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Su X, Li J, Xu X, Ye Y, Wang C, Pang G, Liu W, Liu A, Zhao C, Hao X. Strategies to enhance the therapeutic efficacy of anti-PD-1 antibody, anti-PD-L1 antibody and anti-CTLA-4 antibody in cancer therapy. J Transl Med 2024; 22:751. [PMID: 39123227 PMCID: PMC11316358 DOI: 10.1186/s12967-024-05552-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2024] [Accepted: 07/29/2024] [Indexed: 08/12/2024] Open
Abstract
Although immune checkpoint inhibitors (anti-PD-1 antibody, anti-PD-L1 antibody, and anti-CTLA-4 antibody) have displayed considerable success in the treatment of malignant tumors, the therapeutic effect is still unsatisfactory for a portion of patients. Therefore, it is imperative to develop strategies to enhance the effect of these ICIs. Increasing evidence strongly suggests that the key to this issue is to transform the tumor immune microenvironment from a state of no or low immune infiltration to a state of high immune infiltration and enhance the tumor cell-killing effect of T cells. Therefore, some combination strategies have been proposed and this review appraise a summary of 39 strategies aiming at enhancing the effectiveness of ICIs, which comprise combining 10 clinical approaches and 29 foundational research strategies. Moreover, this review improves the comprehensive understanding of combination therapy with ICIs and inspires novel ideas for tumor immunotherapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xin Su
- The First Clinical Medical College of Gansu University of Chinese Medicine (Gansu Provincial Hospital), Lanzhou, 730000, China
- Department of General Surgery, Gansu Provincial Hospital, No. 204 Donggang West Road, Chengguan District, Lanzhou, 730000, China
| | - Jian Li
- The First Clinical Medical College of Gansu University of Chinese Medicine (Gansu Provincial Hospital), Lanzhou, 730000, China
- Department of General Surgery, Gansu Provincial Hospital, No. 204 Donggang West Road, Chengguan District, Lanzhou, 730000, China
| | - Xiao Xu
- The First Clinical Medical College of Gansu University of Chinese Medicine (Gansu Provincial Hospital), Lanzhou, 730000, China
- Department of General Surgery, Gansu Provincial Hospital, No. 204 Donggang West Road, Chengguan District, Lanzhou, 730000, China
| | - Youbao Ye
- The First Clinical Medical College of Gansu University of Chinese Medicine (Gansu Provincial Hospital), Lanzhou, 730000, China
- Department of General Surgery, Gansu Provincial Hospital, No. 204 Donggang West Road, Chengguan District, Lanzhou, 730000, China
| | - Cailiu Wang
- The First Clinical Medical College of Gansu University of Chinese Medicine (Gansu Provincial Hospital), Lanzhou, 730000, China
- Department of General Surgery, Gansu Provincial Hospital, No. 204 Donggang West Road, Chengguan District, Lanzhou, 730000, China
| | - Guanglong Pang
- The First Clinical Medical College of Gansu University of Chinese Medicine (Gansu Provincial Hospital), Lanzhou, 730000, China
- Department of General Surgery, Gansu Provincial Hospital, No. 204 Donggang West Road, Chengguan District, Lanzhou, 730000, China
| | - Wenxiu Liu
- The First Clinical Medical College of Gansu University of Chinese Medicine (Gansu Provincial Hospital), Lanzhou, 730000, China
- Department of General Surgery, Gansu Provincial Hospital, No. 204 Donggang West Road, Chengguan District, Lanzhou, 730000, China
| | - Ang Liu
- The First Clinical Medical College of Gansu University of Chinese Medicine (Gansu Provincial Hospital), Lanzhou, 730000, China
- Department of General Surgery, Gansu Provincial Hospital, No. 204 Donggang West Road, Chengguan District, Lanzhou, 730000, China
| | - Changchun Zhao
- The First Clinical Medical College of Gansu University of Chinese Medicine (Gansu Provincial Hospital), Lanzhou, 730000, China
- Department of General Surgery, Gansu Provincial Hospital, No. 204 Donggang West Road, Chengguan District, Lanzhou, 730000, China
| | - Xiangyong Hao
- Department of General Surgery, Gansu Provincial Hospital, No. 204 Donggang West Road, Chengguan District, Lanzhou, 730000, China.
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2
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Tiryaki E, Álvarez-Leirós C, Majcherkiewicz JN, Chariou PL, Maceira-Campos M, Bodelón G, Steinmetz NF, Salgueiriño V. Magnetically Induced Thermal Effects on Tobacco Mosaic Virus-Based Nanocomposites for a Programmed Disassembly of Protein Cages. ACS APPLIED BIO MATERIALS 2024; 7:4804-4814. [PMID: 38934736 PMCID: PMC11253087 DOI: 10.1021/acsabm.4c00634] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2024] [Revised: 06/19/2024] [Accepted: 06/19/2024] [Indexed: 06/28/2024]
Abstract
Protein cages are promising tools for the controlled delivery of therapeutics and imaging agents when endowed with programmable disassembly strategies. Here, we produced hybrid nanocomposites made of tobacco mosaic virus (TMV) and magnetic iron oxide nanoparticles (IONPs), designed to disrupt the viral protein cages using magnetically induced release of heat. We studied the effects of this magnetic hyperthermia on the programmable viral protein capsid disassembly using (1) elongated nanocomposites of TMV coated heterogeneously with magnetic iron oxide nanoparticles (TMV@IONPs) and (2) spherical nanocomposites of polystyrene (PS) on which we deposited presynthesized IONPs and TMV via layer-by-layer self-assembly (PS@IONPs/TMV). Notably, we found that the extent of the disassembly of the protein cages is contingent upon the specific absorption rate (SAR) of the magnetic nanoparticles, that is, the heating efficiency, and the relative position of the protein cage within the nanocomposite concerning the heating sources. This implies that the spatial arrangement of components within the hybrid nanostructure has a significant impact on the disassembly process. Understanding and optimizing this relationship will contribute to the critical spatiotemporal control for targeted drug and gene delivery using protein cages.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Paul L. Chariou
- Department
of Bioengineering, University of California
San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, United States
| | | | - Gustavo Bodelón
- CINBIO, Universidade de Vigo, Vigo 36310, Spain
- Departamento
de Biología Funcional y Ciencias de la Salud, Universidade de Vigo, Vigo 36310, Spain
| | - Nicole F. Steinmetz
- Department
of Bioengineering, University of California
San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, United States
- Department
of NanoEngineering, University of California
San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, United States
- Department
of Radiology, University of California San
Diego, La Jolla, California92093, United States
- Center for
Nano-ImmunoEngineering, University of California
San Diego, La Jolla, California92093, United States
- Institute
for Materials Discovery and Design, University
of California San Diego, La Jolla, California92093, United States
| | - Verónica Salgueiriño
- CINBIO, Universidade de Vigo, Vigo 36310, Spain
- Departamento
de Física Aplicada, Universidade
de Vigo, Vigo 36310, Spain
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3
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Yang M, Rao G, Li L, Qi L, Ma C, Zhang H, Gong J, Wei B, Zhang XE, Chen G, Cao S, Li F. Transformation of a Viral Capsid from Nanocages to Nanotubes and Then to Hydrogels: Redirected Self-Assembly and Effects on Immunogenicity. ACS NANO 2024; 18:13755-13767. [PMID: 38752610 DOI: 10.1021/acsnano.4c01969] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/29/2024]
Abstract
The ability to manipulate the self-assembly of proteins is essential to understanding the mechanisms of life and beneficial to fabricating advanced nanomaterials. Here, we report the transformation of the MS2 phage capsid from nanocages to nanotubes and then to nanotube hydrogels through simple point mutations guided by interfacial interaction redesign. We demonstrate that site 70, which lies in the flexible FG loop of the capsid protein (CP), is a "magic" site that can largely dictate the final morphology of assemblies. By varying the amino acid at site 70, with the aid of a cysteine-to-alanine mutation at site 46, we achieved the assembly of double-helical or single-helical nanotubes in addition to nanocages. Furthermore, an additional cysteine substitution on the surface of nanotubes mediated their cross-linking to form hydrogels with reducing agent responsiveness. The hierarchical self-assembly system allowed for the investigation of morphology-related immunogenicity of MS2 CPs, which revealed dramatic differences among nanocages, nanotubes, and nanotube hydrogels in terms of immune response types, antibody levels and T cell functions. This study provides insights into the assembly manipulation of protein nanomaterials and the customized design of nanovaccines and drug delivery systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mengsi Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Virology, Wuhan Institute of Virology, Center for Biosafety Mega-Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan 430071, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Guibo Rao
- State Key Laboratory of Virology, Wuhan Institute of Virology, Center for Biosafety Mega-Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan 430071, China
| | - Long Li
- State Key Laboratory of Molecular Engineering of Polymers and Department of Macromolecular Science, Fudan University, Shanghai 200433, China
| | - Linlin Qi
- Institute of Geriatrics, Affiliated Nantong Hospital of Shanghai University (The Sixth People's Hospital of Nantong), School of Medicine, Shanghai University, Nantong 226011, China
| | - Chun Ma
- State Key Laboratory of Virology, Wuhan Institute of Virology, Center for Biosafety Mega-Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan 430071, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Hui Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Virology, Wuhan Institute of Virology, Center for Biosafety Mega-Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan 430071, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Jun Gong
- State Key Laboratory of Virology, Wuhan Institute of Virology, Center for Biosafety Mega-Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan 430071, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Bin Wei
- Shanghai Engineering Research Center of Organ Repair, School of Life Sciences, Shanghai University, Shanghai 200444, China
| | - Xian-En Zhang
- Faculty of Synthetic Biology, Shenzhen Institute of Advanced Technology, Shenzhen 518055, China
| | - Guosong Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Molecular Engineering of Polymers and Department of Macromolecular Science, Fudan University, Shanghai 200433, China
| | - Sheng Cao
- State Key Laboratory of Virology, Wuhan Institute of Virology, Center for Biosafety Mega-Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan 430071, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Feng Li
- State Key Laboratory of Virology, Wuhan Institute of Virology, Center for Biosafety Mega-Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan 430071, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
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4
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Chung YH, Zhao Z, Jung E, Omole AO, Wang H, Sutorus L, Steinmetz NF. Systemic Administration of Cowpea Mosaic Virus Demonstrates Broad Protection Against Metastatic Cancers. ADVANCED SCIENCE (WEINHEIM, BADEN-WURTTEMBERG, GERMANY) 2024; 11:e2308237. [PMID: 38430536 PMCID: PMC11095214 DOI: 10.1002/advs.202308237] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2023] [Revised: 12/21/2023] [Indexed: 03/04/2024]
Abstract
The key challenge in cancer treatment is prevention of metastatic disease which is therapeutically resistant and carries poor prognoses necessitating efficacious prophylactic approaches that prevent metastasis and recurrence. It is previously demonstrated that cowpea mosaic virus (CPMV) induces durable antitumor responses when used in situ, i.e., intratumoral injection. As a new direction, it is showed that CPMV demonstrates widespread effectiveness as an immunoprophylactic agent - potent efficacy is demonstrated in four metastatic models of colon, ovarian, melanoma, and breast cancer. Systemic administration of CPMV stimulates the innate immune system, enabling attack of cancer cells; processing of the cancer cells and associated antigens leads to systemic, durable, and adaptive antitumor immunity. Overall, CPMV demonstrated broad efficacy as an immunoprophylactic agent in the rejection of metastatic cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Young Hun Chung
- Department of BioengineeringUniversity of California, San DiegoLa JollaCA92093USA
- Moores Cancer CenterUniversity of California, San DiegoLa JollaCA92093USA
| | - Zhongchao Zhao
- Moores Cancer CenterUniversity of California, San DiegoLa JollaCA92093USA
- Department of NanoEngineeringUniversity of California, San DiegoLa JollaCA92093USA
- Center for Nano‐ImmunoEngineeringUniversity of California, San DiegoLa JollaCA92093USA
| | - Eunkyeong Jung
- Department of NanoEngineeringUniversity of California, San DiegoLa JollaCA92093USA
| | - Anthony O. Omole
- Department of NanoEngineeringUniversity of California, San DiegoLa JollaCA92093USA
| | - Hanyang Wang
- Department of BiologyUniversity of California, San DiegoLa JollaCA92093USA
| | - Lucas Sutorus
- Department of NanoEngineeringUniversity of California, San DiegoLa JollaCA92093USA
| | - Nicole F. Steinmetz
- Department of BioengineeringUniversity of California, San DiegoLa JollaCA92093USA
- Moores Cancer CenterUniversity of California, San DiegoLa JollaCA92093USA
- Department of NanoEngineeringUniversity of California, San DiegoLa JollaCA92093USA
- Center for Nano‐ImmunoEngineeringUniversity of California, San DiegoLa JollaCA92093USA
- Department of RadiologyUniversity of California, San DiegoLa JollaCA92093USA
- Institute for Materials Discovery and DesignUniversity of California, San DiegoLa JollaCA92093USA
- Center for Engineering in CancerUniversity of California, San DiegoLa JollaCA92093USA
- Shu and K.C. Chien and Peter Farrell CollaboratoryUniversity of California, San DiegoLa JollaCA92093USA
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5
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Kane G, Lusi C, Brassil M, Atukorale P. Engineering approaches for innate immune-mediated tumor microenvironment remodeling. IMMUNO-ONCOLOGY TECHNOLOGY 2024; 21:100406. [PMID: 38213392 PMCID: PMC10777078 DOI: 10.1016/j.iotech.2023.100406] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2024]
Abstract
Cancer immunotherapy offers transformative promise particularly for the treatment of lethal cancers, since a correctly trained immune system can comprehensively orchestrate tumor clearance with no need for continued therapeutic intervention. Historically, the majority of immunotherapies have been T cell-focused and have included immune checkpoint inhibitors, chimeric antigen receptor T cells, and T-cell vaccines. Unfortunately T-cell-focused therapies have failed to achieve optimal efficacy in most solid tumors largely because of a highly immunosuppressed 'cold' or immune-excluded tumor microenvironment (TME). Recently, a rapidly growing treatment paradigm has emerged that focuses on activation of tumor-resident innate antigen-presenting cells, such as dendritic cells and macrophages, which can drive a proinflammatory immune response to remodel the TME from 'cold' or immune-excluded to 'hot'. Early strategies for TME remodeling centered on free cytokines and agonists, but these approaches have faced significant hurdles in both delivery and efficacy. Systemic toxicity from off-target inflammation is a paramount concern in these therapies. To address this critical gap, engineering approaches have provided the opportunity to add 'built-in' capabilities to cytokines, agonists, and other therapeutic agents to mediate improved delivery and efficacy. Such capabilities have included protective encapsulation to shield them from degradation, targeting to direct them with high specificity to tumors, and co-delivery strategies to harness synergistic proinflammatory pathways. Here, we review innate immune-mediated TME remodeling engineering approaches that focus on cytokines, innate immune agonists, immunogenic viruses, and cell-based methods, highlighting emerging preclinical approaches and strategies that are either being tested in clinical trials or already Food and Drug Administration approved.
