Modulation of Physicochemical Characteristics of Pickering Emulsions: Utilization of Nanocellulose- and Nanochitin-Coated Lipid Droplet Blends

Novel reaction systems for catalytic synthesis of structured phospholipids

Phospholipids are distinctive, adaptable molecules that are crucial to numerous biological systems. Additionally, their various architectures and amphiphilic characteristics support their unrivaled crucial functions in scientific and industrial applications. Due to their enormous potential for use in the fields of medicine, food, cosmetics, and health, structured phospholipids, which are modified phospholipids, have garnered increased attention. Traditional extraction methods, however, are pricy, resource-intensive, and low-yielding. The process of enzyme-catalyzed conversion is effective for producing several types of structured phospholipase. However, most frequently employed catalytic procedures involve biphasic systems with organic solvents, which have a relatively large mass transfer resistance and are susceptible to solvent residues and environmental effects due to the hydrophobic nature of phospholipids. Therefore, the adoption of innovative, successful, and environmentally friendly enzyme-catalyzed conversion systems provides a new development route in the field of structured phospholipids processing. Several innovative catalytic reaction systems are discussed in this mini-review, including aqueous-solid system, mixed micelle system, water-in-oil microemulsion system, Pickering emulsion system, novel solvent system, three-liquid-phase system, and supercritical carbon dioxide solvent system. However, there is still a glaring need for a thorough examination of these systems for the enzymatic synthesis of structural phospholipids. In terms of the materials utilized, applicability, benefits and drawbacks, and comparative effectiveness of each system, this research establishes further conditions for the system's selection. To create more effective biocatalytic processes, it is still important to build green biocatalytic processes with improved performance. KEY POINTS: • The latest catalytic systems of phospholipase D are thoroughly summarized. • The various systems are contrasted, and their traits are enumerated. • Different catalytic systems' areas of applicability and limitations are discussed.

Chitin nanofibers prepared by enzymatic hydrolysis: Characterization and application for Pickering emulsions

Chitin nanofibers (ChNFs) have a wide range of applications in numerous fields owing to their exceptional material properties and biological functionality. This research focused on producing ChNFs with diameters of 20-70 nm using chitinase and ultrasound from crayfish shells. The impact of enzymatic duration on ChNF yield and performance was investigated. Results revealed ChNFs forming a high aspect ratio network structure. Chitinase hydrolysis enhanced ChNF dispersion and yield while improving crystallinity and thermal stability without significantly altering their chemical structure. Enzymatically modified ChNF suspensions also exhibited stable rheological properties. Moreover, ChNFs showed good emulsification and emulsion stability in Pickering emulsion. The mechanism may be the effective adsorption of ChNFs at the oil-water interface, and the formation of a ChNF network in the continuous phase that prevents droplet coalescence. This study highlights that the potential of chitinase and ultrasound for the production of ChNFs and the utilization of crayfish shell waste.

Nanocellulose-stabilized Pickering emulsions: Fabrication, stabilization, and food applications

Pickering emulsions have been widely studied due to their good stability and potential applications. Nanocellulose including cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs), cellulose nanofibrils (CNFs), and bacterial cellulose nanofibrils (BCNFs) has emerged as sustainable stabilizers/emulsifiers in food-related Pickering emulsions due to their favorable properties such as renewability, low toxicity, amphiphilicity, biocompatibility, and high aspect ratio. Nanocellulose can be widely obtained from different sources and extraction methods and can effectively stabilize Pickering emulsions via the irreversible adsorption onto oil-water interface. The synergistic effects of nanocellulose and other substances can further enhance the interfacial networks. The nanocellulose-based Pickering emulsions have potential food-related applications in delivery systems, food packaging materials, and fat substitutes. Nanocellulose-based Pickering emulsions as 3D printing inks exhibit good injectable and gelling properties and are promising to print spatial architectures. In the future, the utilization of biomass waste and the development of "green" and facile extraction methods for nanocellulose production deserve more attention. The stability of nanocellulose-based Pickering emulsions in multi-component food systems and at various conditions is an utmost challenge. Moreover, the case-by-case studies on the potential safety issues of nanocellulose-based Pickering emulsions need to be carried out with the standardized assessment procedures. In this review, we highlight key fundamental work and recent reports on nanocellulose-based Pickering emulsion systems. The sources and extraction of nanocellulose and the fabrication of nanocellulose-based Pickering emulsions are briefly summarized. Furthermore, the synergistic stability and food-related applications of nanocellulose-stabilized Pickering emulsions are spotlighted.

