Bioactive Compounds of Kimchi Inhibit Apoptosis by Attenuating Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress in the Brain of Amyloid β-Injected Mice

Effects of Glutamine or Glucose Deprivation on Inflammation and Tight Junction Disruption in Yak Rumen Epithelial Cells

Yak is a special free-ranging cattle breed in the plateau areas of Qinghai and Tibet. Pasture withering in cold-season pastures results in energy deficiency in yaks, which undermines the rumen epithelial barrier. However, the leading factor causing rumen epithelial injury remains unknown. Glutamine (Gln), a conditionally essential amino acid, is insufficient under pathological conditions. Glucose (GLU) is an important energy source. Thus, we explored the effects of Gln or GLU deprivation on the barrier function of yak rumen epithelial cells and investigated the underlying mechanisms, as well as the differences in rumen epithelial barrier function between Gln deprivation (Gln-D) and GLU deprivation (GLU-D). In previous work, we constructed the yak rumen epithelial cells (YRECs) line by transferring the human telomerase reverse transcriptase gene (hTERT) and simian virus 40 large T antigen (SV40T) into primary YRECs. The YRECs were exposed to normal, Gln-D, GLU-D, and serum replacement (SR) media for 6, 12, and 24 h. Our data displayed that cell viability and tight junction protein expression in the SR group were not significantly changed compared to the normal group. Whereas, compared with the SR group, Gln-D treated for more than 12 h reduced cell viability and proliferation, and GLU-D treated for more than 12 h damaged the cell morphology and reduced cell viability and proliferation. The cell proliferation and cell viability were decreased more in GLU-D than in Gln-D. In addition, Gln-D treated for more than 12 h disrupted YREC cellular partially tight junctions by inducing oxidative stress and inflammation, and GLU-D treated for more than 12 h disrupted YREC cellular tight junctions by inducing apoptosis, oxidative stress, and inflammation. Compared with Gln-D, GLU-D more significantly induced cell injury and reduced tight junction protein levels. Our results provided evidence that GLU-D induced damage through the p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (p38 MAPK)/c-junN-terminal kinase (JNK) signaling pathway, which was more serious than Gln-D treated for more than 12 h.

Does a pickle a day keep Alzheimer's away? Fermented food in Alzheimer's disease: A review

Fermented food is commonly viewed as healthy, mostly due to its probiotic and digestion-enhancing properties and recently it has been examined with regard to the development of new therapeutic and preventive measures for Alzheimer's disease. Fermented food has been shown to have anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties and to alter the gut microbiota. However, the exact pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease is still unknown and its connections to systemic inflammation and gut dysbiosis, as potential targets of fermented food, require further investigation. Therefore, to sum up the current knowledge, this article reviews recent research on the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease with emphasis on the role of the gut-brain axis and studies examining the use of fermented foods. The analysis of the fermented food research includes clinical and preclinical in vivo and in vitro studies. The fermented food studies have shown promising effects on amyloid-β metabolism, inflammation, and cognitive impairment in animals and humans. Fermented food has great potential in developing new approaches to Alzheimer's disease treatment.

Modulating endoplasmic reticulum stress in APP/PS1 mice by Gomisin B and Osthole in Bushen-Yizhi formula: Synergistic effects and therapeutic implications for Alzheimer's disease

BACKGROUND

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a prevalent neurodegenerative disorder with no effective cure. Targeting endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress pathway may offer a novel approach to ameliorate cognitive deficits in AD. Bushen-Yizhi formula (BSYZ), a traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) prescription, has shown potential benefits for AD. To facilitate the development of new therapeutic agents for AD, it is important to identify the active components and the underlying mechanisms of BSYZ against AD.

PURPOSE

The aim of this study was to systematically screen the active components of BSYZ that could improve learning and memory impairment in AD by modulating ER stress pathway.

METHODS

A drug-target (D-T) network was constructed to analyze the herbal components of BSYZ. Network proximity method was used to identify the potential anti-AD components that targeted ER stress and evaluate their synergistic effects. The absorption, distribution, metabolism, excretion, and toxicity (ADMET) properties and the literature evidence were considered to select promising candidates for further validation. The selected components were tested in vitro using an AD cell model (APPswe-SH-SY5Y). In vivo anti-AD effects of the components were assessed in APP/PS1 double-transgenic mice.