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Affiliation(s)
- G.I. Kane
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Massachusetts Amherst, Amherst
- University of Massachusetts Cancer Center, Worcester
| | - C.F. Lusi
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Massachusetts Amherst, Amherst
- University of Massachusetts Cancer Center, Worcester
| | - M.L. Brassil
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Massachusetts Amherst, Amherst
- University of Massachusetts Cancer Center, Worcester
| | - P.U. Atukorale
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Massachusetts Amherst, Amherst
- University of Massachusetts Cancer Center, Worcester
- Division of Innate Immunity, Department of Medicine, University of Massachusetts Chan Medical School, Worcester, USA
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6
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Zhao Z, Chung YH, Steinmetz NF. Melanoma immunotherapy enabled by M2 macrophage targeted immunomodulatory cowpea mosaic virus. MATERIALS ADVANCES 2024; 5:1473-1479. [PMID: 38380336 PMCID: PMC10876082 DOI: 10.1039/d3ma00820g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2023] [Accepted: 01/17/2024] [Indexed: 02/22/2024]
Abstract
We have developed nanoparticle formulations targeting M2 macrophages for cancer immunotherapy by conjugating high-affinity binding peptides to cowpea mosaic virus as an immunostimulatory adjuvant. We confirmed the targeting of and uptake by M2 macrophages in vitro and the therapeutic efficacy of the nanoparticles against murine melanoma in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhongchao Zhao
- Department of NanoEngineering, University of California 9500 Gilman Dr, La Jolla San Diego CA 92093 USA
- Center for Nano-ImmunoEngineering, University of California 9500 Gilman Dr, La Jolla San Diego CA 92093 USA
- Moores Cancer Center, University of California 9500 Gilman Dr, La Jolla San Diego CA 92093 USA
| | - Young Hun Chung
- Moores Cancer Center, University of California 9500 Gilman Dr, La Jolla San Diego CA 92093 USA
- Department of Bioengineering, University of California, San Diego 9500 Gilman Dr, La Jolla CA 92093 USA
| | - Nicole F Steinmetz
- Department of NanoEngineering, University of California 9500 Gilman Dr, La Jolla San Diego CA 92093 USA
- Center for Nano-ImmunoEngineering, University of California 9500 Gilman Dr, La Jolla San Diego CA 92093 USA
- Moores Cancer Center, University of California 9500 Gilman Dr, La Jolla San Diego CA 92093 USA
- Department of Bioengineering, University of California, San Diego 9500 Gilman Dr, La Jolla CA 92093 USA
- Department of Radiology, University of California, San Diego 9500 Gilman Dr, La Jolla CA 92093 USA
- Institute for Materials Discovery and Design, University of California 9500 Gilman Dr, La Jolla San Diego CA 92093 USA
- Center for Engineering in Cancer, University of California 9500 Gilman Dr, La Jolla San Diego CA 92093 USA
- Shu and K.C. Chien and Peter Farrell Collaboratory, University of California 9500 Gilman Dr, La Jolla San Diego CA 92093 USA
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7
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Karan S, Jung E, Boone C, Steinmetz NF. Synergistic combination therapy using cowpea mosaic virus intratumoral immunotherapy and Lag-3 checkpoint blockade. Cancer Immunol Immunother 2024; 73:51. [PMID: 38349406 PMCID: PMC10864561 DOI: 10.1007/s00262-024-03636-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2023] [Accepted: 01/15/2024] [Indexed: 02/15/2024]
Abstract
Immune checkpoint therapy (ICT) for cancer can yield dramatic clinical responses; however, these may only be observed in a minority of patients. These responses can be further limited by subsequent disease recurrence and resistance. Combination immunotherapy strategies are being developed to overcome these limitations. We have previously reported enhanced efficacy of combined intratumoral cowpea mosaic virus immunotherapy (CPMV IIT) and ICT approaches. Lymphocyte-activation gene-3 (LAG-3) is a next-generation inhibitory immune checkpoint with broad expression across multiple immune cell subsets. Its expression increases on activated T cells and contributes to T cell exhaustion. We observed heightened efficacy of a combined CPMV IIT and anti-LAG-3 treatment in a mouse model of melanoma. Further, LAG-3 expression was found to be increased within the TME following intratumoral CPMV administration. The integration of CPMV IIT with LAG-3 inhibition holds significant potential to improve treatment outcomes by concurrently inducing a comprehensive anti-tumor immune response, enhancing local immune activation, and mitigating T cell exhaustion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sweta Karan
- Department of Nanoengineering, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - Eunkyeong Jung
- Department of Nanoengineering, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - Christine Boone
- Department of Radiology, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA.
| | - Nicole F Steinmetz
- Department of Nanoengineering, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA.
- Department of Radiology, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA.
- Shu and K.C. Chien and Peter Farrell Collaboratory, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA.
- Center for Nano-ImmunoEngineering, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA.
- Moores Cancer Center, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA.
- Department of Bioengineering, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA.
- Institute for Materials Discovery and Design, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA.
- Center for Engineering in Cancer, Institute of Engineering Medicine, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA.
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8
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Azizi M, Shahgolzari M, Fathi-Karkan S, Ghasemi M, Samadian H. Multifunctional plant virus nanoparticles: An emerging strategy for therapy of cancer. WILEY INTERDISCIPLINARY REVIEWS. NANOMEDICINE AND NANOBIOTECHNOLOGY 2023; 15:e1872. [PMID: 36450366 DOI: 10.1002/wnan.1872] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2022] [Revised: 11/07/2022] [Accepted: 11/11/2022] [Indexed: 12/05/2022]
Abstract
Cancer therapy requires sophisticated treatment strategies to obtain the highest success. Nanotechnology is enabling, revolutionizing, and multidisciplinary concepts to improve conventional cancer treatment modalities. Nanomaterials have a central role in this scenario, explaining why various nanomaterials are currently being developed for cancer therapy. Viral nanoparticles (VNPs) have shown promising performance in cancer therapy due to their unique features. VNPs possess morphological homogeneity, ease of functionalization, biocompatibility, biodegradability, water solubility, and high absorption efficiency that are beneficial for cancer therapy applications. In the current review paper, we highlight state-of-the-art properties and potentials of plant viruses, strategies for multifunctional plant VNPs formulations, potential applications and challenges in VNPs-based cancer therapy, and finally practical solutions to bring potential cancer therapy one step closer to real applications. This article is categorized under: Therapeutic Approaches and Drug Discovery > Nanomedicine for Oncologic Disease Nanotechnology Approaches to Biology > Nanoscale Systems in Biology Biology-Inspired Nanomaterials > Protein and Virus-Based Structures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mehdi Azizi
- Department of Tissue Engineering and Biomaterials, School of Advanced Medical Sciences and Technologies, Hamadan University of Medical Sciences, Hamadan, Iran
- Dental Implants Research Center, Hamadan University of Medical Sciences, Hamadan, Iran
| | - Mehdi Shahgolzari
- Department of Medical Nanotechnology, Faculty of Advanced Medical Sciences, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Sonia Fathi-Karkan
- Department of Medical Nanotechnology, Faculty of Advanced Medical Sciences, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
- Department of Advanced Sciences and Technologies in Medicine, School of Medicine, North Khorasan University of Medical Sciences, Bojnurd, Iran
| | - Maryam Ghasemi
- Renal Division, Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Hadi Samadian
- Research Center for Molecular Medicine, Hamadan University of Medical Sciences, Hamadan, Iran
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9
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Nikitin N, Vasiliev Y, Kovalenko A, Ryabchevskaya E, Kondakova O, Evtushenko E, Karpova O. Plant Viruses as Adjuvants for Next-Generation Vaccines and Immunotherapy. Vaccines (Basel) 2023; 11:1372. [PMID: 37631940 PMCID: PMC10458565 DOI: 10.3390/vaccines11081372] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2023] [Revised: 08/11/2023] [Accepted: 08/14/2023] [Indexed: 08/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Vaccines are the cornerstone of infectious disease control and prevention. The outbreak of SARS-CoV-2 has confirmed the urgent need for a new approach to the design of novel vaccines. Plant viruses and their derivatives are being used increasingly for the development of new medical and biotechnological applications, and this is reflected in a number of preclinical and clinical studies. Plant viruses have a unique combination of features (biosafety, low reactogenicity, inexpensiveness and ease of production, etc.), which determine their potential. This review presents the latest data on the use of plant viruses with different types of symmetry as vaccine components and adjuvants in cancer immunotherapy. The discussion concludes that the most promising approaches might be those that use structurally modified plant viruses (spherical particles) obtained from the Tobacco mosaic virus. These particles combine high adsorption properties (as a carrier) with strong immunogenicity, as has been confirmed using various antigens in animal models. According to current research, it is evident that plant viruses have great potential for application in the development of vaccines and in cancer immunotherapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nikolai Nikitin
- Department of Virology, Faculty of Biology, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow 119234, Russia
| | | | - Angelina Kovalenko
- Department of Virology, Faculty of Biology, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow 119234, Russia
| | - Ekaterina Ryabchevskaya
- Department of Virology, Faculty of Biology, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow 119234, Russia
| | - Olga Kondakova
- Department of Virology, Faculty of Biology, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow 119234, Russia
| | - Ekaterina Evtushenko
- Department of Virology, Faculty of Biology, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow 119234, Russia
| | - Olga Karpova
- Department of Virology, Faculty of Biology, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow 119234, Russia
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10
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Park J, Pho T, Champion JA. Chemical and biological conjugation strategies for the development of multivalent protein vaccine nanoparticles. Biopolymers 2023; 114:e23563. [PMID: 37490564 PMCID: PMC10528127 DOI: 10.1002/bip.23563] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2023] [Revised: 05/19/2023] [Accepted: 07/03/2023] [Indexed: 07/27/2023]
Abstract
The development of subunit vaccine platforms has been of considerable interest due to their good safety profile and ability to be adapted to new antigens, compared to other vaccine typess. Nevertheless, subunit vaccines often lack sufficient immunogenicity to fully protect against infectious diseases. A wide variety of subunit vaccines have been developed to enhance antigen immunogenicity by increasing antigen multivalency, as well as stability and delivery properties, via presentation of antigens on protein nanoparticles. Increasing multivalency can be an effective approach to provide a potent humoral immune response by more strongly engaging and clustering B cell receptors (BCRs) to induce activation, as well as increased uptake by antigen presenting cells and their subsequent T cell activation. Proper orientation of antigen on protein nanoparticles is also considered a crucial factor for enhanced BCR engagement and subsequent immune responses. Therefore, various strategies have been reported to decorate highly repetitive surfaces of protein nanoparticle scaffolds with multiple copies of antigens, arrange antigens in proper orientation, or combinations thereof. In this review, we describe different chemical bioconjugation methods, approaches for genetic fusion of recombinant antigens, biological affinity tags, and enzymatic conjugation methods to effectively present antigens on the surface of protein nanoparticle vaccine scaffolds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jaeyoung Park
- School of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, 950 Atlantic Dr. NW, Atlanta, GA, 30332-2000, USA
| | - Thomas Pho
- School of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, 950 Atlantic Dr. NW, Atlanta, GA, 30332-2000, USA
- BioEngineering Program
| | - Julie A. Champion
- School of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, 950 Atlantic Dr. NW, Atlanta, GA, 30332-2000, USA
- BioEngineering Program
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11
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Shahgolzari M, Venkataraman S, Osano A, Akpa PA, Hefferon K. Plant Virus Nanoparticles Combat Cancer. Vaccines (Basel) 2023; 11:1278. [PMID: 37631846 PMCID: PMC10459942 DOI: 10.3390/vaccines11081278] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2023] [Revised: 07/19/2023] [Accepted: 07/20/2023] [Indexed: 08/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Plant virus nanoparticles (PVNPs) have garnered considerable interest as a promising nanotechnology approach to combat cancer. Owing to their biocompatibility, stability, and adjustable surface functionality, PVNPs hold tremendous potential for both therapeutic and imaging applications. The versatility of PVNPs is evident from their ability to be tailored to transport a range of therapeutic agents, including chemotherapy drugs, siRNA, and immunomodulators, thereby facilitating targeted delivery to the tumor microenvironment (TME). Furthermore, PVNPs may be customized with targeting ligands to selectively bind to cancer cell receptors, reducing off-target effects. Additionally, PVNPs possess immunogenic properties and can be engineered to exhibit tumor-associated antigens, thereby stimulating anti-tumor immune responses. In conclusion, the potential of PVNPs as a versatile platform for fighting cancer is immense, and further research is required to fully explore their potential and translate them into clinical applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mehdi Shahgolzari
- Drug Applied Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz 5166616471, Iran
| | - Srividhya Venkataraman
- Department of Cell & Systems Biology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5S 3B2, Canada
| | - Anne Osano
- Department of Natural Sciences, Bowie State University, Bowie, MD 20715, USA
| | - Paul Achile Akpa
- Department of Pharmaceutics, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Nigeria, Nsukka 410001, Enugu State, Nigeria
| | - Kathleen Hefferon
- Department of Microbiology, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14850, USA
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Jung E, Chung YH, Mao C, Fiering SN, Steinmetz NF. The Potency of Cowpea Mosaic Virus Particles for Cancer In Situ Vaccination Is Unaffected by the Specific Encapsidated Viral RNA. Mol Pharm 2023; 20:3589-3597. [PMID: 37294891 PMCID: PMC10530639 DOI: 10.1021/acs.molpharmaceut.3c00214] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Plant virus nanoparticles can be used as drug carriers, imaging reagents, vaccine carriers, and immune adjuvants in the formulation of intratumoral in situ cancer vaccines. One example is the cowpea mosaic virus (CPMV), a nonenveloped virus with a bipartite positive-strand RNA genome with each RNA packaged separately into identical protein capsids. Based on differences in their densities, the components carrying RNA-1 (6 kb) denoted as the bottom (B) component or carrying RNA-2 (3.5 kb) denoted as the middle (M) component can be separated from each other and from a top (T) component, which is devoid of any RNA. Previous preclinical mouse studies and canine cancer trials used mixed populations of CPMV (containing B, M, and T components), so it is unclear whether the particle types differ in their efficacies. It is known that the CPMV RNA genome contributes to immunostimulation by activation of TLR7. To determine whether the two RNA genomes that have different sizes and unrelated sequences cause different immune stimulation, we compared the therapeutic efficacies of B and M components and unfractionated CPMV in vitro and in mouse cancer models. We found that separated B and M particles behaved similarly to the mixed CPMV, activating innate immune cells to induce the secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines such as IFNα, IFNγ, IL-6, and IL-12, while inhibiting immunosuppressive cytokines such as TGF-β and IL-10. In murine models of melanoma and colon cancer, the mixed and separated CPMV particles all significantly reduced tumor growth and prolonged survival with no significant difference. This shows that the specific RNA genomes similarly stimulate the immune system even though B particles have 40% more RNA than M particles; each CPMV particle type can be used as an effective adjuvant against cancer with the same efficacy as native mixed CPMV. From a translational point of view, the use of either B or M component vs the mixed CPMV formulation offers the advantage that separated B or M alone is noninfectious toward plants and thus provides agronomic safety.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eunkyeong Jung
- Department of Nanoengineering, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, United States
| | - Young Hun Chung
- Department of Bioengineering, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, United States
- Moores Cancer Center, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, United States
| | - Chenkai Mao
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Dartmouth Geisel School of Medicine, Hanover, New Hampshire 03755, United States
| | - Steven N Fiering
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Dartmouth Geisel School of Medicine, Hanover, New Hampshire 03755, United States
- Dartmouth Cancer Center, Dartmouth Geisel School of Medicine, Hanover, New Hampshire 03755, United States
| | - Nicole F Steinmetz
- Department of Nanoengineering, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, United States
- Department of Bioengineering, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, United States
- Department of Radiology, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, United States
- Moores Cancer Center, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, United States
- Center for Nano-ImmunoEngineering, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, United States
- Institute for Materials Design and Discovery, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, United States
- Center for Engineering in Cancer, Institute for Engineering in Medicine, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, United States
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13
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Ghani MA, Bangar A, Yang Y, Jung E, Sauceda C, Mandt T, Shukla S, Webster NJG, Steinmetz NF, Newton IG. Treatment of Hepatocellular Carcinoma by Multimodal In Situ Vaccination Using Cryoablation and a Plant Virus Immunostimulant. J Vasc Interv Radiol 2023; 34:1247-1257.e8. [PMID: 36997021 PMCID: PMC10829876 DOI: 10.1016/j.jvir.2023.03.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2022] [Revised: 02/08/2023] [Accepted: 03/21/2023] [Indexed: 03/30/2023] Open
Abstract
PURPOSE To test the hypothesis that cryoablation combined with intratumoral immunomodulating nanoparticles from cowpea mosaic virus (CPMV) as an in situ vaccination approach induces systemic antitumoral immunity in a murine model of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). MATERIALS AND METHODS Mice with bilateral, subcutaneous RIL-175 cell-derived HCCs were randomized to 4 groups: (a) phosphate-buffered saline (control), (b) cryoablation only (Cryo), (c) CPMV-treated only (CPMV), and (d) cryoablation plus CPMV-treated (Cryo + CPMV) (N = 11-14 per group). Intratumoral CPMV was administered every 3 days for 4 doses, with cryoablation performed on the third day. Contralateral tumors were monitored. Tumor growth and systemic chemokine/cytokine levels were measured. A subset of tumors and spleens were harvested for immunohistochemistry (IHC) and flow cytometry. One- or 2-way analysis of variance was performed for statistical comparisons. A P value of <.05 was used as the threshold for statistical significance. RESULTS At 2 weeks after treatment, the Cryo and CPMV groups, alone or combined, outperformed the control group in the treated tumor; however, the Cryo + CPMV group showed the strongest reduction and lowest variance (1.6-fold ± 0.9 vs 6.3-fold ± 0.5, P < .0001). For the untreated tumor, only Cryo + CPMV significantly reduced tumor growth compared with control (9.2-fold ± 0.9 vs 17.8-fold ± 2.1, P = .01). The Cryo + CPMV group exhibited a transient increase in interleukin-10 and persistently decreased CXCL1. Flow cytometry revealed natural killer cell enrichment in the untreated tumor and increased PD-1 expression in the spleen. Tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes increased in Cryo + CPMV-treated tumors by IHC. CONCLUSIONS Cryoablation and intratumoral CPMV, alone or combined, demonstrated potent efficacy against treated HCC tumors; however, only cryoablation combined with CPMV slowed the growth of untreated tumors, consistent with an abscopal effect.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mansur A Ghani
- Department of Radiology, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California
| | - Amandip Bangar
- Department of Radiology, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California
| | - Yunpeng Yang
- Department of Radiology, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California
| | - Eunkyeong Jung
- Department of NanoEngineering, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California
| | - Consuelo Sauceda
- Department of Pharmacology, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California; Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California
| | - Tyler Mandt
- Department of Radiology, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California
| | - Sourabh Shukla
- Department of NanoEngineering, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California
| | - Nicholas J G Webster
- Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Department of Medicine, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California; Moores Cancer Center, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California; VA San Diego Healthcare System, San Diego, California
| | - Nicole F Steinmetz
- Department of Radiology, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California; Department of NanoEngineering, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California; Moores Cancer Center, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California; Department of Bioengineering, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California; Center for Nano-ImmunoEngineering, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California; Institute for Materials Discovery and Design, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California
| | - Isabel G Newton
- Department of Radiology, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California; VA San Diego Healthcare System, San Diego, California.
