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Park I, Choi S, Gwak Y, Kim J, Min G, Lim D, Lee SW. Microfluidic Electroporation Arrays for Investigating Electroporation-Induced Cellular Rupture Dynamics. BIOSENSORS 2024; 14:242. [PMID: 38785716 PMCID: PMC11118139 DOI: 10.3390/bios14050242] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2024] [Revised: 05/01/2024] [Accepted: 05/08/2024] [Indexed: 05/25/2024]
Abstract
Electroporation is pivotal in bioelectrochemistry for cellular manipulation, with prominent applications in drug delivery and cell membrane studies. A comprehensive understanding of pore generation requires an in-depth analysis of the critical pore size and the corresponding energy barrier at the onset of cell rupture. However, many studies have been limited to basic models such as artificial membranes or theoretical simulations. Challenging this paradigm, our study pioneers using a microfluidic electroporation chip array. This tool subjects live breast cancer cell species to a diverse spectrum of alternating current electric field conditions, driving electroporation-induced cell rupture. We conclusively determined the rupture voltages across varying applied voltage loading rates, enabling an unprecedented characterization of electric cell rupture dynamics encompassing critical pore radius and energy barrier. Further bolstering our investigation, we probed cells subjected to cholesterol depletion via methyl-β-cyclodextrin and revealed a strong correlation with electroporation. This work not only elucidates the dynamics of electric rupture in live cell membranes but also sets a robust foundation for future explorations into the mechanisms and energetics of live cell electroporation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Insu Park
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Konyang University, Daejeon 35365, Republic of Korea; (I.P.)
| | - Seungyeop Choi
- School of Biomedical Engineering, Korea University, Seoul 02481, Republic of Korea;
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Yonsei University, Wonju 26493, Republic of Korea
- BK21 Four Institute of Precision Public Health, Korea University, Seoul 02841, Republic of Korea
| | - Youngwoo Gwak
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Yonsei University, Wonju 26493, Republic of Korea
| | - Jingwon Kim
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Yonsei University, Wonju 26493, Republic of Korea
| | - Gyeongjun Min
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Yonsei University, Wonju 26493, Republic of Korea
| | - Danyou Lim
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Konyang University, Daejeon 35365, Republic of Korea; (I.P.)
| | - Sang Woo Lee
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Yonsei University, Wonju 26493, Republic of Korea
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2
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Choi S, Woo SH, Park I, Lee S, Yeo KI, Lee SH, Lee SY, Yang S, Lee G, Chang WJ, Bashir R, Kim YS, Lee SW. Cellular subpopulations identified using an ensemble average of multiple dielectrophoresis measurements. Comput Biol Med 2024; 170:108011. [PMID: 38271838 DOI: 10.1016/j.compbiomed.2024.108011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2023] [Revised: 01/11/2024] [Accepted: 01/16/2024] [Indexed: 01/27/2024]
Abstract
While the average value measurement approach can successfully analyze and predict the general behavior and biophysical properties of an isogenic cell population, it fails when significant differences among individual cells are generated in the population by intracellular changes such as the cell cycle, or different cellular responses to certain stimuli. Detecting such single-cell differences in a cell population has remained elusive. Here, we describe an easy-to-implement and generalizable platform that measures the dielectrophoretic cross-over frequency of individual cells by decreasing measurement noise with a stochastic method and computing ensemble average statistics. This platform enables multiple, real-time, label-free detection of individual cells with significant dielectric variations over time within an isogenic cell population. Using a stochastic method in combination with the platform, we distinguished cell subpopulations from a mixture of drug-untreated and -treated isogenic cells. Furthermore, we demonstrate that our platform can identify drug-treated isogenic cells with different recovery rates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Seungyeop Choi
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Yonsei University, Wonju, 26493, Republic of Korea; School of Biomedical Engineering, Korea University, Seoul, 02481, Republic of Korea; BK21 Four Institute of Precision Public Health, Korea University, Seoul, 02841, Republic of Korea
| | - Sung-Hun Woo
- Department of Biomedical Laboratory Science, Yonsei University, Wonju, 26493, Republic of Korea
| | - Insu Park
- Holonyak Micro and Nanotechnology Laboratory, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, 61801, USA; Department of Biomedical Engineering, Konyang University, Daejeon, 35365, Republic of Korea
