CAR, a Homing Peptide, Prolongs Pulmonary Preferential Vasodilation by Increasing Pulmonary Retention and Reducing Systemic Absorption of Liposomal Fasudil

Recent advances and clinical translation of liposomal delivery systems in cancer therapy

The limitations of conventional cancer treatment are driving the emergence and development of nanomedicines. Research in liposomal nanomedicine for cancer therapy is rapidly increasing, opening up new horizons for cancer treatment. Liposomal nanomedicine, which focuses on targeted drug delivery to improve the therapeutic effect of cancer while reducing damage to normal tissues and cells, has great potential in the field of cancer therapy. This review aims to clarify the advantages of liposomal delivery systems in cancer therapy. We describe the recent understanding of spatiotemporal fate of liposomes in the organism after different routes of drug administration. Meanwhile, various types of liposome-based drug delivery systems that exert their respective advantages in cancer therapy while reducing side effects were discussed. Moreover, the combination of liposomal agents with other therapies (such as photodynamic therapy and photothermal therapy) has demonstrated enhanced tumor-targeting efficiency and therapeutic efficacy. Finally, the opportunities and challenges faced by the field of liposome nanoformulations for entering the clinical treatment of cancer are highlighted.

Pulmonary arterial hypertension nanotherapeutics: New pharmacological targets and drug delivery strategies

Pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH) is a rare, serious, and incurable disease characterized by high lung pressure. PAH-approved drugs based on conventional pathways are still not exhibiting favorable therapeutic outcomes. Drawbacks like short half-lives, toxicity, and teratogenicity hamper effectiveness, clinical conventionality, and long-term safety. Hence, approaches like repurposing drugs targeting various and new pharmacological cascades and/or loaded in non-toxic/efficient nanocarrier systems are being investigated lately. This review summarizes the status of conventional, repurposed, either in vitro, in vivo, and/or in clinical trials of PAH treatment. In-depth description, discussion, and classification of the new pharmacological targets and nanomedicine strategies with a description of all the nanocarriers that showed promising efficiency in delivering drugs are discussed. Ultimately, an illustration of the different nucleic acids tailored and nanoencapsulated within different types of nanocarriers to restore the pathways affected by this disease is presented.

Systemically administered wound-homing peptide accelerates wound healing by modulating syndecan-4 function

CAR (CARSKNKDC) is a wound-homing peptide that recognises angiogenic neovessels. Here we discover that systemically administered CAR peptide has inherent ability to promote wound healing: wounds close and re-epithelialise faster in CAR-treated male mice. CAR promotes keratinocyte migration in vitro. The heparan sulfate proteoglycan syndecan-4 regulates cell migration and is crucial for wound healing. We report that syndecan-4 expression is restricted to epidermis and blood vessels in mice skin wounds. Syndecan-4 regulates binding and internalisation of CAR peptide and CAR-mediated cytoskeletal remodelling. CAR induces syndecan-4-dependent activation of the small GTPase ARF6, via the guanine nucleotide exchange factor cytohesin-2, and promotes syndecan-4-, ARF6- and Cytohesin-2-mediated keratinocyte migration. Finally, we show that genetic ablation of syndecan-4 in male mice eliminates CAR-induced wound re-epithelialisation following systemic administration. We propose that CAR peptide activates syndecan-4 functions to selectively promote re-epithelialisation. Thus, CAR peptide provides a therapeutic approach to enhance wound healing in mice; systemic, yet target organ- and cell-specific.

Intratracheally Administered Peptide-Modified Lipid Admixture Containing Fasudil and/or DETA NONOate Ameliorates Various Pathologies of Pulmonary Arterial Hypertension