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14
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Liu C, Yu Y, Fang L, Wang J, Sun C, Li H, Zhuang J, Sun C. Plant-derived nanoparticles and plant virus nanoparticles: Bioactivity, health management, and delivery potential. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 2023:1-17. [PMID: 37128778 DOI: 10.1080/10408398.2023.2204375] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
Natural plants have acquired an increasing attention in biomedical research. Recent studies have revealed that plant-derived nanoparticles (PDNPs), which are nano-sized membrane vesicles released by plants, are one of the important material bases for the health promotion of natural plants. A great deal of research in this field has focused on nanoparticles derived from fresh vegetables and fruits. Generally, PDNPs contain lipids, proteins, nucleic acids, and other active small molecules and exhibit unique biological regulatory activity and editability. Specifically, they have emerged as important mediators of intercellular communication, and thus, are potentially suitable for therapeutic purposes. In this review, PDNPs were extensively explored; by evaluating them systematically starting from the origin and isolation, toward their characteristics, including morphological compositions, biological functions, and delivery potentials, as well as distinguishing them from plant-derived exosomes and highlighting the limitations of the current research. Meanwhile, we elucidated the variations in PDNPs infected by pathogenic microorganisms and emphasized on the biological functions and characteristics of plant virus nanoparticles. After clarifying these problems, it is beneficial to further research on PDNPs in the future and develop their clinical application value.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cun Liu
- College of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Weifang Medical University, Weifang, China
| | - Yang Yu
- College of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shandong University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Jinan, China
| | - Liguang Fang
- College of First Clinical Medicine, Shandong University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Jinan, China
| | - Jia Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Quality Research in Chinese Medicines, Faculty of Chinese Medicine, Macau University of Science and Technology, Macau, China
| | - Chunjie Sun
- College of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shandong University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Jinan, China
| | - Huayao Li
- College of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Weifang Medical University, Weifang, China
| | - Jing Zhuang
- Department of Oncology, Weifang Traditional Chinese Hospital, Weifang, China
| | - Changgang Sun
- College of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Weifang Medical University, Weifang, China
- Department of Oncology, Weifang Traditional Chinese Hospital, Weifang, China
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15
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Kalami A, Shahgolzari M, Khosroushahi AY, Fiering S. Combining in situ vaccination and immunogenic apoptosis to treat cancer. Immunotherapy 2023; 15:367-381. [PMID: 36852419 DOI: 10.2217/imt-2022-0137] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Immunization approaches are designed to stimulate the immune system and eliminate the tumor. Studies indicate that cancer immunization combined with certain chemotherapeutics and immunostimulatory agents can improve outcomes. Chemotherapeutics-based immunogenic cell death makes the tumor more recognizable by the immune system. In situ vaccination (ISV) utilizes established tumors as antigen sources and directly applies an immune adjuvant to the tumor to reverse a cold tumor microenvironment to a hot one. Immunogenic cell death and ISV highlight for the immune system the tumor antigens that are recognizable by immune cells and support a T-cell attack of the tumor cells. This review presents the concept of immunogenic apoptosis and ISV as a powerful platform for cancer immunization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arman Kalami
- Biotechnology Research Center, Student Research Committee, Faculty of Nutrition, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Mehdi Shahgolzari
- Drug Applied Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran.,Department of Medical Nanotechnology, Faculty of Advanced Medical Sciences, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Ahmad Yari Khosroushahi
- Drug Applied Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran.,Department of Medical Nanotechnology, Faculty of Advanced Medical Sciences, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Steven Fiering
- Department of Microbiology & Immunology, Geisel School of Medicine at Dartmouth, Hanover, NH, USA.,Norris Cotton Cancer Center, Geisel School of Medicine at Dartmouth & Dartmouth-Hitchcock Medical Center, Lebanon, NH, USA
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16
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Ou J, Zhu M, Ju X, Xu D, Lu G, Li K, Jiang W, Wan C, Zhao Y, Han Y, Tian Y, Niu Z. One-Dimensional Rod-like Tobacco Mosaic Virus Promotes Macrophage Polarization for a Tumor-Suppressive Microenvironment. NANO LETTERS 2023; 23:2056-2064. [PMID: 36695738 DOI: 10.1021/acs.nanolett.2c03809] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
The phenotype of tumor-associated macrophages plays an important role in their function of regulating the tumor immune microenvironment. The M1-phenotype macrophages display tumor-killing and immune activating functions. Here we show that the tobacco mosaic virus (TMV), a rod-like plant virus, can polarize macrophages to an M1 phenotype and shape a tumor-suppressive microenvironment. RAW 264.7 cells and bone marrow derived-macrophages (BMDMs) can recognize TMV via Toll-like receptor-4, and then the MAPK and NF-κB signaling pathways are activated, leading to the production of pro-inflammatory factors. Furthermore, the in vivo assessments on a subcutaneous co-injection tumor model show that the TMV-polarized BMDMs shape a tumor-suppressive microenvironment, resulting in remarkable delay of 4T1 tumor growth. Another in vivo assessment on an established tumor model indicates the high tumor-metastasis-inhibiting capacity of TMV-polarized BMDMs. This work suggests a role for this plant virus in macrophage-mediated therapeutic approaches and provides a strategy for tumor immunotherapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jinzhao Ou
- Key Laboratory of Photochemical Conversion and Optoelectronic Materials, Technical Institute of Physics and Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 29 Zhongguancun East Road, Beijing 100190, P.R. China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, P.R. China
| | - Meng Zhu
- Key Laboratory of Photochemical Conversion and Optoelectronic Materials, Technical Institute of Physics and Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 29 Zhongguancun East Road, Beijing 100190, P.R. China
| | - Xiaoyan Ju
- Key Laboratory of Photochemical Conversion and Optoelectronic Materials, Technical Institute of Physics and Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 29 Zhongguancun East Road, Beijing 100190, P.R. China
| | - Dandan Xu
- Key Laboratory of Photochemical Conversion and Optoelectronic Materials, Technical Institute of Physics and Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 29 Zhongguancun East Road, Beijing 100190, P.R. China
| | - Guojun Lu
- Key Laboratory of Photochemical Conversion and Optoelectronic Materials, Technical Institute of Physics and Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 29 Zhongguancun East Road, Beijing 100190, P.R. China
| | - Kejia Li
- Key Laboratory of Photochemical Conversion and Optoelectronic Materials, Technical Institute of Physics and Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 29 Zhongguancun East Road, Beijing 100190, P.R. China
| | - Wei Jiang
- Key Laboratory of Photochemical Conversion and Optoelectronic Materials, Technical Institute of Physics and Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 29 Zhongguancun East Road, Beijing 100190, P.R. China
| | - Chenxiao Wan
- Key Laboratory of Photochemical Conversion and Optoelectronic Materials, Technical Institute of Physics and Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 29 Zhongguancun East Road, Beijing 100190, P.R. China
| | - Yuexia Zhao
- Biochemical Engineering College, Beijing Union University, No. 97, North Fourth Ring East Road, Beijing 100023, P.R. China
| | - Yongping Han
- Biochemical Engineering College, Beijing Union University, No. 97, North Fourth Ring East Road, Beijing 100023, P.R. China
| | - Ye Tian
- Key Laboratory of Photochemical Conversion and Optoelectronic Materials, Technical Institute of Physics and Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 29 Zhongguancun East Road, Beijing 100190, P.R. China
| | - Zhongwei Niu
- Key Laboratory of Photochemical Conversion and Optoelectronic Materials, Technical Institute of Physics and Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 29 Zhongguancun East Road, Beijing 100190, P.R. China
- School of Future Technology, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, P.R. China
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17
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Paclitaxel-Loaded Lipid-Coated Magnetic Nanoparticles for Dual Chemo-Magnetic Hyperthermia Therapy of Melanoma. Pharmaceutics 2023; 15:pharmaceutics15030818. [PMID: 36986678 PMCID: PMC10055620 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics15030818] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2022] [Revised: 02/17/2023] [Accepted: 03/01/2023] [Indexed: 03/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Melanoma is the most aggressive and metastasis-prone form of skin cancer. Conventional therapies include chemotherapeutic agents, either as small molecules or carried by FDA-approved nanostructures. However, systemic toxicity and side effects still remain as major drawbacks. With the advancement of nanomedicine, new delivery strategies emerge at a regular pace, aiming to overcome these challenges. Stimulus-responsive drug delivery systems might considerably reduce systemic toxicity and side-effects by limiting drug release to the affected area. Herein, we report the development of paclitaxel-loaded lipid-coated manganese ferrite magnetic nanoparticles (PTX-LMNP) as magnetosomes synthetic analogs, envisaging the combined chemo-magnetic hyperthermia treatment of melanoma. PTX-LMNP physicochemical properties were verified, including their shape, size, crystallinity, FTIR spectrum, magnetization profile, and temperature profile under magnetic hyperthermia (MHT). Their diffusion in porcine ear skin (a model for human skin) was investigated after intradermal administration via fluorescence microscopy. Cumulative PTX release kinetics under different temperatures, either preceded or not by MHT, were assessed. Intrinsic cytotoxicity against B16F10 cells was determined via neutral red uptake assay after 48 h of incubation (long-term assay), as well as B16F10 cells viability after 1 h of incubation (short-term assay), followed by MHT. PTX-LMNP-mediated MHT triggers PTX release, allowing its thermal-modulated local delivery to diseased sites, within short timeframes. Moreover, half-maximal PTX inhibitory concentration (IC50) could be significantly reduced relatively to free PTX (142,500×) and Taxol® (340×). Therefore, the dual chemo-MHT therapy mediated by intratumorally injected PTX-LMNP stands out as a promising alternative to efficiently deliver PTX to melanoma cells, consequently reducing systemic side effects commonly associated with conventional chemotherapies.
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18
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Shakir S, Zaidi SSEA, Hashemi FSG, Nyirakanani C, Vanderschuren H. Harnessing plant viruses in the metagenomics era: from the development of infectious clones to applications. TRENDS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2023; 28:297-311. [PMID: 36379846 DOI: 10.1016/j.tplants.2022.10.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2022] [Revised: 10/17/2022] [Accepted: 10/20/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Recent metagenomic studies which focused on virus characterization in the entire plant environment have revealed a remarkable viral diversity in plants. The exponential discovery of viruses also requires the concomitant implementation of high-throughput methods to perform their functional characterization. Despite several limitations, the development of viral infectious clones remains a method of choice to understand virus biology, their role in the phytobiome, and plant resilience. Here, we review the latest approaches for efficient characterization of plant viruses and technical advances built on high-throughput sequencing and synthetic biology to streamline assembly of viral infectious clones. We then discuss the applications of plant viral vectors in fundamental and applied plant research as well as their technical and regulatory limitations, and we propose strategies for their safer field applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara Shakir
- Plant Genetics and Rhizosphere Processes Laboratory, TERRA Teaching and Research Center, Gembloux Agro-Bio Tech, University of Liège, Gembloux, Belgium.
| | - Syed Shan-E-Ali Zaidi
- Plant Genetics and Rhizosphere Processes Laboratory, TERRA Teaching and Research Center, Gembloux Agro-Bio Tech, University of Liège, Gembloux, Belgium
| | - Farahnaz Sadat Golestan Hashemi
- Plant Genetics and Rhizosphere Processes Laboratory, TERRA Teaching and Research Center, Gembloux Agro-Bio Tech, University of Liège, Gembloux, Belgium
| | - Chantal Nyirakanani
- Plant Genetics and Rhizosphere Processes Laboratory, TERRA Teaching and Research Center, Gembloux Agro-Bio Tech, University of Liège, Gembloux, Belgium; Department of Crop Science, School of Agriculture, University of Rwanda, Musanze, Rwanda
| | - Hervé Vanderschuren
- Plant Genetics and Rhizosphere Processes Laboratory, TERRA Teaching and Research Center, Gembloux Agro-Bio Tech, University of Liège, Gembloux, Belgium; Laboratory of Tropical Crop Improvement, Division of Crop Biotechnics, Biosystems Department, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium.