RESULTS

58 potential anti-AD components targeting ER stress were detected by network proximity analysis, and 13 out of them were selected based on ADMET properties and literature evidence. In vitro experiments confirmed that 5 components, namely gomisin B, β-Carotene, imperatorin, chrysophanol, and osthole (OST), exhibited anti-AD effects on the APPswe-SH-SY5Y model. Moreover, network proximity analysis suggested that OST and Gomisin B might have synergistic effects on modulating ER stress. In vivo experiments demonstrated that OST, Gomisin B, OST+Gomisin B, and BSYZ all improved learning and memory function in APP/PS1 mice. Gomisin B and OST also restored cellular morphology and tissue structure in APP/PS1 mice. Thioflavine-S (Th-S) staining revealed that they reduced amyloid plaque deposition in the brain tissue of AD model mice. The qPCR results indicated that BSYZ, OST, and Gomisin B differentially regulated IRE1α, PERK, EIF2α, DDIT3, and Caspase 12 expression levels, while the OST and Gomisin B co-administration group showed better efficacy. This trend was further confirmed by immunofluorescence experiments.

CONCLUSION

This study identified the active components of BSYZ that could ameliorate learning and memory impairment in AD by targeting ER stress pathway. OST and Gomisin B exhibited synergistic effects on modulating ER stress and reducing amyloid plaque deposition in vivo. Overall, our study elucidated the molecular mechanisms of BSYZ and its active components in attenuating AD symptoms which suggested the therapeutic potential of TCM for AD.

A Systematic Review of the Effects of Capsaicin on Alzheimer's Disease

Alzheimer's Disease (AD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder characterised by cognitive impairment, and amyloid-β plaques and neurofibrillary tau tangles at neuropathology. Capsaicin is a spicy-tasting compound found in chili peppers, with anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and possible neuroprotective properties. Capsaicin intake has been associated with greater cognitive function in humans, and attenuating aberrant tau hyperphosphorylation in a rat model of AD. This systematic review discusses the potential of capsaicin in improving AD pathology and symptoms. A systematic analysis was conducted on the effect of capsaicin on AD-associated molecular changes, cognitive and behaviour resulting in 11 studies employing rodents and/or cell cultures, which were appraised with the Cochrane Risk of Bias tool. Ten studies showed capsaicin attenuated tau deposition, apoptosis, and synaptic dysfunction; was only weakly effective on oxidative stress; and had conflicting effects on amyloid processing. Eight studies demonstrated improved spatial and working memory, learning, and emotional behaviours in rodents following capsaicin treatment. Overall, capsaicin showed promise in improving AD-associated molecular, cognitive, and behavioural changes in cellular and animal models, and further investigations are recommended to test the readily available bioactive, capsaicin, to treat AD.

Effects of Phytochemicals from Fermented Food Sources in Alzheimer's Disease In Vivo Experimental Models: A Systematic Review

The socioeconomic burden of Alzheimer's Disease (AD) stems from its characteristic multifactorial etiology and, implicitly, the difficulties associated with its treatment. With the increase in life expectancy and health awareness, nutraceuticals and functional foods are filling in the gaps left by the limitation of classical medical treatment in chronic conditions associated with lifestyle factors, such as neurological disorders. Processes, such as fermentation that enhance food phytochemical content are garnering increased attention due to their functional and health-related properties. This systematic review aims to provide an overview of the evidence of phytochemicals from fermented food sources inducing therapeutic outcomes and cognitive benefits from in vivo experimental models of Alzheimer's Disease. The present systematic review was conducted in accordance with PRISMA guidelines. Searches were performed in the following databases: MEDLINE, Embase, Cochrane, Scopus, Google Scholar, and Science Citation Index Expanded (Web of Science) by two independent reviewers. Titles and abstracts yielded by the search were screened for eligibility against the inclusion criteria. The search strategy yielded 1899 titles, encompassing studies from 1948 to 2022. After the removal of duplicates, and screening of titles, abstracts, and full texts, thirty three studies obtained from the original search strategy and seven studies from references satisfied the inclusion criteria and were included in the present systematic review. Several studies have emphasized the potential of fermentation to yield small-molecule phytochemicals that are not present in raw products. When these phytochemicals are combined, their collective strength has demonstrated the ability to exceed the antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and neuroprotective benefits of individual phytochemicals when given in their pure form. Among the various fermented foods that have been studied, soy isoflavones obtained through fermentation have shown the most substantial evidence of altering phytochemical content and improving outcomes in animal models of AD. While promising in initial results, other fermented foods and traditional medicines require more detailed research in order to establish their effectiveness and proper utilization. As is, many of the experimental designs lacked phytochemical analysis of the used fermented product or comparison with the non-fermented counterpart. This, coupled with proper reporting in animal studies, will significantly raise the quality of performed studies as well as the weight of obtained results.

