke-affected fruit contained similar levels of smoke-derived volatile phenols and their glycosides, irrespective of whether smoke exposure occurred pre- vs. post-harvest. Post-harvest smoke exposure therefore provides a valid approach to generating smoke-affected grapes in the quantities needed for winemaking trials and/or trials that employ both chemical and sensory analysis of wine.
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9
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Favell JW, Fordwour OB, Morgan SC, Zigg I, Zandberg WF. Large-Scale Reassessment of In-Vineyard Smoke-Taint Grapevine Protection Strategies and the Development of Predictive Off-Vine Models. Molecules 2021; 26:molecules26144311. [PMID: 34299585 PMCID: PMC8307127 DOI: 10.3390/molecules26144311] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2021] [Revised: 07/08/2021] [Accepted: 07/12/2021] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Smoke taint in wine is thought to be caused by smoke-derived volatile phenols (VPs) that are absorbed into grape tissues, trapped as conjugates that are imperceptible by smell, and subsequently released into wines as their free odor-active forms via metabolism by yeasts during fermentation. Blocking VP uptake into grapes would, therefore, be an effective way for vineyards to protect ripening grape crops exposed to smoke. Here, we re-evaluated a biofilm that had previously shown promise in pilot studies in reducing levels of smoke-derived VPs. A suite of nine free and acid-labile VPs were quantitated in Pinot Noir grapes that had been exposed to smoke after being coated with the biofilm one, seven or 14 days earlier. In contrast with earlier studies, our results demonstrated that in all cases, the biofilm treatments led to increased concentrations of both free and total VPs in smoke-exposed grapes, with earlier applications elevating concentrations of some VPs more than the later time points. Tracking VP concentrations through the grape ripening process demonstrated that some (phenol, p/m-cresol, and guaiacol) were not entirely sequestered in grapes as acid-labile conjugates, suggesting the presence of VP storage forms beyond simple glycosides. Free VPs in grapes, though a minor portion of the total, most clearly correlated with concentrations present in the resulting wines. Finally, red table grapes, available year round, were observed to replicate the effects of the biofilm treatments and were capable of transforming most VPs into acid-labile conjugates in under 24 h, indicating that they might be an effective model for rapidly assessing smoke-taint prophylactic products in the laboratory.
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Affiliation(s)
- James W. Favell
- Department of Chemistry, The University of British Columbia, 3247 University Way, Kelowna, BC V1V 1V7, Canada; (J.W.F.); (O.B.F.); (I.Z.)
| | - Osei B. Fordwour
- Department of Chemistry, The University of British Columbia, 3247 University Way, Kelowna, BC V1V 1V7, Canada; (J.W.F.); (O.B.F.); (I.Z.)
| | - Sydney C. Morgan
- Department of Biology, The University of British Columbia, 1177 Research Road, Kelowna, BC V1V 1V7, Canada;
| | - Ieva Zigg
- Department of Chemistry, The University of British Columbia, 3247 University Way, Kelowna, BC V1V 1V7, Canada; (J.W.F.); (O.B.F.); (I.Z.)
| | - Wesley F. Zandberg
- Department of Chemistry, The University of British Columbia, 3247 University Way, Kelowna, BC V1V 1V7, Canada; (J.W.F.); (O.B.F.); (I.Z.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +1-(250)-807-9821
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10
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Amelioration of Smoke Taint in Cabernet Sauvignon Wine via Post-Harvest Ozonation of Grapes. BEVERAGES 2021. [DOI: 10.3390/beverages7030044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Strategies that mitigate the negative effects of vineyard exposure to smoke on wine composition and sensory properties are needed to address the recurring incidence of bushfires in or near wine regions. Recent research demonstrated the potential for post-harvest ozonation of moderately smoke-exposed grapes to reduce both the concentration of smoke taint marker compounds (i.e., volatile phenols and their glycosides) and the perceived intensity of smoke taint in wine, depending on the dose and duration of ozone treatment. The current study further evaluated the efficacy of ozonation as a method for the amelioration of smoke taint in wine by comparing the chemical and sensory consequences of post-harvest ozonation (at 1 ppm for 24 h) of Cabernet Sauvignon grapes following grapevine exposure to dense smoke, i.e., ozone treatment of more heavily tainted grapes. Ozonation again yielded significant reductions in the concentration of free and glycosylated volatile phenols—up to 25% and 30%, respectively. However, although the intensities of smoke-related sensory attributes were generally lower in wines made with smoke-exposed grapes that were ozonated (compared to wines made with smoke-exposed grapes that were not ozonated), the results were not statistically significant. This suggests that the efficacy of ozone treatment depends on the extent to which grapes have been tainted by smoke.