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19
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Jung E, Mao C, Bhatia M, Koellhoffer EC, Fiering SN, Steinmetz NF. Inactivated Cowpea Mosaic Virus for In Situ Vaccination: Differential Efficacy of Formalin vs UV-Inactivated Formulations. Mol Pharm 2023; 20:500-507. [PMID: 36399598 PMCID: PMC9812890 DOI: 10.1021/acs.molpharmaceut.2c00744] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Cowpea mosaic virus (CPMV) has been developed as a promising nanoplatform technology for cancer immunotherapy; when applied as in situ vaccine, CPMV exhibits potent, systemic, and durable efficacy. While CPMV is not infectious to mammals, it is infectious to legumes; therefore, agronomic safety needs to be addressed to broaden the translational application of CPMV. RNA-containing formulations are preferred over RNA-free virus-like particles because the RNA and protein, each, contribute to CPMV's potent antitumor efficacy. We have previously optimized inactivation methods to develop CPMV that contains RNA but is not infectious to plants. We established that inactivated CPMV has reduced efficacy compared to untreated, native CPMV. However, a systematic comparison between native CPMV and different inactivated forms of CPMV was not done. Therefore, in this study, we directly compared the therapeutic efficacies and mechanisms of immune activation of CPMV, ultraviolet- (UV-), and formalin (Form)-inactivated CPMV to explain the differential efficacies. In a B16F10 melanoma mouse tumor model, Form-CPMV suppressed the tumor growth with prolonged survival (there were no statistical differences comparing CPMV and Form-CPMV). In comparison, UV-CPMV inhibited tumor growth significantly but not as well as Form-CPMV or CPMV. The reduced therapeutic efficacy of UV-CPMV is explained by the degree of cross-linking and aggregated state of the RNA, which renders it inaccessible for sensing by Toll-like receptor (TLR) 7/8 to activate immune responses. The mechanistic studies showed that the highly aggregated state of UV-CPMV inhibited TLR7 signaling more so than for the Form-CPMV formulation, reducing the secretion of interleukin-6 (IL-6) and interferon-α (IFN-α), cytokines associated with TLR7 signaling. These findings support the translational development of Form-CPMV as a noninfectious immunotherapeutic agent.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Misha Bhatia
- Department of Nanoengineering, University of, California San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, United, States
| | - Edward C. Koellhoffer
- Radiology, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, United States
| | - Steven N. Fiering
- Department of Microbiology and, Immunology and Dartmouth Cancer Center, Dartmouth, Geisel School of Medicine, Hanover, New Hampshire 03755, United States
| | - Nicole F. Steinmetz
- Department of Nanoengineering, Radiology, Bioengineering, Moores Cancer Center, Center for Nano-Immuno Engineering, and Institute for Materials, Design and Discovery, University of California San Diego, La, Jolla, California 92093, United States
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20
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Chung YH, Volckaert BA, Steinmetz NF. Metastatic Colon Cancer Treatment Using S100A9-Targeted Cowpea Mosaic Virus Nanoparticles. Biomacromolecules 2022; 23:5127-5136. [PMID: 36375170 PMCID: PMC9772157 DOI: 10.1021/acs.biomac.2c00873] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Peritoneal metastases (PMs) occur due to the metastasis of gynecological and gastrointestinal cancers such as ovarian, colon, pancreatic, or gastric tumors. PM outgrowth is often fatal, and patients with PMs have a median survival of 6 months. Cowpea mosaic virus (CPMV) has been shown, when injected intratumorally, to act as an immunomodulator reversing the immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment, therefore turning cold tumors hot and priming systemic antitumor immunity. However, not all tumors are injectable, and PMs especially will require targeted treatments to direct CPMV toward the disseminated tumor nodules. Toward this goal, we designed and tested a CPMV nanoparticle targeted to S100A9, a key immune mediator for many cancer types indicated in cancer growth, invasiveness, and metastasis. Here, we chose to use an intraperitoneal (IP) colon cancer model, and analysis of IP gavage fluid demonstrates that S100A9 is upregulated following IP challenge. S100A9-targeted CPMV particles displaying peptide ligands specific for S100A9 homed to IP-disseminated tumors, and treatment led to improved survival and decreased tumor burden. Targeting CPMV to S100A9 improves preclinical outcomes and harbors the potential of utilizing CPMV for the treatment of IP-disseminated diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Young Hun Chung
- Department of Bioengineering and Moores Cancer Center, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093-0021, United States
| | - Britney A. Volckaert
- Department of NanoEngineering, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093-0021, United States
| | - Nicole F. Steinmetz
- Corresponding Author: Nicole F. Steinmetz – Department of Bioengineering, Moores Cancer Center, Department of NanoEngineering, Department of Radiology, Institute for Materials Discovery and Design, Center for Nano-Immuno Engineering, and Center for Engineering in Cancer, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093-0021, United States;
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21
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Mao C, Beiss V, Ho GW, Fields J, Steinmetz NF, Fiering S. In situ vaccination with cowpea mosaic virus elicits systemic antitumor immunity and potentiates immune checkpoint blockade. J Immunother Cancer 2022; 10:e005834. [PMID: 36460333 PMCID: PMC9723958 DOI: 10.1136/jitc-2022-005834] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 11/15/2022] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND In situ vaccination (ISV) is a cancer immunotherapy strategy in which immunostimulatory reagents are introduced directly into a tumor to stimulate antitumor immunity both against the treated tumor and systemically against untreated tumors. Recently, we showed that cowpea mosaic virus (CPMV) is a potent multi-toll-like receptor (TLR) agonist with potent efficacy for treating tumors in mice and dogs by ISV. However, ISV with CPMV alone does not uniformly treat all mouse tumor models tested, however this can be overcome through strategic combinations. More insight is needed to delineate potency and mechanism of systemic antitumor immunity and abscopal effect. METHOD We investigated the systemic efficacy (abscopal effect) of CPMV ISV with a two-tumor mouse model using murine tumor lines B16F10, 4T1, CT26 and MC38. Flow cytometry identified changes in cell populations responsible for systemic efficacy of CPMV. Transgenic knockout mice and depleting antibodies validated the role of relevant candidate cell populations and cytokines. We evaluated these findings and engineered a multicomponent combination therapy to specifically target the candidate cell population and investigated its systemic efficacy, acquired resistance and immunological memory in mouse models. RESULTS ISV with CPMV induces systemic antitumor T-cell-mediated immunity that inhibits growth of untreated tumors and requires conventional type-1 dendritic cells (cDC1s). Furthermore, using multiple tumor mouse models resistant to anti-programmed death 1 (PD-1) therapy, we tested the hypothesis that CPMV along with local activation of antigen-presenting cells with agonistic anti-CD40 can synergize and strengthen antitumor efficacy. Indeed, this combination ISV strategy induces an influx of CD8+ T cells, triggers regression in both treated local and untreated distant tumors and potentiates tumor responses to anti-PD-1 therapy. Moreover, serial ISV overcomes resistance to anti-PD-1 therapy and establishes tumor-specific immunological memory. CONCLUSIONS These findings provide new insights into in situ TLR activation and cDC1 recruitment as effective strategies to overcome resistance to immunotherapy in treated and untreated tumors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chenkai Mao
- Microbiology and Immunology, Dartmouth College Geisel School of Medicine, Lebanon, New Hampshire, USA
| | - Veronique Beiss
- Bioengineering, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA
| | - Gregory W Ho
- Microbiology and Immunology, Dartmouth College Geisel School of Medicine, Lebanon, New Hampshire, USA
| | - Jennifer Fields
- Microbiology and Immunology, Dartmouth College Geisel School of Medicine, Lebanon, New Hampshire, USA
| | - Nicole F Steinmetz
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Case Western Reserve University School of Medicine, Cleveland, Ohio, USA
| | - Steven Fiering
- Microbiology and Immunology, Dartmouth College Geisel School of Medicine, Lebanon, New Hampshire, USA
- Geisel School of Medicine at Dartmouth, Dartmouth College Geisel School of Medicine, Hanover, New Hampshire, USA
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22
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Shahgolzari M, Dianat-Moghadam H, Fiering S. Multifunctional plant virus nanoparticles in the next generation of cancer immunotherapies. Semin Cancer Biol 2022; 86:1076-1085. [PMID: 34375725 PMCID: PMC8821734 DOI: 10.1016/j.semcancer.2021.07.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2021] [Revised: 06/27/2021] [Accepted: 07/28/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Plant virus nanoparticles (PVNPs) have inherent immune stimulatory ability, and have been investigated as immune adjuvants to stimulate an anti-tumor immune response. The combination of immune stimulation, nanoparticle structure and the ability to deliver other therapeutic molecules provides a flexible platform for cancer immunotherapy. Researching multifunctional PVNPs and their modification will generate novel reagents for cancer immunotherapy. Here we review the properties of PVNPs, and their potential for clinical utilization to activate anti-tumor innate and lymphoid immune responses. PVNPs have potential utility for cancer immunotherapy as vaccine adjuvant, and delivery systems for other reagents as mono immunotherapy or combined with other immunotherapies. This review outlines the potential and challenges in developing PVNPs as cancer immunotherapy reagents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mehdi Shahgolzari
- Department of Medical Nanotechnology, Faculty of Advanced Medical Sciences, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Hassan Dianat-Moghadam
- Department of Genetics and Molecular Biology, School of Medicine, Isfahan University of Medical Sciences, Isfahan, Iran
| | - Steven Fiering
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Geisel School of Medicine at Dartmouth, Hanover, NH, United States; Norris Cotton Cancer Center, Geisel School of Medicine at Dartmouth and Dartmouth-Hitchcock Medical Center, Lebanon, NH, United States.
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23
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Zhao Z, Simms A, Steinmetz NF. Cisplatin-Loaded Tobacco Mosaic Virus for Ovarian Cancer Treatment. Biomacromolecules 2022; 23:4379-4387. [PMID: 36053908 PMCID: PMC9831511 DOI: 10.1021/acs.biomac.2c00831] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
Ovarian cancer is the foremost cause of gynecological cancer and a major cause of cancer death in women. Treatment for advanced stage is surgical debulking followed by chemotherapy; however, most patients relapse with more aggressive and therapy-resistant tumors. There is a need to develop drug delivery approaches to deliver platinum therapies to tumors to increase efficacy while maintaining safety. Toward this goal, we utilized the protein nanotubes from the plant virus, tobacco mosaic virus (TMV), as a drug carrier. Specifically, the nanochannel of TMV was loaded with the active dication form of cisplatin (cisPt2+), making use of the negatively charged Glu acid side chains that line the interior channel of TMV. We achieved a loading efficiency with ∼2700 cisPt2+ per TMV; formulation stability was established with drug complexes stably loaded into the carrier for 2 months under refrigerated storage. TMV-cisPt maintained its efficacy against ovarian tumor cells with an IC50 of ∼40 μM. TMV-cisPt exhibited superior efficacy vs free cisPt in ovarian tumor mouse models using intraperitoneal ID8-Defb29/Vegf-a-Luc (mouse) tumors and subcutaneous A2780 (human) xenografts. TMV-cisPt treatment led to reduced tumor burden and increased survival. Using ID8-Defb29/Vegf-a-Luc-bearing C57BL/6 mice, we also noted reduced tumor growth when animals were treated with TMV alone, which may indicate antitumor immunity induced by the immunomodulatory nature of the plant virus nanoparticle. Biodistribution studies supported the efficacy data, showing increased cisPt accumulation within tumors when delivered via the TMV carrier vs free cisPt administration. Finally, good safety profiles were noted. The study highlights the potential of TMV as a drug carrier against cancer and points to the opportunity to explore plant viruses as chemo-immuno combination cancer therapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhongchao Zhao
- Department of NanoEngineering, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, United States; Center for Nano-ImmunoEngineering, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, United States
| | - Andrea Simms
- Department of NanoEngineering, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, United States
| | - Nicole F. Steinmetz
- Department of NanoEngineering, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, United States; Center for Nano-ImmunoEngineering, Department of Bioengineering, Department of Radiology, and Moores Cancer Center, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, United States; Institute for Materials Discovery and Design, University of California, La Jolla, California 92093, United States
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24
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Multifunctional Plant Virus Nanoparticles for Targeting Breast Cancer Tumors. Vaccines (Basel) 2022; 10:vaccines10091431. [PMID: 36146510 PMCID: PMC9502313 DOI: 10.3390/vaccines10091431] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2022] [Revised: 08/23/2022] [Accepted: 08/24/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Breast cancer treatment using plant-virus-based nanoparticles (PVNPs) has achieved considerable success in preclinical studies. PVNP-based breast cancer therapies include non-targeted and targeted nanoplatforms for delivery of anticancer therapeutic chemo and immune agents and cancer vaccines for activation of local and systemic antitumor immunity. Interestingly, PVNP platforms combined with other tumor immunotherapeutic options and other modalities of oncotherapy can improve tumor efficacy treatment. These applications can be achieved by encapsulation of a wide range of active ingredients and conjugating ligands for targeting immune and tumor cells. This review presents the current breast cancer treatments based on PVNP platforms.
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25
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Nkanga CI, Ortega-Rivera OA, Steinmetz NF. Photothermal immunotherapy of melanoma using TLR-7 agonist laden tobacco mosaic virus with polydopamine coat. NANOMEDICINE : NANOTECHNOLOGY, BIOLOGY, AND MEDICINE 2022; 44:102573. [PMID: 35728739 PMCID: PMC10530638 DOI: 10.1016/j.nano.2022.102573] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2022] [Revised: 05/30/2022] [Accepted: 06/01/2022] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
Photothermal therapy (PTT) is a promising cancer treatment that debulks tumors locally while priming immune responses. However, PTT as a standalone treatment approach often has limited systemic efficacy, motivating the development of synergistic combination approaches. Toward this goal, herein, the tobacco mosaic virus (TMV) was loaded with a small molecule immunomodulator, toll-like receptor 7 agonist (1V209), and its surface was coated with photothermal biopolymer polydopamine (PDA). The resulting 1V209-laden and PDA-coated TMV was used to treat B16F10 dermal melanoma in C57BL/6 mice. 1V209-TMV-PDA was intratumorally injected and irradiated using an 808-nm near infrared laser. 60 % of the mice receiving PTT with intratumoral 1V209-TMV-PDA + laser remained alive at the end point - in contrast to only 20 % survivors were observed in the control group. Immunological analysis indicates systemic anti-tumor immunity being induced by the combination therapy with a greater number of tumor-specific T cells (as determined by a splenocyte assay). This study highlights the potential of TMV versatility as a multifunctional nano-platform for combined PTT-immunotherapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christian Isalomboto Nkanga
- Department of NanoEngineering, University of California San Diego, 9500 Gilman Dr., La Jolla, CA 92039, United States
| | - Oscar A Ortega-Rivera
- Department of NanoEngineering, University of California San Diego, 9500 Gilman Dr., La Jolla, CA 92039, United States; Center for Nano-ImmunoEngineering, University of California San Diego, 9500 Gilman Dr., La Jolla, CA 92039, United States
| | - Nicole F Steinmetz
- Department of NanoEngineering, University of California San Diego, 9500 Gilman Dr., La Jolla, CA 92039, United States; Department of Bioengineering, University of California San Diego, 9500 Gilman Dr., La Jolla, CA 92039, United States; Department of Radiology, University of California San Diego, 9500 Gilman Dr., La Jolla, CA 92039, United States; Center for Nano-ImmunoEngineering, University of California San Diego, 9500 Gilman Dr., La Jolla, CA 92039, United States; Moores Cancer Center, University of California San Diego, 9500 Gilman Dr., La Jolla, CA 92039, United States; Institute for Materials Discovery and Design, University of California San Diego, 9500 Gilman Dr., La Jolla, CA 92039, United States.