| | - Sena Lee
- Department of Precision Medicine, Wonju College of Medicine, Yonsei University, Wonju, 26426, Republic of Korea
| | - Kang In Yeo
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Yonsei University, Wonju, 26493, Republic of Korea
| | - Sang Hyun Lee
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Yonsei University, Wonju, 26493, Republic of Korea
| | - Sei Young Lee
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Yonsei University, Wonju, 26493, Republic of Korea; Department of Medical Informatics and Biostatistics, Graduate School, Yonsei University, Wonju, 26426, Republic of Korea
| | - Sejung Yang
- Department of Precision Medicine, Wonju College of Medicine, Yonsei University, Wonju, 26426, Republic of Korea
| | - Gyudo Lee
- Department of Biotechnology and Bioinformatics, Korea University, Sejong, 30019, Republic of Korea; Interdisciplinary Graduate Program for Artificial Intelligence Smart Convergence Technology, Korea University, Sejong, 30019, Republic of Korea
| | - Woo-Jin Chang
- Mechanical Engineering Department, University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, Milwaukee, WI, 53211, USA
| | - Rashid Bashir
- Holonyak Micro and Nanotechnology Laboratory, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, 61801, USA; Department of Mechanical Science and Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, 61801, USA; Department of Bioengineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, 61801, USA; Materials Research Laboratory, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, 61801, USA
| | - Yoon Suk Kim
- Department of Biomedical Laboratory Science, Yonsei University, Wonju, 26493, Republic of Korea.
| | - Sang Woo Lee
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Yonsei University, Wonju, 26493, Republic of Korea.
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Martin-Iglesias S, Herrera L, Santos S, Vesga MÁ, Eguizabal C, Lanceros-Mendez S, Silvan U. Analysis of the impact of handling and culture on the expansion and functionality of NK cells. Front Immunol 2023; 14:1225549. [PMID: 37638054 PMCID: PMC10451065 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2023.1225549] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2023] [Accepted: 07/13/2023] [Indexed: 08/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Natural killer (NK) cells are lymphocytes of the innate immune system that play a key role in the elimination of tumor and virus-infected cells. Unlike T cells, NK cell activation is governed by their direct interaction with target cells via the inhibitory and activating receptors present on their cytoplasmic membrane. The simplicity of this activation mechanism has allowed the development of immunotherapies based on the transduction of NK cells with CAR (chimeric antigen receptor) constructs for the treatment of cancer. Despite the advantages of CAR-NK therapy over CAR-T, including their inability to cause graft-versus-host disease in allogenic therapies, a deeper understanding of the impact of their handling is needed in order to increase their functionality and applicability. With that in mind, the present work critically examines the steps required for NK cell isolation, expansion and storage, and analyze the response of the NK cells to these manipulations. The results show that magnetic-assisted cell sorting, traditionally used for NK isolation, increases the CD16+ population of NK cultures only if the protocol includes both, antibody incubation and passage through the isolation column. Furthermore, based on the importance of surface potential on cellular responses, the influence of surfaces with different net surface charge on NK cells has been evaluated, showing that NK cells displayed higher proliferation rates on charged surfaces than on non-charged ones. The present work highlights the relevance of NK cells manipulation for improving the applicability and effectiveness of NK cell-based therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara Martin-Iglesias
- BCMaterials, Basque Center for Materials, Applications and Nanostructures, UPV/EHU Science Park, Leioa, Spain
| | - Lara Herrera
- Cell Therapy, Stem Cells and Tissues Group, Biocruces Bizkaia Health Research Institute, Barakaldo, Spain
- Research Unit, Basque Centre for Blood Transfusion and Human Tissues, Galdakao, Spain
| | - Silvia Santos
- Cell Therapy, Stem Cells and Tissues Group, Biocruces Bizkaia Health Research Institute, Barakaldo, Spain
- Research Unit, Basque Centre for Blood Transfusion and Human Tissues, Galdakao, Spain
- Red Española de Terapias Avanzadas (TERAV), Redes de Investigación Cooperativa Orientadas a Resultados en Salud (RICORS RD21/0017/0024), Instituto de Salud Carlos III (ISCIII), Madrid, Spain
| | - Miguel Ángel Vesga
- Cell Therapy, Stem Cells and Tissues Group, Biocruces Bizkaia Health Research Institute, Barakaldo, Spain
- Research Unit, Basque Centre for Blood Transfusion and Human Tissues, Galdakao, Spain