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11
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Modesti M, Szeto C, Ristic R, Jiang W, Culbert J, Bindon K, Catelli C, Mencarelli F, Tonutti P, Wilkinson K. Potential Mitigation of Smoke Taint in Wines by Post-Harvest Ozone Treatment of Grapes. Molecules 2021; 26:1798. [PMID: 33806831 PMCID: PMC8004780 DOI: 10.3390/molecules26061798] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2021] [Revised: 03/15/2021] [Accepted: 03/18/2021] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
When bushfires occur near grape growing regions, vineyards can be exposed to smoke, and depending on the timing and duration of grapevine smoke exposure, fruit can become tainted. Smoke-derived volatile compounds, including volatile phenols, can impart unpleasant smoky, ashy characters to wines made from smoke-affected grapes, leading to substantial revenue losses where wines are perceivably tainted. This study investigated the potential for post-harvest ozone treatment of smoke-affected grapes to mitigate the intensity of smoke taint in wine. Merlot grapevines were exposed to smoke at ~7 days post-veraison and at harvest grapes were treated with 1 or 3 ppm of gaseous ozone (for 24 or 12 h, respectively), prior to winemaking. The concentrations of smoke taint marker compounds (i.e., free and glycosylated volatile phenols) were measured in grapes and wines to determine to what extent ozonation could mitigate the effects of grapevine exposure to smoke. The 24 h 1 ppm ozone treatment not only gave significantly lower volatile phenol and volatile phenol glycoside concentrations but also diminished the sensory perception of smoke taint in wine. Post-harvest smoke and ozone treatment of grapes suggests that ozone works more effectively when smoke-derived volatile phenols are in their free (aglycone) form, rather than glycosylated forms. Nevertheless, the collective results demonstrate the efficacy of post-harvest ozone treatment as a strategy for mitigation of smoke taint in wine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Margherita Modesti
- Life Sciences Institute, Scuola Superiore Sant’Anna, Piazza Martiri della Libertà 33, 5612 Pisa, Italy;
- Department of Wine Science, Waite Research Institute, The University of Adelaide, PMB 1, Glen Osmond, SA 5064, Australia; (C.S.); (R.R.); (K.W.)
| | - Colleen Szeto
- Department of Wine Science, Waite Research Institute, The University of Adelaide, PMB 1, Glen Osmond, SA 5064, Australia; (C.S.); (R.R.); (K.W.)
- The Australian Research Council Training Centre for Innovative Wine Production, PMB 1, Glen Osmond, SA 5064, Australia
| | - Renata Ristic
- Department of Wine Science, Waite Research Institute, The University of Adelaide, PMB 1, Glen Osmond, SA 5064, Australia; (C.S.); (R.R.); (K.W.)
- The Australian Research Council Training Centre for Innovative Wine Production, PMB 1, Glen Osmond, SA 5064, Australia
| | - WenWen Jiang
- The Australian Wine Research Institute, P.O. Box 197, Glen Osmond, SA 5064, Australia; (W.J.); (J.C.); (K.B.)
| | - Julie Culbert
- The Australian Wine Research Institute, P.O. Box 197, Glen Osmond, SA 5064, Australia; (W.J.); (J.C.); (K.B.)
| | - Keren Bindon
- The Australian Wine Research Institute, P.O. Box 197, Glen Osmond, SA 5064, Australia; (W.J.); (J.C.); (K.B.)
| | - Cesare Catelli
- P.C. di Pompeo Catelli S.R.L., Via Roma 81, Uggiate Trevano, 22029 Como, Italy;
| | - Fabio Mencarelli
- Department of Agriculture Food and Environment, University of Pisa, Via del Borghetto 80, 56124 Pisa, Italy;
| | - Pietro Tonutti
- Life Sciences Institute, Scuola Superiore Sant’Anna, Piazza Martiri della Libertà 33, 5612 Pisa, Italy;
| | - Kerry Wilkinson
- Department of Wine Science, Waite Research Institute, The University of Adelaide, PMB 1, Glen Osmond, SA 5064, Australia; (C.S.); (R.R.); (K.W.)