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26
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Koellhoffer EC, Steinmetz NF. Cowpea Mosaic Virus and Natural Killer Cell Agonism for In Situ Cancer Vaccination. NANO LETTERS 2022; 22:5348-5356. [PMID: 35713326 PMCID: PMC9665426 DOI: 10.1021/acs.nanolett.2c01328] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
We have previously shown the plant virus Cowpea mosaic virus (CPMV) to be an efficacious in situ cancer vaccine, providing elimination of tumors and tumor-specific immune memory. Additionally, we have shown that CPMV recruits Natural Killer (NK) cells within the tumor microenvironment. Here we aimed to determine whether a combination of CPMV and anti-4-1BB monoclonal antibody agonist to stimulate tumor-resident and CPMV-recruited NK cells is an effective dual therapy approach to improve NK cell function and in situ cancer vaccination efficacy. Using murine models of metastatic colon carcinomatosis and intradermal melanoma, intratumorally administered CPMV + anti-4-1BB dual therapy provided a robust antitumor response, improved elimination of primary tumors, and reduced mortality compared to CPMV and anti-4-1BB monotherapies. Additionally, on tumor rechallenge there was significant delay/prevention of tumor development and improved survival, highlighting that the CPMV + anti-4-1BB dual therapy enables potent and durable antitumor efficacy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edward C Koellhoffer
- Department of Radiology, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, United States
| | - Nicole F Steinmetz
- Department of Radiology, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, United States
- Department of NanoEngineering, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, United States
- Department of Bioengineering, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, United States
- Moores Cancer Center, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, United States
- Center for Nano-ImmunoEngineering, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, United States
- Institute for Materials Design and Discovery, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, United States
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27
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Nkanga CI, Steinmetz NF. Injectable Hydrogel Containing Cowpea Mosaic Virus Nanoparticles Prevents Colon Cancer Growth. ACS Biomater Sci Eng 2022; 8:2518-2525. [PMID: 35522951 PMCID: PMC9840516 DOI: 10.1021/acsbiomaterials.2c00284] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
Despite advances in laparoscopic surgery combined with neoadjuvant and adjuvant therapy, colon cancer management remains challenging in oncology. Recurrence of cancerous tissue locally or in distant organs (metastasis) is the major problem in colon cancer management. Vaccines and immunotherapies hold promise in preventing cancer recurrence through stimulation of the immune system. We and others have shown that nanoparticles from plant viruses, such as cowpea mosaic virus (CPMV) nanoparticles, are potent immune adjuvants for cancer vaccines and serve as immunostimulatory agents in the treatment or prevention of tumors. While being noninfectious toward mammals, CPMV activates the innate immune system through recognition by pattern recognition receptors (PRRs). While the particulate structure of CPMV is essential for prominent immune activation, the proteinaceous architecture makes CPMV subject to degradation in vivo; thus, CPMV immunotherapy requires repeated injections for optimal outcome. Frequent intraperitoneal (IP) injections however are not optimal from a clinical point of view and can worsen the patient's quality of life due to the hospitalization required for IP administration. To overcome the need for repeated IP injections, we loaded CPMV nanoparticles in injectable chitosan/glycerophosphate (GP) hydrogel formulations, characterized their slow-release potential, and assessed the antitumor preventative efficacy of CPMV-in-hydrogel single dose versus soluble CPMV (single and prime-boost administration). Using fluorescently labeled CPMV-in-hydrogel formulations, in vivo release data indicated that single IP injection of the hydrogel formulation yielded a gel depot that supplied intact CPMV over the study period of 3 weeks, while soluble CPMV lasted only for one week. IP administration of the CPMV-in-hydrogel formulation boosted with soluble CPMV for combined immediate and sustained immune activation significantly inhibited colon cancer growth after CT26 IP challenge in BALB/c mice. The observed antitumor efficacy suggests that CPMV can be formulated in a chitosan/GP hydrogel to achieve prolonged immunostimulatory effects as single-dose immunotherapy against colon cancer recurrence. The present findings illustrate the potential of injectable hydrogel technology to accommodate plant virus nanoparticles to boost the translational development of effective antitumor immunotherapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christian Isalomboto Nkanga
- Department of NanoEngineering, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California 92039, United States; Present Address: Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Pharmacognosy, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Kinshasa, B.P. 212, Kinshasa, XI, Democratic Republic of the Congo (C.I.N.)
| | - Nicole F. Steinmetz
- Department of NanoEngineering, Department of Bioengineering, Department of Radiology, Center for Nano-ImmunoEngineering, Moores Cancer Center, and Institute for Materials Discovery and Design, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California 92039, United States
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28
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Kondakova OA, Evtushenko EA, Baranov OA, Nikitin NA, Karpova OV. Structurally Modified Plant Viruses and Bacteriophages with Helical Structure. Properties and Applications. BIOCHEMISTRY (MOSCOW) 2022; 87:548-558. [PMID: 35790410 PMCID: PMC9201271 DOI: 10.1134/s0006297922060062] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Structurally modified virus particles can be obtained from the rod-shaped or filamentous virions of plant viruses and bacteriophages by thermal or chemical treatment. They have recently attracted attention of the researchers as promising biogenic platforms for the development of new biotechnologies. This review presents data on preparation, structure, and properties of the structurally modified virus particles. In addition, their biosafety for animals is considered, as well as the areas of application of such particles in biomedicine. A separate section is devoted to one of the most relevant and promising areas for the use of structurally modified plant viruses – design of vaccine candidates based on them.
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Affiliation(s)
- Olga A Kondakova
- Faculty of Biology, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, 119234, Russia
| | | | - Oleg A Baranov
- Faculty of Biology, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, 119234, Russia
| | - Nikolai A Nikitin
- Faculty of Biology, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, 119234, Russia
| | - Olga V Karpova
- Faculty of Biology, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, 119234, Russia
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29
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Nkanga C, Ortega-Rivera OA, Shin MD, Moreno-Gonzalez MA, Steinmetz NF. Injectable Slow-Release Hydrogel Formulation of a Plant Virus-Based COVID-19 Vaccine Candidate. Biomacromolecules 2022; 23:1812-1825. [PMID: 35344365 PMCID: PMC9003890 DOI: 10.1021/acs.biomac.2c00112] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2022] [Revised: 03/09/2022] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Cowpea mosaic virus (CPMV) is a potent immunogenic adjuvant and epitope display platform for the development of vaccines against cancers and infectious diseases, including coronavirus disease 2019. However, the proteinaceous CPMV nanoparticles are rapidly degraded in vivo. Multiple doses are therefore required to ensure long-lasting immunity, which is not ideal for global mass vaccination campaigns. Therefore, we formulated CPMV nanoparticles in injectable hydrogels to achieve slow particle release and prolonged immunostimulation. Liquid formulations were prepared from chitosan and glycerophosphate (GP) before homogenization with CPMV particles at room temperature. The formulations containing high-molecular-weight chitosan and 0-4.5 mg mL-1 CPMV gelled rapidly at 37 °C (5-8 min) and slowly released cyanine 5-CPMV particles in vitro and in vivo. Importantly, when a hydrogel containing CPMV displaying severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 spike protein epitope 826 (amino acid 809-826) was administered to mice as a single subcutaneous injection, it elicited an antibody response that was sustained over 20 weeks, with an associated shift from Th1 to Th2 bias. Antibody titers were improved at later time points (weeks 16 and 20) comparing the hydrogel versus soluble vaccine candidates; furthermore, the soluble vaccine candidates retained Th1 bias. We conclude that CPMV nanoparticles can be formulated effectively in chitosan/GP hydrogels and are released as intact particles for several months with conserved immunotherapeutic efficacy. The injectable hydrogel containing epitope-labeled CPMV offers a promising single-dose vaccine platform for the prevention of future pandemics as well as a strategy to develop long-lasting plant virus-based nanomedicines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christian
Isalomboto Nkanga
- Department
of NanoEngineering, University of California
San Diego, 9500 Gilman Dr., La Jolla, California 92039, United States
| | - Oscar A. Ortega-Rivera
- Department
of NanoEngineering, University of California
San Diego, 9500 Gilman Dr., La Jolla, California 92039, United States
- Center
for Nano-ImmunoEngineering, University of
California San Diego, 9500 Gilman Dr., La Jolla, California 92039, United States
| | - Matthew D. Shin
- Department
of NanoEngineering, University of California
San Diego, 9500 Gilman Dr., La Jolla, California 92039, United States
- Center
for Nano-ImmunoEngineering, University of
California San Diego, 9500 Gilman Dr., La Jolla, California 92039, United States
| | - Miguel A. Moreno-Gonzalez
- Department
of NanoEngineering, University of California
San Diego, 9500 Gilman Dr., La Jolla, California 92039, United States
- Center
for Nano-ImmunoEngineering, University of
California San Diego, 9500 Gilman Dr., La Jolla, California 92039, United States
| | - Nicole F. Steinmetz
- Department
of NanoEngineering, University of California
San Diego, 9500 Gilman Dr., La Jolla, California 92039, United States
- Department
of Bioengineering, University of California
San Diego, 9500 Gilman
Dr., La Jolla, California 92039, United States
- Department
of Radiology, University of California San
Diego, 9500 Gilman Dr., La Jolla, California 92039, United States
- Center
for Nano-ImmunoEngineering, University of
California San Diego, 9500 Gilman Dr., La Jolla, California 92039, United States
- Moores
Cancer Center, University of California
San Diego, 9500 Gilman
Dr., La Jolla, California 92039, United States
- Institute
for Materials Discovery and Design, University
of California San Diego, 9500 Gilman Dr., La Jolla, California 92039, United States
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30
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Beiss V, Mao C, Fiering SN, Steinmetz NF. Cowpea Mosaic Virus Outperforms Other Members of the Secoviridae as In Situ Vaccine for Cancer Immunotherapy. Mol Pharm 2022; 19:1573-1585. [PMID: 35333531 DOI: 10.1021/acs.molpharmaceut.2c00058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
In situ vaccination for cancer immunotherapy uses intratumoral administration of small molecules, proteins, nanoparticles, or viruses that activate pathogen recognition receptors (PRRs) to reprogram the tumor microenvironment and prime systemic antitumor immunity. Cowpea mosaic virus (CPMV) is a plant virus that─while noninfectious toward mammals─activates mammalian PRRs. Application of CPMV as in situ vaccine (ISV) results in a potent and durable efficacy in tumor mouse models and canine patients; data indicate that CPMV outperforms small molecule PRR agonists and other nonrelated plant viruses and virus-like particles (VLPs). In this work, we set out to compare the potency of CPMV versus other plant viruses from the Secoviridae. We developed protocols to produce and isolate cowpea severe mosaic virus (CPSMV) and tobacco ring spot virus (TRSV) from plants. CPSMV, like CPMV, is a comovirus with genome and protein homology, while TRSV lacks homology and is from the genus nepovirus. When applied as ISV in a mouse model of dermal melanoma (using B16F10 cells and C57Bl6J mice), CPMV outperformed CPSMV and TRSV─again highlighting the unique potency of CPMV. Mechanistically, the increased potency is related to increased signaling through toll-like receptors (TLRs)─in particular, CPMV signals through TLR2, 4, and 7. Using knockout (KO) mouse models, we demonstrate here that all three plant viruses signal through the adaptor molecule MyD88─with CPSMV and TRSV predominantly activating TLR2 and 4. CPMV induced significantly more interferon β (IFNβ) compared to TRSV and CPSMV; therefore, IFNβ released upon signaling through TLR7 may be a differentiator for the observed potency of CPMV-ISV. Additionally, CPMV induced a different temporal pattern of intratumoral cytokine generation characterized by significantly increased inflammatory cytokines 4 days after the second of 2 weekly treatments, as if CPMV induced a "memory response". This higher, longer-lasting induction of cytokines may be another key differentiator that explains the unique potency of CPMV-ISV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Veronique Beiss
- Departments of NanoEngineering, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, United States
| | - Chenkai Mao
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, and Norris Cotton Cancer Center, Geisel School of Medicine at Dartmouth and Dartmouth Hitchcock Health, Lebanon, New Hampshire 03756, United States
| | - Steven N Fiering
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, and Norris Cotton Cancer Center, Geisel School of Medicine at Dartmouth and Dartmouth Hitchcock Health, Lebanon, New Hampshire 03756, United States
| | - Nicole F Steinmetz
- Departments of NanoEngineering, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, United States.,Department of Microbiology and Immunology, and Norris Cotton Cancer Center, Geisel School of Medicine at Dartmouth and Dartmouth Hitchcock Health, Lebanon, New Hampshire 03756, United States.,Departments of Radiology, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, United States.,Departments of Bioengineering, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, United States.,Moores Cancer Center, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, United States.,Center for Nano-ImmunoEngineering, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, United States.,Institute for Materials Discovery and Design, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, United States
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31
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Koellhoffer EC, Mao C, Beiss V, Wang L, Fiering SN, Boone CE, Steinmetz NF. Inactivated Cowpea Mosaic Virus in Combination with OX40 Agonist Primes Potent Antitumor Immunity in a Bilateral Melanoma Mouse Model. Mol Pharm 2022; 19:592-601. [PMID: 34978197 PMCID: PMC9207558 DOI: 10.1021/acs.molpharmaceut.1c00681] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Viral immunotherapies are being recognized in cancer treatment, with several currently approved or undergoing clinical testing. While contemporary approaches have focused on oncolytic viral therapies, our efforts center on the development of plant virus-based cancer immunotherapies. In a previous work, we demonstrated the potent efficacy of the cowpea mosaic virus (CPMV), a plant virus that does not replicate in animals, applied as an in situ vaccine. CPMV is an immunostimulatory drug candidate, and intratumoral administration remodels the tumor microenvironment leading to activation of local and systemic antitumor immunity. Efficacy has been demonstrated in multiple tumor mouse models and canine cancer patients. As wild-type CPMV is infectious toward various legumes and because shedding of infectious virus from patients may be an agricultural concern, we developed UV-inactivated CPMV (termed inCPMV) which is not infectious toward plants. We report that as a monotherapy, wild-type CPMV outperforms inCPMV in mouse models of dermal melanoma or disseminated colon cancer. Efficacy of inCPMV is less than that of CPMV and similar to that of RNA-free CPMV. Immunological investigation using knockout mice shows that inCPMV does not signal through TLR7 (toll-like receptor); structure-function studies indicate that the RNA is highly cross-linked and therefore unable to activate TLR7. Wild-type CPMV signals through TLR2, -4, and -7, whereas inCPMV more closely resembles RNA-free CPMV which signals through TLR2 and -4 only. The structural features of inCPMV explain the increased potency of wild-type CPMV through the triple pronged TLR activation. Strikingly, when inCPMV is used in combination with an anti-OX40 agonist antibody (administered systemically), exceptional efficacy was demonstrated in a bilateral B16F10 dermal melanoma model. Combination therapy, with in situ vaccination applied only into the primary tumor, controlled the progression of the secondary, untreated tumors, with 10 out of 14 animals surviving for at least 100 days post tumor challenge without development of recurrence or metastatic disease. This study highlights the potential of inCPMV as an in situ vaccine candidate and demonstrates the power of combined immunotherapy approaches. Strategic immunocombination therapies are the formula for success, and the combination of in situ vaccination strategies along with therapeutic antibodies targeting the cancer immunity cycle is a particularly powerful approach.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edward C Koellhoffer
