Method To Characterize and Monitor Covalent Interactions of Flavor Compounds with β-Lactoglobulin Using Mass Spectrometry and Proteomics

14C-Isotope Use to Quantify Covalent Reactions between Flavor Compounds and β-Lactoglobulin

A 14C-based method was developed to study the rate and extent of covalent bond formation between β-lactoglobulin and three model flavor compounds: a ketone (2-undecanone UDO), an aldehyde (decanal DAL), an isothiocyanate (2-phenylethyl isothiocyanate PEITC), and an unreactive "methods blank" (decane DEC). Aqueous protein solutions with one of the 14C-labeled model flavor compounds were placed in water baths at 25, 45, and 65 °C for 4 weeks measuring the amount of flavor: protein reaction at 1, 3, 7, 14, 21, and 28 days. UDO showed lowest reactivity (max of 0.9% of added compound reacted), DAL (max of 16.4% reacted), and PEITC (max of 71.8% reacted). All compounds showed a rapid initial reaction rate which slowed after ca. 7 days. It appears that only PEITC (at 65 °C) saturated all potential protein-reactive sites over the storage period.

Recent advances and challenges in the interaction between myofibrillar proteins and flavor substances

Myofibrillar proteins are an important component of proteins. Flavor characteristics are the key attributes of food quality. The ability of proteins to bind flavor is one of their most fundamental functional properties. The dynamic balance of release and retention of volatile flavor compounds in protein-containing systems largely affects the sensory quality and consumer acceptability of foods. At present, research on flavor mainly focuses on the formation mechanism of flavor components, while there are few reports on the release and perception of flavor components. This review introduces the composition and structure of myofibrillar proteins, the classification of flavor substances, the physical binding and chemical adsorption of myofibrillar proteins and volatile flavor substances, as well as clarifies the regulation law of flavor substances from the viewpoint of endogenous flavor characteristics and exogenous environment factors, to provide a theoretical reference for the flavor regulation of meat products.

Flavor-food ingredient interactions in fortified or reformulated novel food: Binding behaviors, manipulation strategies, sensory impacts, and future trends in delicious and healthy food design

With consumers gaining prominent awareness of health and well-being, a diverse range of fortified or reformulated novel food is developed to achieve personalized or tailored nutrition using protein, carbohydrates, or fat as building blocks. Flavor property is a critical factor in the acceptability and marketability of fortified or reformulated food. Major food ingredients are able to interact with flavor compounds, leading to a significant change in flavor release from the food matrix and, ultimately, altering flavor perception. Although many efforts have been made to elucidate how food matrix components change flavor binding capacities, the influences on flavor perception and their implications for the innovation of fortified or reformulated novel food have not been systematically summarized up to now. Thus, this review provides detailed knowledge about the binding behaviors of flavors to major food ingredients, as well as their influences on flavor retention, release, and perception. Practical approaches for manipulating these interactions and the resulting flavor quality are also reviewed, from the scope of their intrinsic and extrinsic influencing factors with technologies available, which is helpful for future food innovation. Evaluation of food-ingredient interactions using real food matrices while considering multisensory flavor perception is also prospected, to well motivate food industries to investigate new strategies for tasteful and healthy food design in response to consumers' unwillingness to compromise on flavor for health.

Flavor-protein interactions for four plant proteins with ketones and esters

The interaction between flavors and proteins results in a reduced headspace concentration of the flavor, affecting flavor perception. We analyzed the retention of a series of esters and ketones with different chain lengths (C4, C6, C8, and C10) by protein isolates of yellow pea, soy, fava bean, and chickpea, with whey as a reference. An increase in protein concentration led to a decrease in flavor compound in the headspace as measured with atmospheric pressure chemical ionization time-of-flight mass spectroscopy (APCI-TOF-MS). Flavor retention was described with a flavor-partitioning model. It was found that flavor retention could be well predicted with the octanol-water partitioning coefficient and by fitting the hydrophobic interaction parameter. Hydrophobic interactions were highest for chickpea, followed by pea, fava bean, whey, and soy. However, the obtained predictive model was less appropriate for methyl decanoate, possibly due to its solubility. The obtained models and fitted parameters are relevant when designing flavored products with high protein concentrations.