Durable Nanocellulose-Stabilized Emulsions of Dithizone/Chloroform in Water for Hg2+ Detection: A Novel Approach for a Classical Problem

The use of dithizone (DTZ) for colorimetric heavy-metal detection is approximately one century old. However, its pending stability issues and the need for simple indicators justify further research. Using cellulose nanofibers, we attained DTZ-containing emulsions with high stability. These emulsions had water (at least 95 wt %) and acetic acid (1-8 mL/L) conforming the continuous phase, while dispersed droplets of diameter <1 μm contained chloroform-solvated DTZ (3 wt %). The solvation cluster was computed by molecular dynamics simulations, suggesting that chloroform slightly reduces the dihedral angle between the two sides of the thiocarbazone chain. Nanocellulose concentrations over 0.2 wt % sufficed to obtain macroscopically homogeneous mixtures with no phase separation. Furthermore, the rate of degradation of DTZ in the nanocellulose-stabilized emulsion did not differ significantly from a DTZ/chloroform solution, outperforming DTZ/toluene and DTZ/acetonitrile. Not only is the emulsion readily and immediately responsive to mercury(II), but it also decreases interferences from other ions and from natural samples. Unexpectedly, neither lead(II) nor cadmium(II) triggered a visual response at trace concentrations. The limit of detection of these emulsions is 15 μM or 3 mg/L, exceeding WHO limits for mercury(II) in drinking water, but they could be effective at raising alarms.

Comparison of cellulose and chitin nanofibers on Pickering emulsion stability-Investigation of size and surface wettability contribution

There is an increasing concern about developing biobased colloid particles for Pickering stabilization due to the environment-friendliness and health-safety needs. In this study, Pickering emulsions were formed by using TEMPO (2,2,6,6-tetramethylpiperidine-1-oxyl radical)-mediated oxidized cellulose nanofibers (TOCN) and chitin nanofibers prepared by TEMPO-mediated oxidation (TOChN) or partial deacetylation (DEChN). The physicochemical characterizations of Pickering emulsions demonstrated that the higher cellulose or chitin nanofiber concentrations, surface wettability, and zeta-potential, the higher effectiveness in Pickering stabilization. Specifically, even though DEChN was at a shorter size (with a length of 254 ± 72 nm) as compared to TOCN (with a length of 3050 ± 1832 nm), it showed an excellent stabilization effect on emulsions at the concentration of 0.6 wt% due to its higher affinity to soybean oil (water contact angle of 84.38 ± 0.08°) and large electrostatic repulsion between oil particles. Meanwhile, when the concentration was 0.6 wt%, long TOCN (water contact angle of 43.06 ± 0.08°) formed a three-dimensional network in the aqueous phase, which produced a superstable Pickering emulsion resulting from the limited moving of droplets. These results provided important information on the formulation of Pickering emulsions stabilized by polysaccharide nanofibers with suitable concentration, size and surface wettability.

Influence of Cellulose Nanofibers on the Behavior of Pickering Emulsions. Part 1. Microscopy and Startup Flow Test

The dispersibility of flexible polymer chains present at the emulsion's interface between the dispersed and continuous phase has obvious effects on rheology and dielectric properties of the whole emulsion. Cellulose nanofiber (CNF)-based Pickering emulsions are good systems to research these properties with respect to their microscopic phase structure, dielectric, and rheological properties by using CNF as a water-dispersible Pickering emulsifier, liquid paraffin as an oil phase, and didodecyldimethylammonium bromide (DDAB) as a cationic auxiliary surfactant. The CNF and DDAB contents were systematically varied while the water-to-paraffin oil ratio was kept constant to discern the influence of the Pickering emulsifiers. Polarized optical microscopic images reveal that the droplets tend to shrink at higher CNF content but grow bigger when increasing the DDAB content, which is proved by fluorescence analysis of the CNF dispersibility with varying DDAB content. The dielectric damping exhibits a minimum, whose value decreases with increasing DDAB and CNF content. Increasing the DDAB content promotes the solubilization of CNF in the aqueous phase, which will increase the overall viscosity and yield points. Similarly, a higher CNF content leads to a higher viscosity and yield point, but at high DDAB contents, the viscosity function exhibits an S-shape at intermediate CNF contents. To evaluate the results further, they were compared with CNF dispersions (without oil phase), which showed a surfactant effect slightly on maximum stress but strongly on yield stress τy, indicating that DDAB can promote the formation of a CNF network rather than the viscosity of the whole system. This paper provides information on how a systematical variation of the composition influences morphology and physico-chemical interactions as detected by broadband dielectric spectroscopy and rheological behavior.