- Red Española de Terapias Avanzadas (TERAV), Redes de Investigación Cooperativa Orientadas a Resultados en Salud (RICORS RD21/0017/0024), Instituto de Salud Carlos III (ISCIII), Madrid, Spain
| | - Cristina Eguizabal
- Cell Therapy, Stem Cells and Tissues Group, Biocruces Bizkaia Health Research Institute, Barakaldo, Spain
- Research Unit, Basque Centre for Blood Transfusion and Human Tissues, Galdakao, Spain
- Red Española de Terapias Avanzadas (TERAV), Redes de Investigación Cooperativa Orientadas a Resultados en Salud (RICORS RD21/0017/0024), Instituto de Salud Carlos III (ISCIII), Madrid, Spain
- Red de Inmunoterapia del Cáncer “REINCA” (RED2022-134831-T), Madrid, Spain
| | - Senentxu Lanceros-Mendez
- BCMaterials, Basque Center for Materials, Applications and Nanostructures, UPV/EHU Science Park, Leioa, Spain
- Red Española de Terapias Avanzadas (TERAV), Redes de Investigación Cooperativa Orientadas a Resultados en Salud (RICORS RD21/0017/0024), Instituto de Salud Carlos III (ISCIII), Madrid, Spain
- Basque Foundation for Science, Ikerbasque, Bilbao, Spain
| | - Unai Silvan
- BCMaterials, Basque Center for Materials, Applications and Nanostructures, UPV/EHU Science Park, Leioa, Spain
- Red Española de Terapias Avanzadas (TERAV), Redes de Investigación Cooperativa Orientadas a Resultados en Salud (RICORS RD21/0017/0024), Instituto de Salud Carlos III (ISCIII), Madrid, Spain
- Basque Foundation for Science, Ikerbasque, Bilbao, Spain
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Choi S, Park I, Lee SH, Yeo KI, Min G, Woo SH, Kim YS, Lee SY, Lee SW. On-Chip Single-Cell Bioelectrical Analysis for Identification of Cell Electrical Phenotyping in Response to Sequential Electric Signal Modulation. BIOSENSORS 2022; 12:1037. [PMID: 36421154 PMCID: PMC9688586 DOI: 10.3390/bios12111037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2022] [Revised: 11/12/2022] [Accepted: 11/12/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
In recent years, an interesting biomarker called membrane breakdown voltage has been examined using artificial planar lipid bilayers. Even though they have great potential to identify cell electrical phenotyping for distinguishing similar cell lines or cells under different physiological conditions, the biomarker has not been evaluated in the context of living cell electrical phenotyping. Herein, we present a single-cell analysis platform to continuously measure the electric response in a large number of cells in parallel using electric frequency and voltage variables. Using this platform, we measured the direction of cell displacement and transparent cell image alteration as electric polarization of the cell responds to signal modulation, extracting the dielectrophoretic crossover frequency and membrane breakdown voltage for each cell, and utilizing the measurement results in the same spatiotemporal environment. We developed paired parameters using the dielectrophoretic crossover frequency and membrane breakdown voltage for each cell and evaluated the paired parameter efficiency concerning the identification of two different breast cancer cells and cell drug response. Moreover, we showed that the platform was able to identify cell electrical phenotyping, which was generated by subtle changes in cholesterol depletion-induced cell membrane integrity disruption when the paired parameter was used. Our platform introduced in this paper is extremely useful for facilitating more accurate and efficient evaluation of cell electrical phenotyping in a variety of applications, such as cell biology and drug discovery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Seungyeop Choi
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Yonsei University, Wonju 26493, Republic of Korea
| | - Insu Park
- Holonyak Micro and Nanotechnology Laboratory, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801, USA
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Konyang University, Daejeon 35365, Republic of Korea
| | - Sang Hyun Lee
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Yonsei University, Wonju 26493, Republic of Korea
| | - Kang In Yeo
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Yonsei University, Wonju 26493, Republic of Korea
| | - Gyeongjun Min
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Yonsei University, Wonju 26493, Republic of Korea
| | - Sung-Hun Woo
- Department of Biomedical Laboratory Science, Yonsei University, Wonju 26493, Republic of Korea
| | - Yoon Suk Kim
- Department of Biomedical Laboratory Science, Yonsei University, Wonju 26493, Republic of Korea
| | - Sei Young Lee
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Yonsei University, Wonju 26493, Republic of Korea
| | - Sang Woo Lee
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Yonsei University, Wonju 26493, Republic of Korea
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5