A model study on the site-specificity of (-)-epicatechin-induced reactions in β-lactoglobulin by high-resolution mass spectrometry in combination with bioinformatics

Polyphenol-protein reactions in model solutions of β-lactoglobulin (β-LG) incubated with (-)-epicatechin at 37 °C and 60 °C were monitored by microLC-timsTOF Pro-MS/MS combined with bioinformatics strategies. The addition of (-)-epicatechin to the model solutions resulted in changes in tryptic peptide profiles. Covalent bond formation between (-)-epicatechin o-quinones and β-LG was identified for the residues S27, S30, K60, C66, K69, and C160, with C160 being the predominant binding site. Furthermore, the incubation of β-LG with (-)-epicatechin significantly promoted oxidation, especially for the residues M7 and M24. The reaction of monomeric (-)-epicatechino-quinone at C160 was also identified in the milk chocolate sample. The adaptation of this study by extending the scope of the reaction products offers significant potential for comprehensive food profiling strategies.

Cocoa polyphenols and milk proteins: covalent and non-covalent interactions, chocolate process and effects on potential polyphenol bioaccesibility

In this study, we discussed covalent and non-covalent reactions between cocoa polyphenols and proteins (milk and cocoa) and the possible effects of these reactions on their bioaccessibility, considering environmental and processing conditions. Better insight into these interactions is crucial for understanding the biological effects of polyphenols, developing nutritional strategies, and improving food processing and storage. Protein-polyphenol reactions affect the properties of the final product and can lead to the formation of various precursors at various stages in the manufacturing process, such as fermentation, roasting, alkalization, and conching. Due to the complex composition of the chocolate and the various technological processes, comprehensive food profiling strategies should be applied to analyze protein-polyphenol covalent reactions covering a wide range of potential reaction products. This will help to identify potential effects on the bioaccessibility of bioactive compounds such as low-molecular-weight peptides and polyphenols. To achieve this, databases of potential reaction products and their binding sites can be generated, and the effects of various process conditions on related parameters can be investigated. This would then allow to a deeper insight into mechanisms behind protein-polyphenol interactions in chocolate, and develop strategies to optimize chocolate production for improved nutritional and sensory properties.

Authenticity and traceability of goat milk: Molecular mechanism of β-carotene biotransformation and accessibility

The efficiently extraction and accurately quantify of β-carotene and its metabolites are crucial for authenticity and traceability in goat milk. Nevertheless, its reliability can be largely improved. In this study, meticulously designed native ESI-MS, fluorescence spectroscopy and molecular docking in combination with cold-induced acetonitrile aqueous two-phase separation system weaken the interaction between β-lactoglobulin and β-carotene metabolites and realized the efficiently extraction. Furthermore, established non-targeted quantitative metabolomics with optimal ion source and variable data-independent acquisition minimized the matrix effects and potential ion suppression. Validated atmospheric pressure chemical ionization-ultra high performance liquid chromatography-Orbitrap method showed that β-carotene as distinctive biomarker in cow milk, and retinol, retinaldehyde, retinoic acid and abscisic acid in goat milk. Collectively, the proposed method is a powerful tool to detect cow adulteration risks in goat milk samples and provides valuable information for availability on authenticity of goat milk.