- Department of Radiology, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, United States
| | - Chenkai Mao
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Geisel School of Medicine, Dartmouth College, Hanover, New Hampshire 03755, United States
| | - Veronique Beiss
- Department of NanoEngineering, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, United States
| | - Lu Wang
- Department of Bioengineering, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, United States
| | - Steven N Fiering
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Geisel School of Medicine, Dartmouth College, Hanover, New Hampshire 03755, United States
- Norris Cotton Cancer Center, Geisel School of Medicine and Dartmouth Hitchcock Medical System, Lebanon, New Hampshire 03755, United States
| | - Christine E Boone
- Department of Radiology, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, United States
| | - Nicole F Steinmetz
- Department of Radiology, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, United States
- Department of NanoEngineering, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, United States
- Department of Bioengineering, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, United States
- Moores Cancer Center, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, United States
- Center for Nano-ImmunoEngineering, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, United States
- Institute for Materials Design and Discovery, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, United States
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Shahgolzari M, Fiering S. Emerging Potential of Plant Virus Nanoparticles (PVNPs) in Anticancer Immunotherapies. JOURNAL OF CANCER IMMUNOLOGY 2022; 4:22-29. [PMID: 35600219 PMCID: PMC9121906 DOI: 10.33696/cancerimmunol.4.061] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Cancer immunotherapies using plant virus nanoparticles (PVNPs) have achieved considerable success in preclinical studies. PVNP based nanoplatforms can be endogenous immune adjuvants and act as nanocarriers that stabilize and deliver cancer antigens and exogenous immune adjuvants. Although they do not infect mammalian cells, PVNPs are viruses and they are variably recognized by pathogen pattern recognition receptors (PRR), activate innate immune cells including antigen-presenting cells (APCs), and increase the expression of costimulatory molecules. Novel immunotherapy strategies use them as in situ vaccines (ISV) that can effectively inhibit tumor growth after intratumoral administration and generate expanded systemic antitumor immunity. PVNPs combined with other tumor immunotherapeutic options and other modalities of oncotherapy can improve both local and systemic anti-tumor immune responses. While not yet in clinical trials in humans, there is accelerating interest and research of the potential of PVNPs for ISV immune therapy for cancer. Thus, antitumor efficacy of PVNPs by themselves, or loaded with soluble toll-like receptor (TLR) agonists and/or cancer antigens, will likely enter human trials over the next few years and potentially contribute to next-generation antitumor immune-based therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mehdi Shahgolzari
- Department of Advanced Sciences and Technologies in Medicine, School of Medicine, North Khorasan University of Medical Sciences, Bojnurd, Iran
| | - Steven Fiering
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Dartmouth Geisel School of Medicine, Hanover, NH, United States
- Norris Cotton Cancer Center, Dartmouth Geisel School of Medicine and Dartmouth-Hitchcock Medical Center, Lebanon, NH, United States
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33
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Boone CE, Wang L, Gautam A, Newton IG, Steinmetz NF. Combining nanomedicine and immune checkpoint therapy for cancer immunotherapy. WILEY INTERDISCIPLINARY REVIEWS. NANOMEDICINE AND NANOBIOTECHNOLOGY 2022; 14:e1739. [PMID: 34296535 PMCID: PMC8906799 DOI: 10.1002/wnan.1739] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2021] [Revised: 05/07/2021] [Accepted: 06/24/2021] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Cancer immunotherapy has emerged as a pillar of the cancer therapy armamentarium. Immune checkpoint therapy (ICT) is a mainstay of modern immunotherapy. Although ICT monotherapy has demonstrated remarkable clinical efficacy in some patients, the majority do not respond to treatment. In addition, many patients eventually develop resistance to ICT, disease recurrence, and toxicity from off-target effects. Combination therapy is a keystone strategy to overcome the limitations of monotherapy. With the integration of ICT and any therapy that induces tumor cell lysis and release of tumor-associated antigens (TAAs), ICT is expected to strengthen the coordinated innate and adaptive immune responses to TAA release and promote systemic, cellular antitumor immunity. Nanomedicine is well poised to facilitate combination ICT. Nanoparticles with delivery and/or immunomodulation capacities have been successfully combined with ICT in preclinical applications. Delivery nanoparticles protect and control the targeted release of their cargo. Inherently immunomodulatory nanoparticles can facilitate immunogenic cell death, modification of the tumor microenvironment, immune cell mimicry and modulation, and/or in situ vaccination. Nanoparticles are frequently multifunctional, combining multiple treatment strategies into a single platform with ICT. Nanomedicine and ICT combinations have great potential to yield novel, powerful treatments for patients with cancer. This article is categorized under: Therapeutic Approaches and Drug Discovery > Nanomedicine for Oncologic Disease Therapeutic Approaches and Drug Discovery > Emerging Technologies.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Lu Wang
- Department of Bioengineering, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla CA 92039, USA
| | - Aayushma Gautam
- Department of Bioengineering, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla CA 92039, USA
| | - Isabel G. Newton
- Department of Radiology, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla CA 92039, USA,Veterans Administration San Diego Healthcare System, 3350 La Jolla Village Drive San Diego, CA 92161
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34
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Chung YH, Church D, Koellhoffer EC, Osota E, Shukla S, Rybicki EP, Pokorski JK, Steinmetz NF. Integrating plant molecular farming and materials research for next-generation vaccines. NATURE REVIEWS. MATERIALS 2021; 7:372-388. [PMID: 34900343 DOI: 10.1038/s41578-021-00399-395] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 10/18/2021] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
Biologics - medications derived from a biological source - are increasingly used as pharmaceuticals, for example, as vaccines. Biologics are usually produced in bacterial, mammalian or insect cells. Alternatively, plant molecular farming, that is, the manufacture of biologics in plant cells, transgenic plants and algae, offers a cheaper and easily adaptable strategy for the production of biologics, in particular, in low-resource settings. In this Review, we discuss current vaccination challenges, such as cold chain requirements, and highlight how plant molecular farming in combination with advanced materials can be applied to address these challenges. The production of plant viruses and virus-based nanotechnologies in plants enables low-cost and regional fabrication of thermostable vaccines. We also highlight key new vaccine delivery technologies, including microneedle patches and material platforms for intranasal and oral delivery. Finally, we provide an outlook of future possibilities for plant molecular farming of next-generation vaccines and biologics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Young Hun Chung
- Department of Bioengineering, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA USA
| | - Derek Church
- Department of Nanoengineering, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA USA
| | - Edward C Koellhoffer
- Department of Radiology, University of California, San Diego Health, La Jolla, CA USA
| | - Elizabeth Osota
- Department of Nanoengineering, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA USA
- Biomedical Science Program, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA USA
| | - Sourabh Shukla
- Department of Nanoengineering, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA USA
| | - Edward P Rybicki
- Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Jonathan K Pokorski
- Department of Nanoengineering, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA USA
- Institute for Materials Discovery and Design, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA USA
- Center for Nano-Immuno Engineering, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA USA
| | - Nicole F Steinmetz
- Department of Bioengineering, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA USA
- Department of Nanoengineering, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA USA
- Department of Radiology, University of California, San Diego Health, La Jolla, CA USA
- Institute for Materials Discovery and Design, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA USA
- Center for Nano-Immuno Engineering, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA USA
- Moores Cancer Center, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA USA
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35
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Chung YH, Church D, Koellhoffer EC, Osota E, Shukla S, Rybicki EP, Pokorski JK, Steinmetz NF. Integrating plant molecular farming and materials research for next-generation vaccines. NATURE REVIEWS. MATERIALS 2021; 7:372-388. [PMID: 34900343 PMCID: PMC8647509 DOI: 10.1038/s41578-021-00399-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 10/18/2021] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
Biologics - medications derived from a biological source - are increasingly used as pharmaceuticals, for example, as vaccines. Biologics are usually produced in bacterial, mammalian or insect cells. Alternatively, plant molecular farming, that is, the manufacture of biologics in plant cells, transgenic plants and algae, offers a cheaper and easily adaptable strategy for the production of biologics, in particular, in low-resource settings. In this Review, we discuss current vaccination challenges, such as cold chain requirements, and highlight how plant molecular farming in combination with advanced materials can be applied to address these challenges. The production of plant viruses and virus-based nanotechnologies in plants enables low-cost and regional fabrication of thermostable vaccines. We also highlight key new vaccine delivery technologies, including microneedle patches and material platforms for intranasal and oral delivery. Finally, we provide an outlook of future possibilities for plant molecular farming of next-generation vaccines and biologics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Young Hun Chung
- Department of Bioengineering, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA USA
| | - Derek Church
- Department of Nanoengineering, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA USA
| | - Edward C. Koellhoffer
- Department of Radiology, University of California, San Diego Health, La Jolla, CA USA
| | - Elizabeth Osota
- Department of Nanoengineering, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA USA
- Biomedical Science Program, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA USA
| | - Sourabh Shukla
- Department of Nanoengineering, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA USA
| | - Edward P. Rybicki
- Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Jonathan K. Pokorski
- Department of Nanoengineering, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA USA
- Institute for Materials Discovery and Design, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA USA
- Center for Nano-Immuno Engineering, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA USA
| | - Nicole F. Steinmetz
- Department of Bioengineering, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA USA
- Department of Nanoengineering, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA USA
- Department of Radiology, University of California, San Diego Health, La Jolla, CA USA
- Institute for Materials Discovery and Design, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA USA
- Center for Nano-Immuno Engineering, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA USA
- Moores Cancer Center, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA USA
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Chung YH, Park J, Cai H, Steinmetz NF. S100A9-Targeted Cowpea Mosaic Virus as a Prophylactic and Therapeutic Immunotherapy against Metastatic Breast Cancer and Melanoma. ADVANCED SCIENCE (WEINHEIM, BADEN-WURTTEMBERG, GERMANY) 2021; 8:e2101796. [PMID: 34519180 PMCID: PMC8564454 DOI: 10.1002/advs.202101796] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2021] [Revised: 07/05/2021] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
Prognosis and treatment of metastatic cancer continues to be one of the most difficult and challenging areas of oncology. Treatment usually consists of chemotherapeutics, which may be ineffective due to drug resistance, adverse effects, and dose-limiting toxicity. Therefore, novel approaches such as immunotherapy have been investigated to improve patient outcomes and minimize side effects. S100A9 is a calcium-binding protein implicated in tumor metastasis, progression, and aggressiveness that modulates the tumor microenvironment into an immunosuppressive state. S100A9 is expressed in and secreted by immune cells in the pre-metastatic niche, as well as, post-tumor development, therefore making it a suitable targeted for prophylaxis and therapy. In previous work, it is demonstrated that cowpea mosaic virus (CPMV) acts as an adjuvant when administered intratumorally. Here, it is demonstrated that systemically administered, S100A9-targeted CPMV homes to the lungs leading to recruitment of innate immune cells. This approach is efficacious both prophylactically and therapeutically against lung metastasis from melanoma and breast cancer. The current research will facilitate and accelerate the development of next-generation targeted immunotherapies administered as prophylaxis, that is, after surgery of a primary breast tumor to prevent outgrowth of metastasis, as well as, therapy to treat established metastatic disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Young Hun Chung
- Department of BioengineeringUniversity of CaliforniaLa JollaSan DiegoCAUSA
| | - Jooneon Park
- Department of NanoengineeringUniversity of CaliforniaLa JollaSan DiegoCAUSA
| | - Hui Cai
- Department of NanoengineeringUniversity of CaliforniaLa JollaSan DiegoCAUSA
| | - Nicole F. Steinmetz
- Department of BioengineeringUniversity of CaliforniaLa JollaSan DiegoCAUSA
- Department of NanoengineeringUniversity of CaliforniaLa JollaSan DiegoCAUSA
- Department of RadiologyUniversity of CaliforniaLa JollaSan DiegoCAUSA
- Institute for Materials Discovery and DesignUniversity of CaliforniaLa JollaSan DiegoCAUSA
- Center for Nano‐ImmunoEngineeringUniversity of CaliforniaLa JollaSan DiegoCAUSA
- Moores Cancer CenterUniversity of CaliforniaLa JollaSan DiegoCAUSA
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Gautam A, Beiss V, Wang C, Wang L, Steinmetz NF. Plant Viral Nanoparticle Conjugated with Anti-PD-1 Peptide for Ovarian Cancer Immunotherapy. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms22189733. [PMID: 34575893 PMCID: PMC8467759 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22189733] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2021] [Revised: 09/01/2021] [Accepted: 09/03/2021] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Immunotherapy holds tremendous potential in cancer therapy, in particular, when treatment regimens are combined to achieve synergy between pathways along the cancer immunity cycle. In previous works, we demonstrated that in situ vaccination with the plant virus cowpea mosaic virus (CPMV) activates and recruits innate immune cells, therefore reprogramming the immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment toward an immune-activated state, leading to potent anti-tumor immunity in tumor mouse models and canine patients. CPMV therapy also increases the expression of checkpoint regulators on effector T cells in the tumor microenvironment, such as PD-1/PD-L1, and we demonstrated that combination with immune checkpoint therapy improves therapeutic outcomes further. In the present work, we tested the hypothesis that CPMV could be combined with anti-PD-1 peptides to replace expensive antibody therapies. Specifically, we set out to test whether a multivalent display of anti-PD-1 peptides (SNTSESF) would enhance efficacy over a combination of CPMV and soluble peptide. Efficacy of the approaches were tested using a syngeneic mouse model of intraperitoneal ovarian cancer. CPMV combination with anti-PD-1 peptides (SNTSESF) resulted in increased efficacy; however, increased potency against metastatic ovarian cancer was only observed when SNTSESF was conjugated to CPMV, and not added as a free peptide. This can be explained by the differences in the in vivo fates of the nanoparticle formulation vs. the free peptide; the larger nanoparticles are expected to exhibit prolonged tumor residence and favorable intratumoral distribution. Our study provides new design principles for plant virus-based in situ vaccination strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aayushma Gautam
- Department of NanoEngineering, University of California, San Diego, CA 92093, USA; (A.G.); (V.B.); (C.W.)
| | - Veronique Beiss
- Department of NanoEngineering, University of California, San Diego, CA 92093, USA; (A.G.); (V.B.); (C.W.)
| | - Chao Wang
- Department of NanoEngineering, University of California, San Diego, CA 92093, USA; (A.G.); (V.B.); (C.W.)
| | - Lu Wang
- Department of Bioengineering, University of California, San Diego, CA 92093, USA;
| | - Nicole F. Steinmetz
- Department of NanoEngineering, University of California, San Diego, CA 92093, USA; (A.G.); (V.B.); (C.W.)