Pickering emulsion stabilized by palm-pressed fiber cellulose nanocrystal extracted by acid hydrolysis-assisted high pressure homogenization

Palm pressed fibre (PPF) is a lignocellulose biomass generated from palm oil mill that is rich in cellulose. The present work aimed to combine acid hydrolysis followed by high-pressure homogenisation (HPH) to produce nanocrystal cellulose (CNC) with enhanced physicochemical properties from PPF. PPF was alkaline treated, bleached, acid hydrolysed and homogenised under high pressure condition to prepare CNC. The effects of homogenisation pressure (10, 30, 50, 70 MPa) and cycles (1, 3, 5, 7) on the particle size, zeta potential and rheological properties of CNC produced were investigated. HPH was capable of producing CNC with better stability. Results revealed that utilizing 1 cycle of homogenisation at a pressure of 50 MPa resulted in CNC with the smallest dimension, highest aspect ratio, moderate viscosity and exceptionally high zeta potential. Subsequently, 0.15% (CNC _0.15 -PE) and 0.30% (CNC _0.30 -PE) of CNC was used to stabilise oil-in-water emulsions and their stability was evaluated against different pH, temperature and ionic strength. All the CNC-stabilised emulsions demonstrated good thermal stability. CNC _0.30 -PE exhibited larger droplets but higher stability than CNC _0.15 -PE. In short, CNC with gel like structure has a promising potential to serve as a natural Pickering emulsifier to stabilise oil-in-water emulsion in various food applications.

N-Alkylated Chitin Nanocrystals as a Collector in Malachite Flotation

The majority of reagents currently used in mineral flotation processes are fossil-based and potentially harmful to the environment. Therefore, it is necessary to find environmentally-friendly alternatives to reduce the impact of mineral processing activities. Chitin nanocrystals are a renewable resource that, due to the natural presence of amino groups on its surface, represents a promising collector for various minerals of economic relevance. This study examines the one-pot functionalization of chitin nanocrystals with aldehyde structures to obtain hydrophobized colloids suitable for mineral flotation. The chemical properties of these nano-colloids were investigated by nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy, their colloidal behavior and structure by electrophoretic light scattering and atomic force microscopy, and their wettability through water contact angle measurements. The functionalized N-alkylated chitin nanocrystals possessed a hydrophobic character, were able to dress mineral particles and featured a performance in the flotation of malachite similar to commercial collectors, which proves the high potential of chitin nanocrystals in this field of application.

Nanochitin: Chemistry, Structure, Assembly, and Applications

Chitin, a fascinating biopolymer found in living organisms, fulfills current demands of availability, sustainability, biocompatibility, biodegradability, functionality, and renewability. A feature of chitin is its ability to structure into hierarchical assemblies, spanning the nano- and macroscales, imparting toughness and resistance (chemical, biological, among others) to multicomponent materials as well as adding adaptability, tunability, and versatility. Retaining the inherent structural characteristics of chitin and its colloidal features in dispersed media has been central to its use, considering it as a building block for the construction of emerging materials. Top-down chitin designs have been reported and differentiate from the traditional molecular-level, bottom-up synthesis and assembly for material development. Such topics are the focus of this Review, which also covers the origins and biological characteristics of chitin and their influence on the morphological and physical-chemical properties. We discuss recent achievements in the isolation, deconstruction, and fractionation of chitin nanostructures of varying axial aspects (nanofibrils and nanorods) along with methods for their modification and assembly into functional materials. We highlight the role of nanochitin in its native architecture and as a component of materials subjected to multiscale interactions, leading to highly dynamic and functional structures. We introduce the most recent advances in the applications of nanochitin-derived materials and industrialization efforts, following green manufacturing principles. Finally, we offer a critical perspective about the adoption of nanochitin in the context of advanced, sustainable materials.

Contribution of polysaccharides from crustacean in fermented food products

Fermented foods are of great importance for their role in preserving nutrients and enriching the human diet. Fermentation ensures longer shelf life and microbiological safety of food. Natural bioactive compounds have been paid attention as nutraceuticals or functional ingredients, which have health-promoting components since polysaccharides, especially chitosan, chitin and their derivatives, are biocompatible and biodegradable, biorenewable, without toxic properties and environmentally friendly. They have been applied in several fields such as medicine, agriculture, and food industry. This chapter provides information on polysaccharides obtained from crustacean as bioactive compounds as well as their effects in fermented foods.