Accurate Quantification of Sulfonamide Metabolites in Goat Meat: A New Strategy for Minimizing Interaction between Sheep Serum Albumin and Sulfonamide Metabolites

To date, the determination of sulfonamide metabolites in animal-derived food has universal disadvantages of low throughput and no integrated metabolites involved. In this study, a powerful and reliable strategy for high-throughput screening of sulfonamide metabolites in goat meat was proposed based on an aqueous two-phase separation procedure (ATPS) combined with ultrahigh-performance liquid chromatography quadrupole-Orbitrap high-resolution mass spectrometry (UHPLC-Q-Orbitrap). Noncovalent interactions including van der Waals force, hydrogen bonding, and hydrophobic effect were determined to be staple interactions between the sulfonamide metabolites and sheep serum albumin by fluorescence spectroscopy and molecular docking technology, and an 80% acetonitrile-water solution/(NH₄)₂SO₄ was used as ATPS in order to release combined sulfonamide metabolites and minimize the influence of sheep serum albumin. Sulfonamide metabolites in the matrix were screened based on a mechanism of mass natural loss and core structure followed by identification combined with the pharmacokinetic. The developed strategy was validated according to EU standard 2002/657/EC with CCα ranging from 0.07 to 0.98 μg kg^-1, accuracy recovery with 84-107%, and RSDs lower than 8.9%. Eighty seven goat meat samples were used for determination of 26 sulfonamides and 8 potential metabolites. On the basis of the established innovative process, this study has successfully implemented the comprehensive detection of sulfonamide metabolites, including N⁴-acetylated substitution, N⁴-hydroxylation, 4-nitroso, azo dimers, oxidized nitro, N⁴ monoglucose conjugation, β-d-glucuronide, and N-4-aminobenzenesulfonyl metabolites, which were shown to undergo oxidation, hydrogenation, sulfation, glucuronidation, glucosylation, and O-aminomethylation.

Influence of pH, Temperature, and Water Activity on Covalent Adduct Formation between Selected Flavor Compounds and Model Protein β-Lactoglobulin

This study investigates the influence of pH, temperature, and water activity on the occurrence of covalent adduct formation between select flavor compounds and a model food protein (β-lactoglobulin). These reactions potentially result in the loss of flavor during processing and storage, reducing consumer acceptability. Foods present a diverse reaction environment encompassing a wide range of a_w, pH, and storage temperature, which potentially influence protein: flavor reaction rates. Liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (LC/MS) data showed that covalent adducts were formed more slowly at low pHs (3) than basic pHs (8) (for citral, allyl isothiocyanate, and dimethyl trisulfide). No reactivity was observed for benzaldehyde at pH 3, but substantial reactivity was found at pHs 7 and 8. The amount of adducts formed increased with an increase in storage temperature. Higher temperatures (45 °C) led to the formation of products that were not observed at lower temperatures (4 and 20 °C). An increase in water activity (0.11-0.75) led to an increase in formation of adducts for allyl isothiocyanate. There were no observable differences in adduct formation as a function of a_w for benzaldehyde, citral, and dimethyl disulfide. However, this lack of observed effect may be due to the rate of reaction being too slow to be detected in the timeframe of this study.

Covalent Adduct Formation Between Flavor Compounds of Various Functional Group Classes and the Model Protein β-Lactoglobulin

The formation of covalent bonds between 47 flavor compounds belonging to 13 different classes of functional groups and β-lactoglobulin (BLG) has been evaluated using electrospray ionization protein mass spectrometry. Covalent bond formation was determined by the appearance of ions in the mass spectra corresponding to BLG + flavor molecule(s). The observed processes for covalent bond formation were Schiff base, Michael addition, and disulfide linkages. Some reactions resulted in protein cross-linking. Aldehydes, sulfur-containing molecules (especially thiols), and functional group-containing furans were the most reactive flavor components. The thiol-containing compounds cleaved one or both electrophilic disulfide linkages in BLG to form disulfide linkages and the sulfides formed covalent bonds with the free cysteine group. Ketones were generally stable, but α-diketones (e.g., diacetyl) were reactive. Some bases (e.g., pyrazines and pyridines) were interactive, while the nucleophilic allylamine was reactive. Hydrocarbons, alcohols, acids, esters, lactones, and pyrans did not give observable levels of adduct formation within the period studied. The formation of covalent bonding (flavor protein) is potentially responsible for the loss of flavor, limiting the shelf-life of many foods.