- The Australian Research Council Training Centre for Innovative Wine Production, PMB 1, Glen Osmond, SA 5064, Australia
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12
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Mirabelli-Montan YA, Marangon M, Graça A, Mayr Marangon CM, Wilkinson KL. Techniques for Mitigating the Effects of Smoke Taint While Maintaining Quality in Wine Production: A Review. Molecules 2021; 26:molecules26061672. [PMID: 33802808 PMCID: PMC8002560 DOI: 10.3390/molecules26061672] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2021] [Revised: 03/08/2021] [Accepted: 03/15/2021] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Smoke taint has become a prominent issue for the global wine industry as climate change continues to impact the length and extremity of fire seasons around the world. Although the issue has prompted a surge in research on the subject in recent years, no singular solution has yet been identified that is capable of maintaining the quality of wine made from smoke-affected grapes. In this review, we summarize the main research on smoke taint, the key discoveries, as well as the prevailing uncertainties. We also examine methods for mitigating smoke taint in the vineyard, in the winery, and post production. We assess the effectiveness of remediation methods (proposed and actual) based on available research. Our findings are in agreement with previous studies, suggesting that the most viable remedies for smoke taint are still the commercially available activated carbon fining and reverse osmosis treatments, but that the quality of the final treated wines is fundamentally dependent on the initial severity of the taint. In this review, suggestions for future studies are introduced for improving our understanding of methods that have thus far only been preliminarily investigated. We select regions that have already been subjected to severe wildfires, and therefore subjected to smoke taint (particularly Australia and California) as a case study to inform other wine-producing countries that will likely be impacted in the future and suggest specific data collection and policy implementation actions that should be taken, even in countries that have not yet been impacted by smoke taint. Ultimately, we streamline the available information on the topic of smoke taint, apply it to a global perspective that considers the various stakeholders involved, and provide a launching point for further research on the topic.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ysadora A. Mirabelli-Montan
- Department of Agronomy, Food, Natural Resources, Animals and Environment (DAFNAE), University of Padova, Viale dell’Università 16, 35020 Padova, Italy; (Y.A.M.-M.); (C.M.M.M.)
| | - Matteo Marangon
- Department of Agronomy, Food, Natural Resources, Animals and Environment (DAFNAE), University of Padova, Viale dell’Università 16, 35020 Padova, Italy; (Y.A.M.-M.); (C.M.M.M.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +39-049-827-2863
| | - Antonio Graça
- Sogrape Vinhos S.A., Aldeia Nova, 4430-809 Avintes, Portugal;
| | - Christine M. Mayr Marangon
- Department of Agronomy, Food, Natural Resources, Animals and Environment (DAFNAE), University of Padova, Viale dell’Università 16, 35020 Padova, Italy; (Y.A.M.-M.); (C.M.M.M.)
| | - Kerry L. Wilkinson
- Department of Wine Science and Waite Research Institute, The University of Adelaide, PMB 1, Glen Osmond, SA 5064, Australia;
- The Australian Research Council Training Centre for Innovative Wine Production, PMB 1, Glen Osmond, SA 5064, Australia
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13
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Review of the Effects of Grapevine Smoke Exposure and Technologies to Assess Smoke Contamination and Taint in Grapes and Wine. BEVERAGES 2021. [DOI: 10.3390/beverages7010007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Grapevine smoke exposure and the subsequent development of smoke taint in wine has resulted in significant financial losses for grape growers and winemakers throughout the world. Smoke taint is characterized by objectional smoky aromas such as “ashy”, “burning rubber”, and “smoked meats”, resulting in wine that is unpalatable and hence unprofitable. Unfortunately, current climate change models predict a broadening of the window in which bushfires may occur and a rise in bushfire occurrences and severity in major wine growing regions such as Australia, Mediterranean Europe, North and South America, and South Africa. As such, grapevine smoke exposure and smoke taint in wine are increasing problems for growers and winemakers worldwide. Current recommendations for growers concerned that their grapevines have been exposed to smoke are to conduct pre-harvest mini-ferments for sensory assessment and send samples to a commercial laboratory to quantify levels of smoke-derived volatiles in the wine. Significant novel research is being conducted using spectroscopic techniques coupled with machine learning modeling to assess grapevine smoke contamination and taint in grapes and wine, offering growers and winemakers additional tools to monitor grapevine smoke exposure and taint rapidly and non-destructively in grapes and wine.