In vitro gastrointestinal digestibility of corn oil-in-water Pickering emulsions stabilized by three types of nanocellulose

The effect of three nanocellulose (various in crystalline allomorph and morphology) on lipid in vitro gastrointestinal digestibility was investigated. Corn oil-in-water emulsions were prepared by CNCs-I, CNCs-II and CNFs respectively. The variations of droplets diameter D[4,3], zeta potential, and microstructure were measured during gastrointestinal digestion (mouth, stomach and small intestine), and the free fatty acid (FFA) released in the small intestine phase were examined. The FFA-released test results indicated that both crystalline allomorph and morphology of nanocellulose affected the degree of lipid digestion, especially the morphology. FFA released amount was ranked in the order of CNCs-I (56.60%), CNCs-II (48.67%) and CNFs (28.21%). This is mainly due to the difference in the self-assembly behavior of nanocellulose at the interface. Our findings provide an innovative solution that using nanocellulose as food-grade particle stabilizer to modulate the digestion of Pickering emulsified lipids, which would benefit the development of given functional foods.

Polysaccharide-Based Nanoparticles as Pickering Emulsifiers in Emulsion Formulations and Heterogenous Polymerization Systems

Bio-based Pickering emulsifiers are a nontoxic alternative to surfactants in emulsion formulations and heterogenous polymerizations. Recent demand for biocompatible and sustainable formulations has accelerated academic interest in polysaccharide-based nanoparticles as Pickering emulsifiers. Despite the environmental advantages, the inherent hydrophilicity of polysaccharides and their nanoparticles limits efficiency and application range. Modification of the polysaccharide surface is often required in the development of ultrastable, functional, and water-in-oil (W/O) systems. Complex surface modification calls into question the sustainability of polysaccharide-based nanoparticles and is identified as a significant barrier to commercialization. This review summarizes the use of nanocelluloses, -starches, and -chitins as Pickering emulsifiers, highlights trends and best practices in surface modification, and provides recommendations to expedite commercialization.

Anion-Specific Water Interactions with Nanochitin: Donnan and Osmotic Pressure Effects as Revealed by Quartz Microgravimetry

The development of new materials emphasizes greater use of sustainable and eco-friendly resources, including those that take advantage of the unique properties of nanopolysaccharides. Advances in this area, however, necessarily require a thorough understanding of interactions with water. Our contribution to this important topic pertains to the swelling behavior of partially deacetylated nanochitin (NCh), which has been studied here by quartz crystal microgravimetry. Ultrathin films of NCh supported on gold-coated resonators have been equilibrated in aqueous electrolyte solutions (containing NaF, NaCl, NaBr, NaNO₃, Na₂SO₄, Na₂SO₃, or Na₃PO₄) at different ionic strengths. As anticipated, NCh displays contrasting swelling/deswelling responses, depending on the ionic affinities and valences of the counterions. The extent of water uptake induced by halide anions, for instance, follows a modified Hofmeister series with F^- producing the highest swelling. In marked contrast, Cl^- induces film dehydration. We conclude that larger anions promote deswelling such that water losses increase with increasing anion valence. Results such as the ones reported here are critical to ongoing efforts designed to dry chitin nanomaterials and develop bio-based and sustainable materials, including particles, films, coatings, and other nanostructured assemblies, for various devices and applications.

Recent Innovations in Emulsion Science and Technology for Food Applications

Emulsion technology has been used for decades in the food industry to create a diverse range of products, including homogenized milk, creams, dips, dressings, sauces, desserts, and toppings. Recently, however, there have been important advances in emulsion science that are leading to new approaches to improving food quality and functionality. This article provides an overview of a number of these advanced emulsion technologies, including Pickering emulsions, high internal phase emulsions (HIPEs), nanoemulsions, and multiple emulsions. Pickering emulsions are stabilized by particle-based emulsifiers, which may be synthetic or natural, rather than conventional molecular emulsifiers. HIPEs are emulsions where the concentration of the disperse phase exceeds the close packing limit (usually >74%), which leads to novel textural properties and high resistance to gravitational separation. Nanoemulsions contain very small droplets (typically d < 200 nm), which leads to useful functional attributes, such as high optical clarity, resistance to gravitational separation and aggregation, rapid digestion, and high bioavailability. Multiple emulsions contain droplets that have smaller immiscible droplets inside them, which can be used for reduced-calorie, encapsulation, and delivery purposes. This new generation of advanced emulsions may lead to food and beverage products with improved quality, health, and sustainability.