Does kimchi deserve the status of a probiotic food?

Kimchi is a traditional fermented vegetable side dish in Korea and has become a global health food. Kimchi undergoes spontaneous fermentation, mainly by lactic acid bacteria (LAB) originating from its raw ingredients. Numerous LAB, including the genera Leuconostoc, Weissella, and Lactobacillus, participate in kimchi fermentation, reaching approximately 9-10 log colony forming units per gram or milliliter of food. The several health benefits of LAB (e.g., antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties) combined with their probiotic potential in complex diseases including obesity, cancer, atopic dermatitis, and immunomodulatory effect have generated an interest in the health effects of LAB present in kimchi. In order to estimate the potential of kimchi as a probiotic food, we comprehensively surveyed the health functionalities of kimchi and kimchi LAB, and their effects on human gut environment, highlighting the probiotics function.

Thymidine and 2'-deoxyuridine reduce microglial activation and improve oxidative stress damage by modulating glycolytic metabolism on the Aβ25-35-induced brain injury

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a progressive disease with a long duration and complicated pathogenesis. Thymidine (Thy) and 2'-deoxyuridine (2'-De) are pyrimidines nucleotides that are associated with nervous system diseases. However, it remains unclear whether Thy and 2'-De exert neuroprotective effects in AD. Therefore, this study was conducted to explore the interventional effects and mechanisms of Thy and 2'-De on the Aβ_25-35-induced brain injury. Donepezil (Do, 10 mg/kg/d), Thy (20 mg/kg/d), and 2'-De (20 mg/kg/d) were administered for 4 weeks after the injection of Aβ_25-35 peptides (200 μM, i.c.v.) to mice. UPLC-MS/MS method was performed to quantify Thy and 2'-De in the hippocampus of mice brain. The cognition ability, neuronal and mitochondria damage, and levels of Aβ_1-42/Aβ_1-40, p-Tau, Na⁺ K⁺-ATPase, apoptosis, oxidative stress, immune cells, and Iba 1⁺ were measured in Aβ_25-35-induced mice. The oxygen consumption (OCR) and extracellular acidification rate (ECAR) were measured using a seahorse analyzer in Aβ_25-35-induced N9 cells. Moreover, 2-Deoxy-D-glucose (2-DG), a glycolysis inhibitor, was added to explore the mechanisms underlying the effects of Thy and 2'-De on Aβ_25-35-induced N9 cells. The expression of Iba 1⁺ and levels of CD11b⁺ and reactive oxygen species (ROS) were measured after treatment with Thy (5 μM) and 2'-De (10 μM) against 2-DG (5 mM) in Aβ_25-35-induced N9 cells. The results suggested that Do, Thy, and 2'-De improved the cognition ability, attenuated the damage to hippocampus and mitochondria, downregulated the levels of Aβ_1-42/Aβ_1-40, p-Tau, Na⁺ K⁺-ATPase, apoptosis, oxidative stress, and Iba 1⁺, and regulated the immune response induced by Aβ_25-35 against the brain injury. Furthermore, Do, Thy, and 2'-De increased ATP production and inhibited glycolysis in Aβ_25-35-induced N9 cells. Moreover, 2-DG enhanced the effects of drugs, reduced microglial activation, and attenuated oxidative stress to interfere with Aβ_25-35-induced N9 cells. In conclusion, Thy and 2'-De reduced microglial activation and improved oxidative stress damage by modulating glycolytic metabolism on the Aβ_25-35-induced brain injury.