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Yeo KI, Park I, Lee SH, Lee SY, Chang WJ, Bashir R, Choi S, Lee SW. Ultra-sensitive dielectrophoretic surface charge multiplex detection inside a micro-dielectrophoretic device. Biosens Bioelectron 2022; 210:114235. [PMID: 35483112 DOI: 10.1016/j.bios.2022.114235] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2021] [Revised: 03/22/2022] [Accepted: 03/28/2022] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Label-free dielectrophoretic force-based surface charge detection has shown great potential for highly sensitive and selective sensing of metal ions and small biomolecules. However, this method suffers from a complex calibration process and measurement signal interference in simultaneous multi-analyte detection, thus creating difficulties in multiplex detection. We have developed a method to overcome these issues based on the optical discrimination of the dielectrophoretic behaviors of multiple microparticle probes considering the surface charge difference before and after self-assembling conjugation. In this report, we demonstrate and characterize this dielectrophoretic force-based surface charge detection method with particle probes functionalized by various biomolecules. This technique achieved an attomolar limit of detection (LOD) for Hg2+ in distilled water and a femtomolar LOD in drinking water using DNA aptamer-functionalized particle probes. More importantly, using two different DNA aptamer-functionalized particle probes for Hg2+ and Ag+, label-free dielectrophoretic multiplex detection of these species in drinking water with a femtomolar and a nanomolar LOD was achieved for the first time.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kang In Yeo
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Yonsei University, Wonju, 26493, Republic of Korea
| | - Insu Park
- Holonyak Micro and Nanotechnology Laboratory, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, 61801, USA
| | - Sang Hyun Lee
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Yonsei University, Wonju, 26493, Republic of Korea
| | - Sei Young Lee
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Yonsei University, Wonju, 26493, Republic of Korea
| | - Woo-Jin Chang
- Mechanical Engineering Department, University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, Milwaukee, WI, 53211, USA
| | - Rashid Bashir
- Holonyak Micro and Nanotechnology Laboratory, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, 61801, USA; Department of Mechanical Science and Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, 61801, USA; Department of Bioengineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, 61801, USA; Materials Research Laboratory, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, 61801, USA
| | - Seungyeop Choi
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Yonsei University, Wonju, 26493, Republic of Korea.
| | - Sang Woo Lee
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Yonsei University, Wonju, 26493, Republic of Korea.
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6
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Bell SE, Park I, Rubakhin SS, Bashir R, Vlasov Y, Sweedler JV. Droplet Microfluidics with MALDI-MS Detection: The Effects of Oil Phases in GABA Analysis. ACS MEASUREMENT SCIENCE AU 2021; 1:147-156. [PMID: 34939077 PMCID: PMC8679089 DOI: 10.1021/acsmeasuresciau.1c00017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2021] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
Microfluidic and mass spectrometry (MS) methods are widely used to sample and probe the chemical composition of biological systems to elucidate chemical correlates of their healthy and disease states. Though matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization-mass spectrometry (MALDI)-MS has been hyphenated to droplet microfluidics for offline analyses, the effects of parameters related to droplet generation, such as the type of oil phase used, have been understudied. To characterize these effects, five different oil phases were tested in droplet microfluidics for producing samples for MALDI-MS analysis. Picoliter to nanoliter aqueous droplets containing 0.1 to 100 mM γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) and inorganic salts were generated inside a polydimethylsiloxane microfluidic chip and deposited onto a conductive glass slide. Optical microscopy, Raman spectroscopy, and MALDI-mass spectrometry imaging (MSI) of the droplet samples and surrounding areas revealed patterns of solvent and oil evaporation and analyte deposition. Optical microscopy detected the presence of salt crystals in 50-100 μm diameter dried droplets, and Raman and MSI were used to correlate GABA signals to the visible droplet footprints. MALDI-MS analyses revealed that droplets prepared in the presence of octanol oil led to the poorest detectability of GABA, whereas the oil phases containing FC-40 provided the best detectability; GABA signal was localized to the footprint of 65 pL droplets with a limit of detection of 23 amol. The effect of the surfactant perfluorooctanol on analyte detection was also investigated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara E. Bell
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Illinois Urbana−Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
- Beckman