Surface and Interface Engineering for Nanocellulosic Advanced Materials

How do trees support their upright massive bodies? The support comes from the incredibly strong and stiff, and highly crystalline nanoscale fibrils of extended cellulose chains, called cellulose nanofibers. Cellulose nanofibers and their crystalline parts-cellulose nanocrystals, collectively nanocelluloses, are therefore the recent hot materials to incorporate in man-made sustainable, environmentally sound, and mechanically strong materials. Nanocelluloses are generally obtained through a top-down process, during or after which the original surface chemistry and interface interactions can be dramatically changed. Therefore, surface and interface engineering are extremely important when nanocellulosic materials with a bottom-up process are fabricated. Herein, the main focus is on promising chemical modification and nonmodification approaches, aiming to prospect this hot topic from novel aspects, including nanocellulose-, chemistry-, and process-oriented surface and interface engineering for advanced nanocellulosic materials. The reinforcement of nanocelluloses in some functional materials, such as structural materials, films, filaments, aerogels, and foams, is discussed, relating to tailored surface and/or interface engineering. Although some of the nanocellulosic products have already reached the industrial arena, it is hoped that more and more nanocellulose-based products will become available in everyday life in the next few years.

Nanocellulose in Emulsions and Heterogeneous Water-Based Polymer Systems: A Review

Nanocelluloses (i.e., bacterial nanocellulose, cellulose nanocrystals, and cellulose nanofibrils) are cellulose-based materials with at least one dimension in the nanoscale. These materials have unique and useful properties and have been shown to assemble at oil-water interfaces and impart new functionality to emulsion and latex systems. Herein, the use of nanocellulose in both emulsions and heterogeneous water-based polymers is reviewed, including dispersion, suspension, and emulsion polymerization. Comprehensive tables describe past work employing nanocellulose as stabilizers or additives and the properties that can be tailored through the use of nanocellulose are highlighted. Even at low loadings, nanocellulose offers an unprecedented level of control as a property modifier for a range of emulsion and polymer applications, influencing, for example, emulsion type, stability, and stimuli-responsive behavior. Nanocellulose can tune polymer particle properties such as size, surface charge, and morphology, or be used to produce capsules and polymer nanocomposites with enhanced mechanical, thermal, and adhesive properties. The role of nanocellulose is discussed, and a perspective for future direction is presented.

Digestibility and gastrointestinal fate of meat versus plant-based meat analogs: An in vitro comparison

Plant-based meat analogs are likely to have different gastrointestinal fates than real meat products due to differences in their compositions and structures. Here, we compared the gastrointestinal fate of ground beef and ground beef analogs using the INFOGEST in vitro digestion model, focusing on differences in microstructure, physicochemical properties, lipid digestion, and protein digestion in different regions of the model gut. The presence of dietary fibers in the beef analogs increased their apparent shear viscosity in the gastrointestinal fluids, which may have inhibited lipid digestion in the small intestine. The proteins in the beef analogs were digested more rapidly in the stomach but less rapidly in the small intestine, which may have been due to differences in protein type (globular soy versus fibrous beef proteins), structural organization, and the presence of dietary fibers in the meat analogs.

Pickering Emulsions via Interfacial Nanoparticle Complexation of Oppositely Charged Nanopolysaccharides

We consider the variables relevant to adsorption of renewable nanoparticles and stabilization of multiphase systems, including the particle's hydrophilicity, electrostatic charge, axial aspect, and entanglement. Exploiting the complexation of two oppositely charged nanopolysaccharides, cellulose nanofibrils (CNFs) and nanochitin (NCh), we prepared CNF/NCh aqueous suspensions and identified the conditions for charge balance (turbidity and electrophoretic mobility titration). By adjusting the composition of CNF/NCh complexes, below and above net neutrality conditions, we produced sunflower oil-in-water Pickering emulsions with adjustable droplet diameters and stability against creaming and oiling-off. The adsorption of CNF/NCh complexes at the oil/water interface occurred with simultaneous partitioning (accumulation) of the CNF on the surface of the droplets in net negative or positive systems (below and above stochiometric charge balance relative to NCh). We further show that the morphology of the droplets and size distribution were preserved during storage for at least 6 months under ambient conditions. This long-term stability was held with a remarkable tolerance to changes in pH (e.g., 3-11) and ionic strength (e.g., 100-500 mM). The mechanism explaining these observations relates to the adsorption of the CNF in the complexes, counteracting the charge losses resulting from the deprotonation of NCh or charge screening. Overall, CNF/NCh complexes and the respective interfacial nanoparticle exchange greatly extend the conditions, favoring highly stable, green Pickering emulsions that offer potential in applications relevant to foodstuff, pharmaceutical, and cosmetic formulations.