Forest Biomass as a Promising Source of Bioactive Essential Oil and Phenolic Compounds for Alzheimer's Disease Therapy

Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is the most common neurodegenerative disorder affecting elderly people worldwide. Currently, there are no effective treatments for AD able to prevent disease progression, highlighting the urgency of finding new therapeutic strategies to stop or delay this pathology. Several plants exhibit potential as source of safe and multi-target new therapeutic molecules for AD treatment. Meanwhile, Eucalyptus globulus extracts revealed important pharmacological activities, namely antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties, which can contribute to the reported neuroprotective effects. This review summarizes the chemical composition of essential oil (EO) and phenolic extracts obtained from Eucalyptus globulus leaves, disclosing major compounds and their effects on AD-relevant pathological features, including deposition of amyloid-β (Aβ) in senile plaques and hyperphosphorylated tau in neurofibrillary tangles (NFTs), abnormalities in GABAergic, cholinergic and glutamatergic neurotransmission, inflammation, and oxidative stress. In general, 1,8-cineole is the major compound identified in EO, and ellagic acid, quercetin, and rutin were described as main compounds in phenolic extracts from Eucalyptus globulus leaves. EO and phenolic extracts, and especially their major compounds, were found to prevent several pathological cellular processes and to improve cognitive function in AD animal models. Therefore, Eucalyptus globulus leaves are a relevant source of biological active and safe molecules that could be used as raw material for nutraceuticals and plant-based medicinal products useful for AD prevention and treatment.

Clinical and Preclinical Studies of Fermented Foods and Their Effects on Alzheimer’s Disease

The focus on managing Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is shifting towards prevention through lifestyle modification instead of treatments since the currently available treatment options are only capable of providing symptomatic relief marginally and result in various side effects. Numerous studies have reported that the intake of fermented foods resulted in the successful management of AD. Food fermentation is a biochemical process where the microorganisms metabolize the constituents of raw food materials, giving vastly different organoleptic properties and additional nutritional value, and improved biosafety effects in the final products. The consumption of fermented foods is associated with a wide array of nutraceutical benefits, including anti-oxidative, anti-inflammatory, neuroprotective, anti-apoptotic, anti-cancer, anti-fungal, anti-bacterial, immunomodulatory, and hypocholesterolemic properties. Due to their promising health benefits, fermented food products have a great prospect for commercialization in the food industry. This paper reviews the memory and cognitive enhancement and neuroprotective potential of fermented food products on AD, the recently commercialized fermented food products in the health and food industries, and their limitations. The literature reviewed here demonstrates a growing demand for fermented food products as alternative therapeutic options for the prevention and management of AD.

Antiobesity effects of kimchi added with Jeju citrus concentrate on high-fat diet-induced obese mice

Citrus fruits contain an abundance of nutrients, including vitamins C and B₆ and hesperidin, which attribute to its beneficial health effects. Previously, kimchi with Jeju citrus concentrate (CK) elicited anti-obesity effects in 3T3-L1 adipocytes. Here, we aimed to investigate whether CK exhibits anti-obesity effects by reducing serum and hepatic lipid concentrations and anti-obesity-associated gene expression in high-fat diet (HFD)-induced obese C57BL/6N mice. Low-dose CK (LDCK, 50 mg/kg) and high-dose CK (HDCK, 200 mg/kg) were orally administered 3 times per week over 8 weeks with HFD diet. Body weight gain, food efficiency ratio, and tissue weight were measured. Serum glutamic oxaloacetic transaminase, glutamic pyruvic transaminase, fasting glucose, fasting insulin, homeostatic model assessment-insulin resistance, leptin, and adiponectin concentrations were also assessed. The effect of CK on the lipid profile and lipid accumulation was analyzed. Body and white adipose tissue masses were significantly lower in the LDCK and HDCK groups than in the HFD group. Orally administered CK significantly decreased serum lipid, fasting glucose, fasting insulin, homeostatic model assessment-insulin resistance, glutamic oxaloacetic transaminase, and glutamic pyruvic transaminase levels. Hepatic lipid content also decreased in the LDCK and HDCK groups. Serum leptin concentrations decreased, whereas serum adiponectin concentrations increased, confirming the anti-obesity effects of LDCK and HDCK. The decrease of hepatic vacuoles and stained lipid droplets indicated inhibition of lipid accumulation. These results support the hypothesis that CK exhibits anti-obesity effects in vivo by reducing lipid accumulation and by regulating anti-obesity-related genes.