This study examined the therapeutic potential of a combination therapy using fasudil, a Rho-kinase inhibitor, and DETA NONOate (DN), a nitric oxide donor, delivered as a lipid admixture modified with a cyclic homing peptide known as CAR (CAR-lipid mixture) for the treatment of pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH). CAR-lipid mixtures were initially prepared via a thin-film hydration method and then combined with fasudil, DN, or a mixture of both. The therapeutic efficacy of this drug-laden lipid mixture was evaluated in a Sugen/Hypoxia (Su/Hx) rat model of PAH by measuring RV systolic pressure (RVSP), mean pulmonary arterial pressure (mPAP), Fulton indices, and assessing right ventricular (RV) functions, as well as evaluating pulmonary vascular morphology. Rats that received no treatment exhibited increases in RVSP, mPAP, Fulton indices, and changes in RV functional parameters. However, the treatment with the CAR-lipid mixture containing either fasudil or DN or a combination of both led to a decline in mPAP, RVSP, and Fulton indices compared to saline-treated rats. Similarly, rats that received these treatments showed concurrent improvement in various echocardiographic parameters such as pulmonary acceleration time (PAT), tricuspid annular plane systolic excursion (TAPSE), and ventricular free wall thickness (RVFWT). A significant decrease in the wall thickness of pulmonary arteries larger than 100 µm was observed with the combination therapy. The findings reveal that fasudil, DN, and their combination in a CAR-modified lipid mixture improved pulmonary hemodynamics, RV functions, and pathological alterations in the pulmonary vasculature. This study underscores the potential of combination therapy and targeted drug delivery in PAH treatment, laying the groundwork for future investigations into the optimization of these treatments, their long-term safety and efficacy, and the underlying mechanism of action of the proposed therapy.

Dual Affinity to RBCs and Target Cells (DART) Enhances Both Organ- and Cell Type-Targeting of Intravascular Nanocarriers

A long-standing goal of nanomedicine is to improve a drug's benefit by loading it into a nanocarrier that homes solely to a specific target cell and organ. Unfortunately, nanocarriers usually end up with only a small percentage of the injected dose (% ID) in the target organ, due largely to clearance by the liver and spleen. Further, cell-type-specific targeting is rarely achieved without reducing target organ accumulation. To solve these problems, we introduce DART (dual affinity to RBCs and target cells), in which nanocarriers are conjugated to two affinity ligands, one binding red blood cells and one binding a target cell (here, pulmonary endothelial cells). DART nanocarriers first bind red blood cells and then transfer to the target organ's endothelial cells as the bound red blood cells squeeze through capillaries. We show that within minutes after intravascular injection in mice nearly 70% ID of DART nanocarriers accumulate in the target organ (lungs), more than doubling the % ID ceiling achieved by a multitude of prior technologies, finally achieving a majority % ID in a target organ. Humanized DART nanocarriers in ex vivo perfused human lungs recapitulate this phenomenon. Furthermore, DART enhances the selectivity of delivery to target endothelial cells over local phagocytes within the target organ by 6-fold. DART's marked improvement in both organ- and cell-type targeting may thus be helpful in localizing drugs for a multitude of medical applications.

Multicompartment systems: A putative carrier for combined drug delivery and targeting

In this review, we discuss recent developments in multicompartment systems commonly referred to as vesosomes, as well as their method of preparation, surface modifications, and clinical potential. Vesosomal systems are able to entrap more than one drug moiety and can be customized for site-specific delivery. We focus in particular on the possible reticuloendothelial system (RES) - mediated accumulation of vesosomes, and their application in tumor targeting, as areas for further investigation.

Selective Targeting and Tissue Penetration to the Retina by a Systemically Administered Vascular Homing Peptide in Oxygen Induced Retinopathy (OIR)

Pathological angiogenesis is the hallmark of ischemic retinal diseases among them retinopathy of prematurity (ROP) and proliferative diabetic retinopathy (PDR). Oxygen-induced retinopathy (OIR) is a pure hypoxia-driven angiogenesis model and a widely used model for ischemic retinopathies. We explored whether the vascular homing peptide CAR (CARSKNKDC) which recognizes angiogenic blood vessels can be used to target the retina in OIR. We were able to demonstrate that the systemically administered CAR vascular homing peptide homed selectively to the preretinal neovessels in OIR. As a cell and tissue-penetrating peptide, CAR also penetrated into the retina. Hyperoxia used to induce OIR in the retina also causes bronchopulmonary dysplasia in the lungs. We showed that the CAR peptide is not targeted to the lungs in normal mice but is targeted to the lungs after hyperoxia-/hypoxia-treatment of the animals. The site-specific delivery of the CAR peptide to the pathologic retinal vasculature and the penetration of the retinal tissue may offer new opportunities for treating retinopathies more selectively and with less side effects.