Chitin nanofibers improve the stability and functional performance of Pickering emulsions formed from colloidal zein

There is growing interest in formulating Pickering emulsions from biopolymer particles due to consumer demand for more natural products. Protein-based colloidal particles can be used for this purpose, but they are prone to aggregate at pH values around their isoelectric point (pI), which limits their application. In this study, the possibility of using chitin nanofibers (ChNFs) to improve the pH stability of Pickering emulsions prepared from zein colloidal particles (ZCPs) was investigated. Initially, the morphology and interfacial properties of the complexes formed between ChNFs and ZCPs were studied as a function of pH (3-9). The tendency of the ZCPs to aggregate and sediment at pH ≥ pI was reduced in the presence of ChNFs, which was attributed to the formation of electrostatic complexes. The contact angle of the composite particles could be optimized by altering their composition. For instance, the contact angle increased from 74° for ZCPs to 85° for ZCP/ChNF (5:1 ratio) at pH 6, which improved their tendency to stabilize the oil droplets. Brewster angle microscopy indicated that ZCP/ChNF complexes had rod-like and/or particulate structures at an air-water interface, which were different from those observed in the bulk aqueous phase. Pickering emulsions formed from ZCP/ChNF complexes had better stability than those formed from ZCPs or ChNFs, especially when the pH was close to or greater than the pI. An in vitro digestion study showed that the presence of the interfacial complexes reduced the lipolysis of the oil droplets by about 11% in a simulated gastrointestinal tract. High internal phase Pickering emulsions (HIPPEs) could be formed from ZCP/ChNF complexes at pH ≥ pI, which were able to protect unsaturated lipids from oxidation. Overall, our results show that chitin nanofibers can be used to improve the pH stability of Pickering emulsions formed from colloidal zein, as well as to modulate their functional performance.

Recent Advances in Food Emulsions and Engineering Foodstuffs Using Plant-Based Nanocelluloses

In this article, the application of nanocelluloses, especially cellulose nanofibrils and cellulose nanocrystals, as functional ingredients in foods is reviewed. These ingredients offer a sustainable and economic source of natural plant-based nanoparticles. Nanocelluloses are particularly suitable for altering the physicochemical, sensory, and nutritional properties of foods because of their ability to create novel structures. For instance, they can adsorb to air-water or oil-water interfaces and stabilize foams or emulsions, self-assemble in aqueous solutions to form gel networks, and act as fillers or fat replacers. The functionality of nanocelluloses can be extended by chemical functionalization of their surfaces or by using them in combination with other natural food ingredients, such as biosurfactants or biopolymers. As a result, it is possible to create stimuli-responsive, tailorable, and/or active functional biomaterials suitable for a range of foodapplications. In this article, we describe the chemistry, structure, and physicochemical properties of cellulose as well as their relevance for the application of nanocelluloses as functional ingredients in foods. Special emphasis is given to their use as particle stabilizers in Pickering emulsions, but we also discuss their potential application for creating innovative biomaterials with novel functional attributes, such as edible films and packaging. Finally, some of the challenges associated with using nanocelluloses in foods are critically evaluated, including their potential safety and consumer acceptance.

Maria H, Gopi S, Volova T, C. M. Fernandes S, Thomas S. Extraction of Nanochitin from Marine Resources and Fabrication of Polymer Nanocomposites: Recent Advances

Industrial sea food residues, mainly crab and shrimp shells, are considered to be the most promising and abundant source of chitin. In-depth understanding of the biological properties of chitin and scientific advancements in the field of nanotechnology have enabled the development of high-performance chitin nanomaterials. Nanoscale chitin is of great economic value as an efficient functional and reinforcement material for a wide range of applications ranging from water purification to tissue engineering. The use of polymers and nanochitin to produce (bio) nanocomposites offers a good opportunity to prepare bioplastic materials with enhanced functional and structural properties. Most processes for nanochitin isolation rely on the use of chemical, physical or mechanical methods. Chitin-based nanocomposites are fabricated by various methods, involving electrospinning, freeze drying, etc. This review discusses the progress and new developments in the isolation and physico-chemical characterization of chitin; it also highlights the processing of nanochitin in various composite and functional materials.