- Department of Bioengineering, University of California, San Diego, CA 92093, USA;
- Department of Radiology, University of California, San Diego, CA 92093, USA
- Center for Nano-ImmunoEngineering, University of California, San Diego, CA 92093, USA
- Moores Cancer Center, University of California, San Diego, CA 92093, USA
- Institute for Materials Discovery and Design, University of California, San Diego, CA 92093, USA
- Correspondence:
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Manukhova TI, Evtushenko EA, Ksenofontov AL, Arutyunyan AM, Kovalenko AO, Nikitin NA, Karpova OV. Thermal remodelling of Alternanthera mosaic virus virions and virus-like particles into protein spherical particles. PLoS One 2021; 16:e0255378. [PMID: 34320024 PMCID: PMC8318239 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0255378] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2021] [Accepted: 07/15/2021] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
The present work addresses the thermal remodelling of flexible plant viruses with a helical structure and virus-like particles (VLPs). Here, for the first time, the possibility of filamentous Alternanthera mosaic virus (AltMV) virions' thermal transition into structurally modified spherical particles (SP) has been demonstrated. The work has established differences in formation conditions of SP from virions (SPV) and VLPs (SPVLP) that are in accordance with structural data (on AltMV virions and VLPs). SP originate from AltMV virions through an intermediate stage. However, the same intermediate stage was not detected during AltMV VLPs' structural remodelling. According to the biochemical analysis, AltMV SPV consist of protein and do not include RNA. The structural characterisation of AltMV SPV/VLP by circular dichroism, intrinsic fluorescence spectroscopy and thioflavin T fluorescence assay has been performed. AltMV SPV/VLP adsorption properties and the availability of chemically reactive surface amino acids have been analysed. The revealed characteristics of AltMV SPV/VLP indicate that they could be applied as protein platforms for target molecules presentation and for the design of functionally active complexes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tatiana I. Manukhova
- Faculty of Biology, Department of Virology, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, Russia
| | - Ekaterina A. Evtushenko
- Faculty of Biology, Department of Virology, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, Russia
| | - Alexander L. Ksenofontov
- Belozersky Institute of Physico-Chemical Biology, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, Russia
| | - Alexander M. Arutyunyan
- Belozersky Institute of Physico-Chemical Biology, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, Russia
| | - Angelina O. Kovalenko
- Faculty of Biology, Department of Virology, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, Russia
| | - Nikolai A. Nikitin
- Faculty of Biology, Department of Virology, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, Russia
| | - Olga V. Karpova
- Faculty of Biology, Department of Virology, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, Russia
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39
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Gorbet MJ, Singh A, Mao C, Fiering S, Ranjan A. Using nanoparticles for in situ vaccination against cancer: mechanisms and immunotherapy benefits. Int J Hyperthermia 2021; 37:18-33. [PMID: 33426995 DOI: 10.1080/02656736.2020.1802519] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Immunotherapy to treat cancer is now an established clinical approach. Immunotherapy can be applied systemically, as done with checkpoint blockade antibodies, but it can also be injected directly into identified tumors, in a strategy of in situ vaccination (ISV). ISV is designed to stimulate a strong local antitumor immune response involving both innate and adaptive immune cells, and through this generate a systemic antitumor immune response against metastatic tumors. A variety of ISVs have been utilized to generate an immunostimulatory tumor microenvironment (TME). These include attenuated microorganisms, recombinant proteins, small molecules, physical disruptors of TME (alternating magnetic and focused ultrasound heating, photothermal therapy, and radiotherapy), and more recently nanoparticles (NPs). NPs are attractive and unique since they can load multiple drugs or other reagents to influence immune and cancer cell functions in the TME, affording a unique opportunity to stimulate antitumor immunity. Here, we describe the NP-ISV therapeutic mechanisms, review chemically synthesized NPs (i.e., liposomes, polymeric, chitosan-based, inorganic NPs, etc.), biologically derived NPs (virus and bacteria-based NPs), and energy-activated NP-ISVs in the context of their use as local ISV. Data suggests that NP-ISVs can enhance outcomes of immunotherapeutic regimens including those utilizing tumor hyperthermia and checkpoint blockade therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Akansha Singh
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK, USA
| | - Chenkai Mao
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Geisel School of Medicine at Dartmouth, Hanover, NH, USA
| | - Steven Fiering
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Geisel School of Medicine at Dartmouth, Hanover, NH, USA.,Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Geisel School of Medicine at Dartmouth, Norris Cotton Cancer Center at Dartmouth and Dartmouth Hitchcock, Lebanon, NH, USA
| | - Ashish Ranjan
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK, USA
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40
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Mao C, Beiss V, Fields J, Steinmetz NF, Fiering S. Cowpea mosaic virus stimulates antitumor immunity through recognition by multiple MYD88-dependent toll-like receptors. Biomaterials 2021; 275:120914. [PMID: 34126409 DOI: 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2021.120914] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2021] [Revised: 05/10/2021] [Accepted: 05/19/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Cowpea mosaic virus (CPMV), a non-enveloped plant virus, and empty CPMV (eCPMV), a virus-like particle (VLP) composed of CPMV capsid without nucleic acids, are potent in situ cancer vaccines when administered intratumorally (I.T.). However, it is unclear how immune cells recognize these nanoparticles and why they are immunogenic, which was investigated in this study. CPMV generated stronger selective induction of cytokines and chemokines in naïve mouse splenocytes and exhibited more potent anti-tumor efficacy than eCPMV. MyD88 is required for both CPMV- and eCPMV-elicited immune responses. Screening with human embryonic kidney (HEK)-293 cell toll-like receptor (TLR) reporter assays along with experiments in corresponding TLR-/- mice indicated CPMV and eCPMV capsids are recognized by MyD88-dependent TLR2 and TLR4. CPMV, but not eCPMV, is additionally recognized by TLR7. Secretion of type I interferons (IFNs), which requires the interaction between TLR7 and encapsulated single-stranded RNAs (ssRNAs), is critical to CPMV's better efficacy. The same recognition mechanisms are also functional in human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs). Overall, these findings link CPMV immunotherapy efficacy with molecular recognition, provide rationale for how to develop more potent viral particles, accentuate the value of multi-TLR agonists as in situ cancer vaccines, and highlight the functional importance of type I IFNs for in situ vaccination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chenkai Mao
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Geisel School of Medicine, Dartmouth College, Hanover, NH, 03755, United States
| | - Veronique Beiss
- Department of Nanoengineering, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, 92093, United States
| | - Jennifer Fields
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Geisel School of Medicine, Dartmouth College, Hanover, NH, 03755, United States; Norris Cotton Cancer Center, Geisel School of Medicine, Dartmouth Hitchcock Medical System, Lebanon, NH, 03756, United States
| | - Nicole F Steinmetz
- Department of Nanoengineering, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, 92093, United States; Department of Bioengineering, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, 92093, United States; Department of Radiology, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, 92093, United States; Moores Cancer Center, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, 92093, United States; Center for Nano-ImmunoEngineering, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, 92093, United States; Institute for Materials Design and Discovery, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, 92093, United States
| | - Steven Fiering
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Geisel School of Medicine, Dartmouth College, Hanover, NH, 03755, United States; Norris Cotton Cancer Center, Geisel School of Medicine, Dartmouth Hitchcock Medical System, Lebanon, NH, 03756, United States.
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Rahimian N, Miraei HR, Amiri A, Ebrahimi MS, Nahand JS, Tarrahimofrad H, Hamblin MR, Khan H, Mirzaei H. Plant-based vaccines and cancer therapy: Where are we now and where are we going? Pharmacol Res 2021; 169:105655. [PMID: 34004270 DOI: 10.1016/j.phrs.2021.105655] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2021] [Revised: 04/27/2021] [Accepted: 04/28/2021] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Therapeutic vaccines are an effective approach in cancer therapy for treating the disease at later stages. The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) recently approved the first therapeutic cancer vaccine, and further studies are ongoing in clinical trials. These are expected to result in the future development of vaccines with relatively improved efficacy. Several vaccination approaches are being studied in pre-clinical and clinical trials, including the generation of anti-cancer vaccines by plant expression systems.This approach has advantages, such as high safety and low costs, especially for the synthesis of recombinant proteins. Nevertheless, the development of anti-cancer vaccines in plants is faced with some technical obstacles.Herein, we summarize some vaccines that have been used in cancer therapy, with an emphasis on plant-based vaccines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Neda Rahimian
- Endocrine Research Center, Institute of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Iran University of Medical Sciences (IUMS), Tehran, Iran
| | - Hamid Reza Miraei
- Department of Medical Immunology, School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Atefeh Amiri
- Department of Medical Biotechnology, School of Medicine, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashahd, Iran
| | | | - Javid Sadri Nahand
- Department of Virology, Faculty of Medicine, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Hossein Tarrahimofrad
- Department of Animal Biotechnology, National Institute of Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology (NIGEB), Tehran, Iran
| | - Michael R Hamblin
- Laser Research Centre, Faculty of Health Science, University of Johannesburg, Doornfontein 20282028, South Africa
| | - Haroon Khan
- Department of Pharmacy, Abdul Wali Khan University Mardan, 23200, Pakistan.
| | - Hamed Mirzaei
- Research Center for Biochemistry and Nutrition in Metabolic Diseases, Institute for Basic Sciences, Kashan University of Medical Sciences, Kashan, Iran.
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42
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Butkovich N, Li E, Ramirez A, Burkhardt AM, Wang SW. Advancements in protein nanoparticle vaccine platforms to combat infectious disease. WILEY INTERDISCIPLINARY REVIEWS. NANOMEDICINE AND NANOBIOTECHNOLOGY 2021; 13:e1681. [PMID: 33164326 PMCID: PMC8052270 DOI: 10.1002/wnan.1681] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2020] [Revised: 10/04/2020] [Accepted: 10/08/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Infectious diseases are a major threat to global human health, yet prophylactic treatment options can be limited, as safe and efficacious vaccines exist only for a fraction of all diseases. Notably, devastating diseases such as acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) and coronavirus disease of 2019 (COVID-19) currently do not have vaccine therapies. Conventional vaccine platforms, such as live attenuated vaccines and whole inactivated vaccines, can be difficult to manufacture, may cause severe side effects, and can potentially induce severe infection. Subunit vaccines carry far fewer safety concerns due to their inability to cause vaccine-based infections. The applicability of protein nanoparticles (NPs) as vaccine scaffolds is promising to prevent infectious diseases, and they have been explored for a number of viral, bacterial, fungal, and parasitic diseases. Many types of protein NPs exist, including self-assembling NPs, bacteriophage-derived NPs, plant virus-derived NPs, and human virus-based vectors, and these particular categories will be covered in this review. These vaccines can elicit strong humoral and cellular immune responses against specific pathogens, as well as provide protection against infection in a number of animal models. Furthermore, published clinical trials demonstrate the promise of applying these NP vaccine platforms, which include bacteriophage-derived NPs, in addition to multiple viral vectors that are currently used in the clinic. The continued investigations of protein NP vaccine platforms are critical to generate safer alternatives to current vaccines, advance vaccines for diseases that currently lack effective prophylactic therapies, and prepare for the rapid development of new vaccines against emerging infectious diseases. This article is categorized under: Therapeutic Approaches and Drug Discovery > Nanomedicine for Infectious Disease Biology-Inspired Nanomaterials > Protein and Virus-Based Structures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nina Butkovich
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of California, Irvine, CA 92697 USA
| | - Enya Li
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of California, Irvine, CA 92697 USA
| | - Aaron Ramirez
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of California, Irvine, CA 92697 USA
| | - Amanda M. Burkhardt
- Department of Clinical Pharmacy, School of Pharmacy, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90089 USA
| | - Szu-Wen Wang
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of California, Irvine, CA 92697 USA
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of California, Irvine, CA 92697 USA
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43
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Nkanga CI, Steinmetz NF. The pharmacology of plant virus nanoparticles. Virology 2021; 556:39-61. [PMID: 33545555 PMCID: PMC7974633 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2021.01.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2020] [Revised: 01/20/2021] [Accepted: 01/21/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
The application of nanoparticles for medical purposes has made enormous strides in providing new solutions to health problems. The observation that plant virus-based nanoparticles (VNPs) can be repurposed and engineered as smart bio-vehicles for targeted drug delivery and imaging has launched extensive research for improving the therapeutic and diagnostic management of various diseases. There is evidence that VNPs are promising high value nanocarriers with potential for translational development. This is mainly due to their unique features, encompassing structural uniformity, ease of manufacture and functionalization by means of expression, chemical biology and self-assembly. While the development pipeline is moving rapidly, with many reports focusing on engineering and manufacturing aspects to tailor the properties and efficacy of VNPs, fewer studies have focused on gaining insights into the nanotoxicity of this novel platform nanotechnology. Herein, we discuss the pharmacology of VNPs as a function of formulation and route of administration. VNPs are reviewed in the context of their application as therapeutic adjuvants or nanocarrier excipients to initiate, enhance, attenuate or impede the formulation's toxicity. The summary of the data however also underlines the need for meticulous VNP structure-nanotoxicity studies to improve our understanding of their in vivo fates and pharmacological profiles to pave the way for translation of VNP-based formulations into the clinical setting.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Nicole F Steinmetz
- Department of NanoEngineering, University of California-San Diego, La Jolla, CA, 92039, United States; Department of Bioengineering, Department of Radiology, Center for NanoImmunoEngineering, Moores Cancer Center, Institute for Materials Discovery and Design, University of California-San Diego, La Jolla, CA, 92039, United States.
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He X, Zhou S, Huang WC, Seffouh A, Mabrouk MT, Morgan MT, Ortega J, Abrams SI, Lovell JF. A Potent Cancer Vaccine Adjuvant System for Particleization of Short, Synthetic CD8 + T Cell Epitopes. ACS NANO 2021; 15:4357-4371. [PMID: 33606514 PMCID: PMC10184788 DOI: 10.1021/acsnano.0c07680] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/17/2023]
Abstract
Short major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class I (MHC-I)-restricted peptides contain the minimal biochemical information to induce antigen (Ag)-specific CD8+ cytotoxic T cell responses but are generally ineffective in doing so. To address this, we developed a cobalt-porphyrin (CoPoP) liposome vaccine adjuvant system that induces rapid particleization of conventional, short synthetic MHC-I epitopes, leading to strong cellular immune responses at nanogram dosing. Along with CoPoP (to induce particle formation of peptides), synthetic monophosphoryl lipid A (PHAD) and QS-21 immunostimulatory molecules were included in the liposome bilayer to generate the "CPQ" adjuvant system. In mice, immunization with a short MHC-I-restricted peptide, derived from glycoprotein 70 (gp70), admixed with CPQ safely generated functional, Ag-specific CD8+ T cells, resulting in the rejection of multiple tumor cell lines, with durable immunity. When cobalt was omitted, the otherwise identical peptide and adjuvant components did not result in peptide binding and were incapable of inducing immune responses, demonstrating the importance of stable particle formation. Immunization with the liposomal vaccine was well-tolerated and could control local and metastatic disease in a therapeutic setting. Mechanistic studies showed that particle-based peptides were better taken up by antigen-presenting cells, where they were putatively released within endosomes and phagosomes for display on MHC-I surfaces. On the basis of the potency of the approach, the platform was demonstrated as a tool for in vivo epitope screening of peptide microlibraries comprising a hundred peptides.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xuedan He
- Department of Biomedical Engineering. University at Buffalo, State University of New York, Buffalo, NY 14260, USA
| | - Shiqi Zhou
- Department of Biomedical Engineering. University at Buffalo, State University of New York, Buffalo, NY 14260, USA
| | - Wei-Chiao Huang
- Department of Biomedical Engineering. University at Buffalo, State University of New York, Buffalo, NY 14260, USA
| | - Amal Seffouh
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, McGill University Montreal, Quebec H3A0C7, Canada
| | - Moustafa T. Mabrouk
- Department of Biomedical Engineering. University at Buffalo, State University of New York, Buffalo, NY 14260, USA
| | | | - Joaquin Ortega
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, McGill University Montreal, Quebec H3A0C7, Canada
| | - Scott I. Abrams
- Department of Immunology, Roswell Park Comprehensive Cancer Center, Buffalo, NY 14263, USA
- ,
| | - Jonathan F. Lovell
- Department of Biomedical Engineering. University at Buffalo, State University of New York, Buffalo, NY 14260, USA
- ,
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45
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Stump CT, Ho G, Mao C, Veliz FA, Beiss V, Fields J, Steinmetz NF, Fiering S. Remission-Stage Ovarian Cancer Cell Vaccine with Cowpea Mosaic Virus Adjuvant Prevents Tumor Growth. Cancers (Basel) 2021; 13:627. [PMID: 33562450 PMCID: PMC7915664 DOI: 10.3390/cancers13040627] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2020] [Revised: 01/30/2021] [Accepted: 02/01/2021] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Ovarian cancer is the deadliest gynecological malignancy. Though most patients enter remission following initial interventions, relapse is common and often fatal. Accordingly, there is a substantial need for ovarian cancer therapies that prevent relapse. Following remission generated by surgical debulking and chemotherapy, but prior to relapse, resected and inactivated tumor tissue could be used as a personalized vaccine antigen source. The patient's own tumor contains relevant antigens and, when combined with the appropriate adjuvant, could generate systemic antitumor immunity to prevent relapse. Here, we model this process in mice to investigate the optimal tumor preparation and vaccine adjuvant. Cowpea mosaic virus (CPMV) has shown remarkable efficacy as an immunostimulatory cancer therapy in ovarian cancer mouse models, so we use CPMV as an adjuvant in a prophylactic vaccine against a murine ovarian cancer model. Compared to its codelivery with tumor antigens prepared in three other ways, we show that CPMV co-delivered with irradiated ovarian cancer cells constitutes an effective prophylactic vaccine against a syngeneic model of ovarian cancer in C57BL/6J mice. Following two vaccinations, 72% of vaccinated mice reject tumor challenges, and all those mice survived subsequent rechallenges, demonstrating immunologic memory formation. This study supports remission-stage vaccines using irradiated patient tumor tissue as a promising option for treating ovarian cancer, and validates CPMV as an antitumor vaccine adjuvant for that purpose.