Discovery of a Potent Dual Inhibitor of Acetylcholinesterase and Butyrylcholinesterase with Antioxidant Activity that Alleviates Alzheimer-like Pathology in Old APP/PS1 Mice

The combination of the scaffolds of the cholinesterase inhibitor huprine Y and the antioxidant capsaicin results in compounds with nanomolar potencies toward human acetylcholinesterase (AChE) and butyrylcholinesterase (BChE) that retain or improve the antioxidant properties of capsaicin. Crystal structures of their complexes with AChE and BChE revealed the molecular basis for their high potency. Brain penetration was confirmed by biodistribution studies in C57BL6 mice, with one compound (5i) displaying better brain/plasma ratio than donepezil. Chronic treatment of 10 month-old APP/PS1 mice with 5i (2 mg/kg, i.p., 3 times per week, 4 weeks) rescued learning and memory impairments, as measured by three different behavioral tests, delayed the Alzheimer-like pathology progression, as suggested by a significantly reduced Aβ42/Aβ40 ratio in the hippocampus, improved basal synaptic efficacy, and significantly reduced hippocampal oxidative stress and neuroinflammation. Compound 5i emerges as an interesting anti-Alzheimer lead with beneficial effects on cognitive symptoms and on some underlying disease mechanisms.

Nrf2-interacting nutrients and COVID-19: time for research to develop adaptation strategies

There are large between- and within-country variations in COVID-19 death rates. Some very low death rate settings such as Eastern Asia, Central Europe, the Balkans and Africa have a common feature of eating large quantities of fermented foods whose intake is associated with the activation of the Nrf2 (Nuclear factor (erythroid-derived 2)-like 2) anti-oxidant transcription factor. There are many Nrf2-interacting nutrients (berberine, curcumin, epigallocatechin gallate, genistein, quercetin, resveratrol, sulforaphane) that all act similarly to reduce insulin resistance, endothelial damage, lung injury and cytokine storm. They also act on the same mechanisms (mTOR: Mammalian target of rapamycin, PPARγ:Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor, NFκB: Nuclear factor kappa B, ERK: Extracellular signal-regulated kinases and eIF2α:Elongation initiation factor 2α). They may as a result be important in mitigating the severity of COVID-19, acting through the endoplasmic reticulum stress or ACE-Angiotensin-II-AT₁R axis (AT₁R) pathway. Many Nrf2-interacting nutrients are also interacting with TRPA1 and/or TRPV1. Interestingly, geographical areas with very low COVID-19 mortality are those with the lowest prevalence of obesity (Sub-Saharan Africa and Asia). It is tempting to propose that Nrf2-interacting foods and nutrients can re-balance insulin resistance and have a significant effect on COVID-19 severity. It is therefore possible that the intake of these foods may restore an optimal natural balance for the Nrf2 pathway and may be of interest in the mitigation of COVID-19 severity.

Effects of the fermented Zizyphus jujuba in the amyloid β25-35-induced Alzheimer's disease mouse model

BACKGROUD/OBJECTIVES

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most common cause of dementia in the elderly. Due to the increased incidence of dementia, there is a corresponding increase concerning the importance of AD. In this study, we investigated the protective effects conferred by Zizyphus jujuba (Zj) and Zizyphus jujuba fermented by yeast (Zj-Y), on cognitive impairment in an AD mouse model.

MATERIALS/METHODS

AD was induced by injecting amyloid beta_25-35 (Aβ_25-35) in ICR mice, and subsequently 200 mg/kg Zj or Zj-Y was administered daily for 14 days. The cognitive ability of AD mice was observed through behavioral experiments in T-maze, novel object recognition, and Morris water maze tests. We subsequently measured the levels of malondialdehyde (MDA), nitric oxide (NO), aspartate aminotransferase, and alanine aminotransferase in either tissues or serum.

RESULTS

In behavioral tests, deterioration was revealed in the short- and long-term learning and memory functions in the Aβ_25-35-injected control group compared to the normal group, indicating that Aβ_25-35 injection impairs cognitive functions. However, administration of Zj and Zj-Y improved cognitive function in mice, as compared to the Aβ_25-35-injected control mice. In addition, the Aβ_25-35 induced elevations of MDA and NO in the brain, kidney, and liver were suppressed after exposure to Zj and Zj-Y. Especially, Zj-Y showed stronger scavenging effect against MDA and NO, as compared to Zj.

CONCLUSIONS

Results of the present study indicate that Zj-Y exerts a protective effect on cognitive impairment and memory dysfunction, which is exerted by attenuating the oxidative stress induced by Aβ_25-35.