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14
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Uptake and Glycosylation of Smoke-Derived Volatile Phenols by Cabernet Sauvignon Grapes and Their Subsequent Fate during Winemaking. Molecules 2020; 25:molecules25163720. [PMID: 32824099 PMCID: PMC7464031 DOI: 10.3390/molecules25163720] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2020] [Revised: 08/10/2020] [Accepted: 08/13/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Wine made from grapes exposed to bushfire smoke can exhibit unpleasant smoky, ashy characters, which have been attributed to the presence of smoke-derived volatile phenols, in free or glycosylated forms. Here we report the uptake and glycosylation of volatile phenols by grapes following exposure of Cabernet Sauvignon vines to smoke, and their fate during winemaking. A significant delay was observed in the conversion of volatile phenols to their corresponding glycoconjugates, which suggests sequestration, the presence of intermediates within the glycosylation pathway and/or other volatile phenol storage forms. This finding has implications for industry in terms of detecting smoke-affected grapes following vineyard smoke exposure. The potential for an in-canopy sprinkler system to mitigate the uptake of smoke-derived volatile phenols by grapes, by spraying grapevines with water during smoke exposure, was also evaluated. While "misting" appeared to partially mitigate the uptake of volatile phenols by grapes during grapevine exposure to smoke, it did not readily influence the concentration of volatile phenols or the sensory perception of smoke taint in wine. Commercial sensors were used to monitor the concentration of smoke particulate matter (PM) during grapevine exposure to low and high density smoke. Similar PM profiles were observed, irrespective of smoke density, such that PM concentrations did not reflect the extent of smoke exposure by grapes or risk of taint in wine. The sensors could nevertheless be used to monitor the presence of smoke in vineyards during bushfires, and hence, the need for compositional analysis of grapes to quantify smoke taint marker compounds.
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15
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A Simple GC-MS/MS Method for Determination of Smoke Taint-Related Volatile Phenols in Grapes. Metabolites 2020; 10:metabo10070294. [PMID: 32709091 PMCID: PMC7407152 DOI: 10.3390/metabo10070294] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2020] [Revised: 07/10/2020] [Accepted: 07/16/2020] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Volatile phenols (VPs) derived from smoke-exposed grapes are known to confer a smoky flavor to wine. Current methods for determination of VPs in grape berries either involve complex sample purification/derivatization steps or employ two analytical platforms for free and bound VP fractions. We report here a simple gas chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (GC-MS/MS) method for quantification of both free and bound VPs in grapes, based on optimized (1) GC-MS/MS parameters, (2) an analyte extraction procedure, and (3) phenol glycoside hydrolysis conditions. Requiring neither sample cleanup nor a derivatization step, this method is sensitive (LOD ≤ 1 ng/g berries) and reproducible (RSD < 12% for repeated analyses) and is expected to significantly reduce the sample turnover time for smoke taint detection in vineyards.
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16
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Favell JW, Noestheden M, Lyons SM, Zandberg WF. Development and Evaluation of a Vineyard-Based Strategy To Mitigate Smoke-Taint in Wine Grapes. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2019; 67:14137-14142. [PMID: 31802665 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.9b05859] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Smoke-taint is a wine defect that may occur when ripening grape crops absorb volatile phenols (VPs), compounds associated with the negative sensory attributes of smoke-taint, due to exposure of grapes to wildfire smoke. This study examined potential methods to reduce the impact that smoke-exposure has on wine grapes. Specifically, agricultural sprays normally used to protect grapes from fungal pathogens and a spray used to prevent cracking in soft-fleshed fruits were assessed for their capacity to inhibit increases in VP concentrations in wine grapes following on-vine smoke-exposure. The results indicated that an artificial grape cuticle applied 1 week before exposure to simulated forest fire smoke (at 1-2 weeks after veraison) can significantly hinder an increase in VP concentrations in smoke-exposed grapes at commercial maturity. This reduction in VP concentrations may mitigate crop losses experienced globally by the wine industry due to exposure of grapes on-vine (at key phenological stages) to wildfire smoke.