Bioactive nanotherapeutic trends to combat triple negative breast cancer

The management of aggressive breast cancer, particularly, triple negative breast cancer (TNBC) remains a formidable challenge, despite treatment advancement. Although newer therapies such as atezolizumab, olaparib, and sacituzumab can tackle the breast cancer prognosis and/or progression, but achieved limited survival benefit(s). The current research efforts are aimed to develop and implement strategies for improved bioavailability, targetability, reduce systemic toxicity, and enhance therapeutic outcome of FDA-approved treatment regimen. This review presents various nanoparticle technology mediated delivery of chemotherapeutic agent(s) for breast cancer treatment. This article also documents novel strategies to employ cellular and cell membrane cloaked (biomimetic) nanoparticles for effective clinical translation. These technologies offer a safe and active targeting nanomedicine for effective management of breast cancer, especially TNBC.

Systemically Administered Homing Peptide Targets Dystrophic Lesions and Delivers Transforming Growth Factor-β (TGFβ) Inhibitor to Attenuate Murine Muscular Dystrophy Pathology

Muscular dystrophy is a progressively worsening and lethal disease, where accumulation of functionality-impairing fibrosis plays a key pathogenic role. Transforming growth factor-β1 (TGFβ1) is a central signaling molecule in the development of fibrosis in muscular dystrophic humans and mice. Inhibition of TGFβ1 has proven beneficial in mouse models of muscular dystrophy, but the global strategies of TGFβ1 inhibition produce significant detrimental side effects. Here, we investigated whether murine muscular dystrophy lesion-specific inhibition of TGFβ1 signaling by the targeted delivery of therapeutic decorin (a natural TGFβ inhibitor) by a vascular homing peptide CAR (CARSKNKDC) would reduce skeletal muscle fibrosis and pathology and increase functional characteristics of skeletal muscle. We demonstrate that CAR peptide homes to dystrophic lesions with specificity in two muscular dystrophy models. Recombinant fusion protein consisting of CAR peptide and decorin homes selectively to sites of skeletal muscle damage in mdxDBA2/J and gamma-sarcoglycan deficient DBA2/J mice. This targeted delivery reduced TGFβ1 signaling as demonstrated by reduced nuclear pSMAD staining. Three weeks of targeted decorin treatment decreased both membrane permeability and fibrosis and improved skeletal muscle function in comparison to control treatments in the mdxD2 mice. These results show that selective delivery of decorin to the sites of skeletal muscle damage attenuates the progression of murine muscular dystrophy.

Fasudil Dichloroacetate Alleviates SU5416/Hypoxia-Induced Pulmonary Arterial Hypertension by Ameliorating Dysfunction of Pulmonary Arterial Smooth Muscle Cells

Background

Pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH) is an incurable disease that urgently needs therapeutic approaches. Based on the therapeutic effects of fasudil and dichloroacetate (DCA) on PAH, we aimed to explore the effects and potential mechanism of a new salt, fasudil dichloroacetate (FDCA), in a SU5416 plus hypoxia (SuHx)-induced rat model of PAH.

Methods

The rat model of PAH was established by a single subcutaneous injection of SU5416 (20 mg/kg) followed by hypoxia (10% O₂) exposure for 3 weeks. FDCA (15, 45, or 135 mg/kg i.g. daily) or the positive control, bosentan (100 mg/kg i.g. daily), were administered from the first day after SU5416 injection. After 3-week hypoxia, hemodynamic parameters, and histological changes of the pulmonary arterial vessels and right ventricle (RV) were assessed. Additionally, in vitro, the effects of FDCA (50 μM), compared with equimolar doses of fasudil, DCA, or fasudil+DCA, on the proliferation, migration, and contraction of human pulmonary arterial smooth muscle cell (PASMC) under hypoxia (1% O₂) were evaluated.