Institute for Advanced Science and Technology, University of Illinois Urbana−Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
| | - Insu Park
- Holonyak
Micro & Nanotechnology Laboratory, University
of Illinois Urbana−Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
| | - Stanislav S. Rubakhin
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Illinois Urbana−Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
- Beckman
Institute for Advanced Science and Technology, University of Illinois Urbana−Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
| | - Rashid Bashir
- Beckman
Institute for Advanced Science and Technology, University of Illinois Urbana−Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
- Holonyak
Micro & Nanotechnology Laboratory, University
of Illinois Urbana−Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
- Department
of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Illinois Urbana−Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
- Department
of Bioengineering, University of Illinois
at Urbana−Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
| | - Yurii Vlasov
- Beckman
Institute for Advanced Science and Technology, University of Illinois Urbana−Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
- Holonyak
Micro & Nanotechnology Laboratory, University
of Illinois Urbana−Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
- Department
of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Illinois Urbana−Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
- Department
of Bioengineering, University of Illinois
at Urbana−Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
| | - Jonathan V. Sweedler
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Illinois Urbana−Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
- Beckman
Institute for Advanced Science and Technology, University of Illinois Urbana−Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
- Department
of Bioengineering, University of Illinois
at Urbana−Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
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Yang Q, Jiang N, Xu H, Zhang Y, Xiong C, Huang J. Integration of electrotaxis and durotaxis in cancer cells: Subtle nonlinear responses to electromechanical coupling cues. Biosens Bioelectron 2021; 186:113289. [PMID: 33975207 DOI: 10.1016/j.bios.2021.113289] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2020] [Revised: 03/21/2021] [Accepted: 04/26/2021] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Cells in living organisms live in multiphysics-coupled environments. There is growing evidence indicating that both exogenous electric field (EEF) and extracellular stiffness gradient (ESG) can regulate directional movement of cells, which are known as electrotaxis and durotaxis, respectively. How single cells respond to the ubiquitous electromechanical coupling cues, however, remains mysterious. Using microfluidic chip-based methodology and finite element-based electromechanical coupling design strategies, we develope an electromechanical coupling microchip system, enabling us to quantitatively investigate polarization and directional migration governed by EEF and ESG at the single cell level. It is revealed that both of electrotaxis and durotaxis nonlinearly depend on the physiological EEF and ESG, respectively. Specific combinations of EEF and ESG can subtly modify the polarization states of single cells and thus induce hyperpolarization and depolarization. Cells can integrate electrotaxis and durotaxis in response to multi-cue microenvironments via subtle mechanisms involving cooperation and competition during cellular electrosensing and mechanosensing. The work offers a platform for quantifying migration and polarization of cells driven by electromechanical cues, which is essential not only for elucidating physiological and pathological processes like embryo development, and invasion and metastasis of cancer cells, but for manipulating cell behaviors in a controllable and programmable fashion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qunfeng Yang
- Department of Mechanics and Engineering Science, College of Engineering, Peking University, Beijing, 100871, China
| | - Nan Jiang
- Department of Mechanics and Engineering Science, College of Engineering, Peking University, Beijing, 100871, China
| | - Hongwei Xu
- Department of Mechanics and Engineering Science, College of Engineering, Peking University, Beijing, 100871, China
| | - Yajun Zhang
- Department of Mechanics and Engineering Science, College of Engineering, Peking University, Beijing, 100871, China
| | - Chunyang Xiong
- Department of Mechanics and Engineering Science, College of Engineering, Peking University, Beijing, 100871, China; Academy for Advanced Interdisciplinary Studies, Peking University, Beijing, 100871, China
| | - Jianyong Huang
- Department of Mechanics and Engineering Science, College of Engineering, Peking University, Beijing, 100871, China; Beijing Innovation Center for Engineering Science and Advanced Technology, Peking University, Beijing, 100871, China.
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