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Affiliation(s)
- James W Favell
- University of British Columbia , Kelowna , British Columbia V1V 1V7 , Canada
| | - Matthew Noestheden
- University of British Columbia , Kelowna , British Columbia V1V 1V7 , Canada
- Supra Research and Development, Inc. , Kelowna , British Columbia V1X 6Y5 , Canada
| | - Sarah M Lyons
- University of British Columbia , Kelowna , British Columbia V1V 1V7 , Canada
| | - Wesley F Zandberg
- University of British Columbia , Kelowna , British Columbia V1V 1V7 , Canada
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17
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Reichenbach SE, Zini CA, Nicolli KP, Welke JE, Cordero C, Tao Q. Benchmarking machine learning methods for comprehensive chemical fingerprinting and pattern recognition. J Chromatogr A 2019; 1595:158-167. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2019.02.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2018] [Revised: 02/04/2019] [Accepted: 02/11/2019] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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18
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van der Hulst L, Munguia P, Culbert JA, Ford CM, Burton RA, Wilkinson KL. Accumulation of volatile phenol glycoconjugates in grapes following grapevine exposure to smoke and potential mitigation of smoke taint by foliar application of kaolin. PLANTA 2019; 249:941-952. [PMID: 30612169 DOI: 10.1007/s00425-018-03079-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2018] [Accepted: 12/20/2018] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
The accumulation of volatile phenol glycoconjugates in smoke-exposed grapes was monitored following grapevine exposure to smoke, with different glycoconjugate profiles observed for fruit sampled 1 and 7 days after smoke exposure, and at maturity. Foliar application of kaolin reduced the concentration of volatile phenol glycoconjugates in smoke-exposed fruit, but efficacy depended on the rate of application and extent of coverage. Smoke taint can be found in wines made from grapes exposed to smoke from bushfires or prescribed burns. It is characterized by objectionable smoky and ashy aromas and flavors, which have been attributed to the presence of smoke-derived volatile phenols, in free and glycoconjugate forms. This study investigated: (1) the accumulation of volatile phenol glycoconjugates in grapes following the application of smoke to Sauvignon Blanc, Chardonnay and Merlot grapevines at approximately 10 days post-veraison; and (2) the potential mitigation of smoke taint as a consequence of foliar applications of kaolin (a clay-based protective film) prior to grapevine smoke exposure. Varietal differences were observed in the glycoconjugate profiles of smoke-exposed grapes; the highest glycoconjugate levels were found in Merlot grapes, being pentose-glucosides of guaiacol, cresols, and phenol, and gentiobiosides of guaiacol and syringol. Changes in volatile phenol glycoconjugate profiles were also observed with time, i.e., between fruit sampled 1 day after smoke exposure and at maturity. The application of kaolin did not significantly affect the glycoconjugate profiles of Sauvignon Blanc and Chardonnay grapes, but significantly lower volatile phenol glycoconjugate levels were observed in Merlot fruit that was treated with kaolin prior to smoke exposure. The potential for control and smoke-exposed grapes to be differentiated by measurement of spectral reflectance was also demonstrated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lieke van der Hulst
- School of Agriculture, Food and Wine, The University of Adelaide, PMB 1, Glen Osmond, SA, 5064, Australia
- The ARC Training Centre for Innovative Wine Production, PMB 1, Glen Osmond, SA, 5064, Australia
| | - Pablo Munguia
- School of Biological Sciences, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA, 5005, Australia
- Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology University, Melbourne, VIC, 3000, Australia
| | - Julie A Culbert
- The Australian Wine Research Institute, PO Box 197, Glen Osmond, SA, 5064, Australia
| | - Christopher M Ford
- School of Agriculture, Food and Wine, The University of Adelaide, PMB 1, Glen Osmond, SA, 5064, Australia
| | - Rachel A Burton
- School of Agriculture, Food and Wine, The University of Adelaide, PMB 1, Glen Osmond, SA, 5064, Australia
- The ARC Centre of Excellence in Plant Cell Walls, PMB 1, Glen Osmond, SA, 5064, Australia
| | - Kerry L Wilkinson
- School of Agriculture, Food and Wine, The University of Adelaide, PMB 1, Glen Osmond, SA, 5064, Australia.
- The ARC Training Centre for Innovative Wine Production, PMB 1, Glen Osmond, SA, 5064, Australia.