Results

FDCA dose-dependently attenuated SuHx-induced PAH, with significant reductions in RV systolic pressure, pulmonary artery wall thickness, pulmonary vessel muscularization, perivascular fibrosis, as well as RV hypertrophy and fibrosis. In vitro, FDCA inhibited hypoxia-induced PASMC proliferation, migration, and contraction to a greater degree than fasudil or DCA alone by restoring mitochondrial function, reducing intracellular Ca²⁺, and inhibiting calcium/calmodulin-dependent kinase (Ca²⁺/CaMK) activity as well as Rho-kinase activity.

Conclusion

FDCA ameliorates hypoxia-induced PASMC dysfunction by inhibiting both Ca²⁺/CaMK and Rho-kinase signaling pathways, as well as maintaining mitochondrial homeostasis, thus alleviating SuHx-induced PAH.

Progress in the Application of Nano- and Micro-based Drug Delivery Systems in Pulmonary Drug Delivery

Nanotechnology is associated with the development of particles in the nano-size range that can be used in a wide range of applications in the medical field. It has gained more importance in the pharmaceutical research field particularly in drug delivery, as it results in enhanced therapeutic drug performance, improved drug solubility, targeted drug delivery to the specific sites, minimized side effects, and prolonged drug retention time in the targeted site. To date, the application of nanotechnology continues to offer several benefits in the treatment of various chronic diseases and results in remarkable improvements in treatment outcomes. The use of nano-based delivery systems such as liposomes, micelles, and nanoparticles in pulmonary drug delivery have shown to be a promising strategy in achieving drug deposition and maintained controlled drug release in the lungs. They have been widely used to minimize the risks of drug toxicity in vivo. In this review, recent advances in the application of nano- and micro-based delivery systems in pulmonary drug delivery for the treatment of various pulmonary diseases, such as lung cancer, asthma, and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, are highlighted. Limitations in the application of these drug delivery systems and some key strategies in improving their formulation properties to overcome challenges encountered in drug delivery are also discussed.

CAR (CARSKNKDC) Peptide Modified ReNcell-Derived Extracellular Vesicles as a Novel Therapeutic Agent for Targeted Pulmonary Hypertension Therapy

In recent years, mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs)–derived extracellular vesicles (EVs) are emerging as a potential therapeutic agent for pulmonary hypertension (PH). However, the full realization of MSCs-derived EVs therapy has been hampered by the absence of standardization in MSCs culture and the challenges of industrial scale-up. The study was to exploit an alternative replacement for MSCs using currently commercialized stem cell lines for effective targeted PH therapy. ReNcell VM—a human neural stem cell line—has been utilized here as a reliable and easily adoptable source of EVs. We first demonstrated that ReNcell-derived EVs (ReNcell-EVs) pretreatment effectively prevented Su/Hx (SU5416/hypoxia)-induced PH in mice. Then for targeted therapy, we conjugated ReNcell-EVs with CAR (CARSKNKDC) peptide (CAR-EVs)—a peptide identified to specifically target hypertensive pulmonary arteries, by bio-orthogonal chemistry. Intravenous administration of CAR-EVs selectively targeted hypertensive pulmonary artery lesions especially pulmonary artery smooth muscle cells. Moreover, compared with unmodified ReNcell-EVs, CAR-EVs treatment significantly improved therapeutic effect in reversing Su/Hx-induced PH in mice. Mechanistically, ReNcell-EVs inhibited hypoxia-induced proliferation, migration, and phenotype switch of pulmonary artery smooth muscle cells, at least in part, via the delivery of its endogenous highly expressed miRNAs, let-7b-5p, miR-92b-3p, and miR-100-5p. In addition, we also found that ReNcell-EVs inhibited hypoxia-induced cell apoptosis and endothelial-mesenchymal transition in human microvascular endothelial cells. Taken together, our results provide an alternative to MSCs-derived EVs–based PH therapy via using ReNcell as a reliable source of EVs. Particularly, our CAR-conjugated EVs may serve as a novel drug carrier that enhances the specificity and efficiency of drug delivery for effective PH-targeted therapy.