The impact of capsaicinoids on APP processing in Alzheimer's disease in SH-SY5Y cells

The vanilloid capsaicin is a widely consumed spice, known for its burning and "hot" sensation through activation of TRPV1 ion-channels, but also known to decrease oxidative stress, inflammation and influence tau-pathology. Beside these positive effects, little is known about its effects on amyloid-precursor-protein (APP) processing leading to amyloid-β (Aβ), the major component of senile plaques. Treatment of neuroblastoma cells with capsaicinoids (24 hours, 10 µM) resulted in enhanced Aβ-production and reduced Aβ-degradation, leading to increased Aβ-levels. In detailed analysis of the amyloidogenic-pathway, both BACE1 gene-expression as well as protein-levels were found to be elevated, leading to increased β-secretase-activity. Additionally, γ-secretase gene-expression as well as activity was enhanced, accompanied by a shift of presenilin from non-raft to raft membrane-domains where amyloidogenic processing takes place. Furthermore, impaired Aβ-degradation in presence of capsaicinoids is dependent on the insulin-degrading-enzyme, one of the major Aβ-degrading-enzymes. Regarding Aβ-homeostasis, no differences were found between the major capsaicinoids, capsaicin and dihydrocapsaicin, and a mixture of naturally derived capsaicinoids; effects on Ca2+-homeostasis were ruled out. Our results show that in respect to Alzheimer's disease, besides the known positive effects of capsaicinoids, pro-amyloidogenic properties also exist, enhancing Aβ-levels, likely restricting the potential use of capsaicinoids as therapeutic substances in Alzheimer's disease.

Regulation of microRNAs by IRE1α in apoptosis: implications for the pathomechanism of neurodegenerative diseases

Although there are large differences in clinical and pathological features, age-related neurodegenerative diseases (NDs) share common pathogenetic mechanisms involving aggregation and deposition of misfolded proteins, which leads to progressive dysfunction and death of neurons. Up to now, it seems that apoptosis is one major form of neuronal cell death. This review provides an overview of recent progress in unfolded protein response (UPR) during apoptosis induced by abnormal protein aggregation and emphasizes on the potential role of inositol requiring enzyme 1 alpha (IRE1α)-microRNAs (miRNAs) mediated apoptosis in NDs, which will provide new insights in the pathogenesis of neurodegenerative diseases and novel therapeutic targets for the treatment of NDs.

Acer okamotoanumand isoquercitrin improve cognitive functionviaattenuation of oxidative stress in high fat diet- and amyloid beta-induced mice

High fat diet (HFD) and accumulation of amyloid beta (Aβ) are known as a risk factor of Alzheimer's disease.Acer okamotoanumand isoquercitrin improved cognition function against both HFD and Aβ accumulation by inhibiting oxidative stress.

Bioactive Compounds in Kimchi Improve the Cognitive and Memory Functions Impaired by Amyloid Beta

This study investigated the abilities of kimchi and its bioactive compounds to ameliorate amyloid beta (Aβ)-induced memory and cognitive impairments. Mice were given a single intracerebroventricular injection of Aβ_25-35, followed by a daily oral administration of capsaicin (10 mg·kg-bw^–1), 3-(4′-hydroxyl-3′,5′-dimethoxyphenyl)propionic acid (50 mg/kg bw), quercetin (50 mg/kg bw), ascorbic acid (50 mg/kg bw), or kimchi methanol extract (KME; 200 mg/kg bw) for 2 weeks (n = 7 per group). Carboxymethylcellulose was used as a vehicle for the normal and control groups. Behavioral task tests showed that the learning and memory abilities were significantly waned by the injected Aβ_25-35, but these cognitive deficits were recovered by the administrated KME and kimchi bioactive compounds (p < 0.05). The reactive oxygen species, peroxynitrite, and thiobarbituric acid reactive substances levels were lower, and the glutathione level was higher, in the KME and bioactive compound groups than in the control group (p < 0.05). In the KME and bioactive compound groups, the protein expression levels of antioxidant enzymes (nuclear factor (erythroid-derived 2)-like 2-regulated superoxide dismutase-1 and glutathione peroxidase) were increased, whereas those of inflammation-related enzymes (nuclear factor-kappaB -regulated inducible nitric oxide synthase and cyclooxygenase-2) were decreased (p < 0.05). Thus, the antioxidative and anti-inflammatory properties of bioactive compounds-rich kimchi might help to attenuate the symptoms of Alzheimer’s disease.