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19
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Noestheden M, Noyovitz B, Riordan-Short S, Dennis EG, Zandberg WF. Smoke from simulated forest fire alters secondary metabolites in Vitis vinifera L. berries and wine. PLANTA 2018; 248:1537-1550. [PMID: 30151661 DOI: 10.1007/s00425-018-2994-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2018] [Accepted: 08/20/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
The exposure of Vitis vinifera L. berries to forest fire smoke changes the concentration of phenylpropanoid metabolites in berries and the resulting wine. The exposure of Vitis vinifera L. berries (i.e., wine grapes) to forest fire smoke can lead to a wine defect known as smoke taint that is characterized by unpleasant "smoky" and "ashy" aromas and flavors. The intensity of smoke taint is associated with the concentration of organoleptic volatile phenols that are produced during the combustion-mediated oxidation of lignocellulosic biomass and subsequently concentrated in berries prior to fermentation. However, these same smoke-derived volatile phenols are also produced via metabolic pathways endogenous to berries. It follows then that an influx of exogenous volatile phenols (i.e., from forest fire smoke) could alter endogenous metabolism associated with volatile phenol synthesis, which occurs via the shikimic acid/phenylpropanoid pathways. The presence of ozone and karrikins in forest fire smoke, as well as changes to stomatal conductance that can occur from exposure to forest fire smoke also have the potential to influence phenylpropanoid metabolism. This study demonstrated changes in phenylpropanoid metabolites in Pinot noir berries and wine from three vineyards following the exposure of Vitis vinifera L. vines to simulated forest fire smoke. This included changes to metabolites associated with mouth feel and color in wine, both of which are important sensorial qualities to wine producers and consumers. The results reported are critical to understanding the chemical changes associated with smoke taint beyond volatile phenols, which in turn, may aid the development of preventative and remedial strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew Noestheden
- Department of Chemistry, University of British Columbia, 3247 University Way, Kelowna, BC, V1V 1V7, Canada
- Supra Research and Development, 4532 Sallows Road, Kelowna, BC, V1W 4C2, Canada
| | - Benjamin Noyovitz
- Department of Chemistry, University of British Columbia, 3247 University Way, Kelowna, BC, V1V 1V7, Canada
| | - Seamus Riordan-Short
- Department of Chemistry, University of British Columbia, 3247 University Way, Kelowna, BC, V1V 1V7, Canada
| | - Eric G Dennis
- Department of Chemistry, University of British Columbia, 3247 University Way, Kelowna, BC, V1V 1V7, Canada
| | - Wesley F Zandberg
- Department of Chemistry, University of British Columbia, 3247 University Way, Kelowna, BC, V1V 1V7, Canada.
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20
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Noestheden M, Dennis EG, Romero-Montalvo E, DiLabio GA, Zandberg WF. Detailed characterization of glycosylated sensory-active volatile phenols in smoke-exposed grapes and wine. Food Chem 2018; 259:147-156. [PMID: 29680037 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2018.03.097] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2017] [Revised: 03/14/2018] [Accepted: 03/22/2018] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
Abstract
The exposure of Vitis vinifera L. vines to smoke from wildland fires can alter the chemical composition of the berries, such that the resulting wine can possess a defect known as smoke-taint. This work constitutes a complete method for the analysis of simple volatile phenol glycosides (VP-glycosides) that can be elevated in berries and wine following smoke exposure. We synthesized 16 model VP-glycosides, four of which are not reported previously, to facilitate method development. Fragmentation analysis using high-resolution accurate-mass spectrometry demonstrated that the glycone and aglycone influenced the fragmentation pattern of VP-glycosides. Diagnostic fragmentation patterns for the synthesized VP-glycosides were applied to identify several VP-glycosides in smoke-exposed berries and wine. The fragmentation pattern of VP-disaccharides should facilitate the characterization of modified glycones. Putative non-VP glycosides elevated in smoke-exposed berries are demonstrated for the first time. In tandem with VP-glycosides, such compounds may contribute to the expression of smoke taint.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew Noestheden
- Department of Chemistry, University of British Columbia, 3427 University Avenue, Kelowna, British Columbia V1V 1V7, Canada; Supra Research & Development, 4532 Sallows Road, Kelowna, British Columbia V1W 4C2, Canada
| | - Eric G Dennis
- Department of Chemistry, University of British Columbia, 3427 University Avenue, Kelowna, British Columbia V1V 1V7, Canada
| | - Eduardo Romero-Montalvo
- Department of Chemistry, University of British Columbia, 3427 University Avenue, Kelowna, British Columbia V1V 1V7, Canada
| | - Gino A DiLabio
- Department of Chemistry, University of British Columbia, 3427 University Avenue, Kelowna, British Columbia V1V 1V7, Canada; Faculty of Management, University of British Columbia, 1137 Alumni Avenue, Kelowna, British Columbia V1V 1V7, Canada
| | - Wesley F Zandberg
- Department of Chemistry, University of British Columbia, 3427 University Avenue, Kelowna, British Columbia V1V 1V7, Canada.
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