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Affiliation(s)
- Courtney T. Stump
- Department of Biological Sciences, Dartmouth College, Hanover, NH 03755, USA;
| | - Gregory Ho
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Geisel School of Medicine, Dartmouth College, Lebanon, NH 03756, USA; (G.H.); (C.M.)
| | - Chenkai Mao
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Geisel School of Medicine, Dartmouth College, Lebanon, NH 03756, USA; (G.H.); (C.M.)
| | - Frank A. Veliz
- School of Medicine, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH 44106, USA;
| | - Veronique Beiss
- Department of Nanoengineering, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA; (V.B.); (N.F.S.)
| | - Jennifer Fields
- Norris Cotton Cancer Center, Dartmouth Hitchcock Medical Center, Lebanon, NH 03756, USA;
| | - Nicole F. Steinmetz
- Department of Nanoengineering, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA; (V.B.); (N.F.S.)
- Moores Cancer Center, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
- Department of Radiology, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
- Department of Bioengineering, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
- Center for Nano-ImmunoEngineering, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
- Institute for Materials Discovery and Design, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
| | - Steven Fiering
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Geisel School of Medicine, Dartmouth College, Lebanon, NH 03756, USA; (G.H.); (C.M.)
- Norris Cotton Cancer Center, Dartmouth Hitchcock Medical Center, Lebanon, NH 03756, USA;
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46
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Shahgolzari M, Pazhouhandeh M, Milani M, Fiering S, Khosroushahi AY. Alfalfa mosaic virus nanoparticles-based in situ vaccination induces antitumor immune responses in breast cancer model. Nanomedicine (Lond) 2021; 16:97-107. [PMID: 33442986 DOI: 10.2217/nnm-2020-0311] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: Preclinical and clinical studies show that local and systemic antitumor efficacy is achievable by in situ vaccination (ISV) using plant virus nanoparticles in which immunostimulatory reagents are directly administered into the tumor rather than systemically. Aim: To investigate a minimally studied plant virus nanoparticle, alfalfa mosaic virus (AMV), for ISV treatment of 4T1, the very aggressive and metastatic murine triple-negative breast cancer model. Materials & methods: AMV nanoparticles were propagated and characterized. Their treatment impact on in vivo tumors were analyzed using determination of inherent immunogenicity, cytokine analysis, western blotting analysis and immunohistochemistry methodologies. Results: AMV used as an ISV significantly slowed down tumor progression and prolonged survival through immune mechanisms (p < 0.001). Conclusion: Mechanistic studies show that ISV with AMV increases costimulatory molecules, inflammatory cytokines and immune effector cell infiltration and downregulates immune-suppressive molecules.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mehdi Shahgolzari
- Department of Medical Nanotechnology, Faculty of Advanced Medical Sciences, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran.,Drug Applied Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Maghsoud Pazhouhandeh
- Biotechnology Dept. Agriculture Fac. Azarbaijan Shahid Madani University, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Morteza Milani
- Department of Medical Nanotechnology, Faculty of Advanced Medical Sciences, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Steven Fiering
- Department of Microbiology & Immunology, Geisel School of Medicine at Dartmouth, Hanover, NH 03756, USA.,Norris Cotton Cancer Center, Geisel School of Medicine at Dartmouth & Dartmouth-Hitchcock Medical Center, Lebanon, NH 03756, USA
| | - Ahmad Yari Khosroushahi
- Department of Medical Nanotechnology, Faculty of Advanced Medical Sciences, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran.,Drug Applied Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
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47
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Shukla S, Wang C, Beiss V, Cai H, Washington T, Murray AA, Gong X, Zhao Z, Masarapu H, Zlotnick A, Fiering S, Steinmetz NF. The unique potency of Cowpea mosaic virus (CPMV) in situ cancer vaccine. Biomater Sci 2020; 8:5489-5503. [PMID: 32914796 PMCID: PMC8086234 DOI: 10.1039/d0bm01219j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
The immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment enables cancer to resist immunotherapies. We have established that intratumoral administration of plant-derived Cowpea mosaic virus (CPMV) nanoparticles as an in situ vaccine overcomes the local immunosuppression and stimulates a potent anti-tumor response in several mouse cancer models and canine patients. CPMV does not infect mammalian cells but acts as a danger signal that leads to the recruitment and activation of innate and subsequently, adaptive immune cells. In the present study we addressed whether other icosahedral viruses or virus-like particles (VLPs) of plant, bacteriophage and mammalian origin can be similarly employed as intratumoral immunotherapy. Our results indicate that CPMV in situ vaccine outperforms Cowpea chlorotic mottle virus (CCMV), Physalis mosaic virus (PhMV), Sesbania mosaic virus (SeMV), bacteriophage Qβ VLPs, or Hepatitis B virus capsids (HBVc). Furthermore, ex vivo and in vitro assays reveal unique features of CPMV that makes it an inherently stronger immune stimulant.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sourabh Shukla
- Department of NanoEngineering, University of California-San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92039, USA.
| | - Chao Wang
- Department of NanoEngineering, University of California-San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92039, USA.
| | - Veronique Beiss
- Department of NanoEngineering, University of California-San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92039, USA.
| | - Hui Cai
- Department of NanoEngineering, University of California-San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92039, USA.
| | - Torus Washington
- Department of NanoEngineering, University of California-San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92039, USA.
| | - Abner A Murray
- Department of Molecular Biology and Microbiology, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH 44106, USA
| | - Xingjian Gong
- Department of Bioengineering, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH 44106, USA
| | - Zhongchao Zhao
- Molecular and Cellular Biochemistry Department, Indiana University Bloomington, IN 47405, USA
| | - Hema Masarapu
- Department of Virology, Sri Venkateswara University, Tirupati 517502, India
| | - Adam Zlotnick
- Molecular and Cellular Biochemistry Department, Indiana University Bloomington, IN 47405, USA
| | - Steven Fiering
- Geisel School of Medicine, Dartmouth College, Lebanon, NH 03756, USA
| | - Nicole F Steinmetz
- Department of NanoEngineering, University of California-San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92039, USA. and Department of Bioengineering, University of California-San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92039, USA and Department of Radiology, University of California-San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92039, USA and Moores Cancer Center, University of California-San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92039, USA and Center for Nano-ImmunoEngineering, University of California-San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92039, USA
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48
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Shukla S, Hu H, Cai H, Chan SK, Boone CE, Beiss V, Chariou PL, Steinmetz NF. Plant Viruses and Bacteriophage-Based Reagents for Diagnosis and Therapy. Annu Rev Virol 2020; 7:559-587. [PMID: 32991265 PMCID: PMC8018517 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-virology-010720-052252] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Viral nanotechnology exploits the prefabricated nanostructures of viruses, which are already abundant in nature. With well-defined molecular architectures, viral nanocarriers offer unprecedented opportunities for precise structural and functional manipulation using genetic engineering and/or bio-orthogonal chemistries. In this manner, they can be loaded with diverse molecular payloads for targeted delivery. Mammalian viruses are already established in the clinic for gene therapy and immunotherapy, and inactivated viruses or virus-like particles have long been used as vaccines. More recently, plant viruses and bacteriophages have been developed as nanocarriers for diagnostic imaging, vaccine and drug delivery, and combined diagnosis/therapy (theranostics). The first wave of these novel virus-based tools has completed clinical development and is poised to make an impact on clinical practice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sourabh Shukla
- Department of NanoEngineering, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, USA
| | - He Hu
- Department of NanoEngineering, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, USA
| | - Hui Cai
- Department of NanoEngineering, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, USA
| | - Soo-Khim Chan
- Department of NanoEngineering, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, USA
| | - Christine E Boone
- Department of NanoEngineering, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, USA
| | - Veronique Beiss
- Department of NanoEngineering, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, USA
| | - Paul L Chariou
- Department of NanoEngineering, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, USA
| | - Nicole F Steinmetz
- Department of NanoEngineering, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, USA
- Department of Radiology, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, USA
- Department of Bioengineering, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, USA
- Moores Cancer Center and Center for Nano-ImmunoEngineering, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, USA;
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49
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Abdou P, Wang Z, Chen Q, Chan A, Zhou DR, Gunadhi V, Gu Z. Advances in engineering local drug delivery systems for cancer immunotherapy. WILEY INTERDISCIPLINARY REVIEWS. NANOMEDICINE AND NANOBIOTECHNOLOGY 2020; 12:e1632. [PMID: 32255276 PMCID: PMC7725287 DOI: 10.1002/wnan.1632] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2019] [Revised: 03/03/2020] [Accepted: 03/04/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Cancer immunotherapy aims to leverage the immune system to suppress the growth of tumors and to inhibit metastasis. The recent promising clinical outcomes associated with cancer immunotherapy have prompted research and development efforts towards enhancing the efficacy of immune checkpoint blockade, cancer vaccines, cytokine therapy, and adoptive T cell therapy. Advancements in biomaterials, nanomedicine, and micro-/nano-technology have facilitated the development of enhanced local delivery systems for cancer immunotherapy, which can enhance treatment efficacy while minimizing toxicity. Furthermore, locally administered cancer therapies that combine immunotherapy with chemotherapy, radiotherapy, or phototherapy have the potential to achieve synergistic antitumor effects. Herein, the latest studies on local delivery systems for cancer immunotherapy are surveyed, with an emphasis on the therapeutic benefits associated with the design of biomaterials and nanomedicines. This article is categorized under: Nanotechnology Approaches to Biology > Nanoscale Systems in Biology Therapeutic Approaches and Drug Discovery > Nanomedicine for Oncologic Disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter Abdou
- Department of Bioengineering, University of California, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
- Jonsson Comprehensive Cancer Center, California NanoSystems Institute, and Center for Minimally Invasive Therapeutics, University of California, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
| | - Zejun Wang
- Department of Bioengineering, University of California, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
- Jonsson Comprehensive Cancer Center, California NanoSystems Institute, and Center for Minimally Invasive Therapeutics, University of California, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
| | - Qian Chen
- Institute of Functional Nano & Soft Materials (FUNSOM), Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Carbon-Based Functional Materials & Devices, Soochow University, 199 Ren’ai Road, Suzhou, 215123, Jiangsu, PR China
| | - Amanda Chan
- Department of Bioengineering, University of California, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
- Jonsson Comprehensive Cancer Center, California NanoSystems Institute, and Center for Minimally Invasive Therapeutics, University of California, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
| | - Daojia R. Zhou
- Department of Bioengineering, University of California, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
- Jonsson Comprehensive Cancer Center, California NanoSystems Institute, and Center for Minimally Invasive Therapeutics, University of California, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
| | - Vivienne Gunadhi
- Department of Bioengineering, University of California, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
| | - Zhen Gu
- Department of Bioengineering, University of California, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
- Jonsson Comprehensive Cancer Center, California NanoSystems Institute, and Center for Minimally Invasive Therapeutics, University of California, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
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50
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Boone CE, Wang C, Lopez-Ramirez MA, Beiss V, Shukla S, Chariou PL, Kupor D, Rueda R, Wang J, Steinmetz NF. Active Microneedle Administration of Plant Virus Nanoparticles for Cancer in situ Vaccination Improves Immunotherapeutic Efficacy. ACS APPLIED NANO MATERIALS 2020; 3:8037-8051. [PMID: 33969278 PMCID: PMC8101548 DOI: 10.1021/acsanm.0c01506] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
The solid tumor microenvironment (TME) poses a significant structural and biochemical barrier to immunotherapeutic agents. To address the limitations of tumor penetration and distribution, and to enhance antitumor efficacy of immunotherapeutics, we present here an autonomous active microneedle (MN) system for the direct intratumoral (IT) delivery of a potent immunoadjuvant, cowpea mosaic virus nanoparticles (CPMV) in vivo. In this active delivery system, magnesium (Mg) microparticles embedded into active MNs react with the interstitial fluid in the TME, generating a propulsive force to drive the nanoparticle payload into the tumor. Active delivery of CPMV payload into B16F10 melanomas in vivo demonstrated substantially more pronounced tumor regression and prolonged survival of tumor-bearing mice compared to that of passive MNs and conventional needle injection. Active MN administration of CPMV also enhanced local innate and systemic adaptive antitumor immunity. Our approach represents an elaboration of conventional CPMV in situ vaccination, highlighting substantial immune-mediated antitumor effects and improved therapeutic efficacy that can be achieved through an active and autonomous delivery system-mediated CPMV in situ vaccination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christine E. Boone
- Department of Radiology, UC San Diego Health, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla California 92093, United States
| | - Chao Wang
- Department of Nanoengineering, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, United States
| | - Miguel Angel Lopez-Ramirez
- Department of Nanoengineering, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, United States
| | - Veronique Beiss
- Department of Nanoengineering, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, United States
| | - Sourabh Shukla
- Department of Nanoengineering, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, United States
| | - Paul L. Chariou
- Department of Nanoengineering, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, United States
| | - Daniel Kupor
- Department of Nanoengineering, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, United States
| | - Ricardo Rueda
- Department of Nanoengineering, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, United States
| | - Joseph Wang
- Department of Nanoengineering, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, United States
- Center for Nano-ImmunoEngineering (nanoIE), University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, United States
| | - Nicole F. Steinmetz
- Department of Radiology, UC San Diego Health, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla California 92093, United States
- Department of Nanoengineering, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, United States
- Department of Bioengineering, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, United States
- Moores Cancer Center, UC San Diego Health, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, United States
- Center for Nano-ImmunoEngineering (nanoIE), University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, United States
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