Pulmonary-arterial-hypertension (PAH)-on-a-chip: fabrication, validation and application

Currently used animal and cellular models for pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH) only partially recapitulate its pathophysiology in humans and are thus inadequate in reproducing the hallmarks of the disease, inconsistent in portraying the sex-disparity, and unyielding to combinatorial study designs. Here we sought to deploy the ingenuity of microengineering in developing and validating a tissue chip model for human PAH. We designed and fabricated a microfluidic device to emulate the luminal, intimal, medial, adventitial, and perivascular layers of a pulmonary artery. By growing three types of pulmonary arterial cells (PACs)-endothelial, smooth muscle, and adventitial cells, we recreated the PAH pathophysiology on the device. Diseased (PAH) PACs, when grown on the chips, moved of out their designated layers and created phenomena similar to the major pathologies of human PAH: intimal thickening, muscularization, and arterial remodeling and show an endothelial to mesenchymal transition. Flow-induced stress caused control cells, grown on the chips, to undergo morphological changes and elicit arterial remodeling. Our data also suggest that the newly developed chips can be used to elucidate the sex disparity in PAH and to study the therapeutic efficacy of existing and investigational anti-PAH drugs. We believe this miniaturized device can be deployed for testing various prevailing and new hypotheses regarding the pathobiology and drug therapy in human PAH.

Newer approaches and novel drugs for inhalational therapy for pulmonary arterial hypertension

Introduction: Pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH) is a progressive disease characterized by remodeling of small pulmonary arteries leading to increased pulmonary arterial pressure. Existing treatments acts to normalize vascular tone via three signaling pathways: the prostacyclin, the endothelin-1, and the nitric oxide. Although over the past 20 years, there has been considerable progress in terms of treatments for PAH, the disease still remains incurable with a disappointing prognosis.Areas covered: This review summarizes the pathophysiology of PAH, the advantages and disadvantages of the inhalation route, and assess the relative advantages various inhaled therapies for PAH. The recent studies concerning the development of controlled-release drug delivery systems loaded with available anti-PAH drugs have also been summarized.Expert opinion: The main obstacles of current pharmacotherapies of PAH are their short half-life, stability, and formulations, resulting in reducing the efficacy and increasing systemic side effects and unknown pathogenesis of PAH. The pulmonary route has been proposed for delivering anti-PAH drugs to overcome the shortcomings. However, the application of approved inhaled anti-PAH drugs is limited. Inhalational delivery of controlled-release nanoformulations can overcome these restrictions. Extensive studies are required to develop safe and effective drug delivery systems for PAH patients.

Systemically Administered, Target-Specific, Multi-Functional Therapeutic Recombinant Proteins in Regenerative Medicine

Growth factors, chemokines and cytokines guide tissue regeneration after injuries. However, their applications as recombinant proteins are almost non-existent due to the difficulty of maintaining their bioactivity in the protease-rich milieu of injured tissues in humans. Safety concerns have ruled out their systemic administration. The vascular system provides a natural platform for circumvent the limitations of the local delivery of protein-based therapeutics. Tissue selectivity in drug accumulation can be obtained as organ-specific molecular signatures exist in the blood vessels in each tissue, essentially forming a postal code system ("vascular zip codes") within the vasculature. These target-specific "vascular zip codes" can be exploited in regenerative medicine as the angiogenic blood vessels in the regenerating tissues have a unique molecular signature. The identification of vascular homing peptides capable of finding these unique "vascular zip codes" after their systemic administration provides an appealing opportunity for the target-specific delivery of therapeutics to tissue injuries. Therapeutic proteins can be "packaged" together with homing peptides by expressing them as multi-functional recombinant proteins. These multi-functional recombinant proteins provide an example how molecular engineering gives to a compound an ability to home to regenerating tissue and enhance its therapeutic potential. Regenerative medicine has been dominated by the locally applied therapeutic approaches despite these therapies are not moving to clinical medicine with success. There might be a time to change the paradigm towards systemically administered, target organ-specific therapeutic molecules in future drug discovery and development for regenerative medicine.