Self-Assembly, Bioactivity, and Nanomaterials Applications of Peptide Conjugates with Bulky Aromatic Terminal Groups

Peptide-based nanomaterials and their diverse applications

The supramolecular self-assembly of peptides offers a promising avenue for both materials science and biological applications. Peptides have garnered significant attention in molecular self-assembly, forming diverse nanostructures with α-helix, β-sheet, and random coil conformations. These self-assembly processes are primarily driven by the amphiphilic nature of peptides and stabilized by non-covalent interactions, leading to complex nanoarchitectures responsive to environmental stimuli. While extensively studied in biomedical applications, including drug delivery and tissue engineering, their potential applications in the fields of piezoresponsive materials, conducting materials, catalysis and energy harvesting remain underexplored. This review comprehensively elucidates the diverse material characteristics and applications of self-assembled peptides. We discuss the multi-stimuli-responsiveness of peptide self-assemblies and their roles as energy harvesters, catalysts, liquid crystalline materials, glass materials and contributors to electrical conductivity. Additionally, we address the challenges and present future perspectives associated with peptide nanomaterials. This review aims to provide insights into the versatile applications of peptide self-assemblies while concisely summarizing their well-established biomedical roles that have previously been extensively reviewed by various research groups, including our group.

Nanomaterials and methods for cancer therapy: 2D materials, biomolecules, and molecular dynamics simulations

This review explores the potential of biomolecule-based nanomaterials, i.e., protein, peptide, nucleic acid, and polysaccharide-based nanomaterials, in cancer nanomedicine. It highlights the wide range of design possibilities for creating multifunctional nanomedicines using these biomolecule-based nanomaterials. This review also analyzes the primary obstacles in cancer nanomedicine that can be resolved through the usage of nanomaterials based on biomolecules. It also examines the unique in vivo characteristics, programmability, and biological functionalities of these biomolecule-based nanomaterials. This summary outlines the most recent advancements in the development of two-dimensional semiconductor-based nanomaterials for cancer theranostic purposes. It focuses on the latest developments in molecular simulations and modelling to provide a clear understanding of important uses, techniques, and concepts of nanomaterials in drug delivery and synthesis processes. Finally, the review addresses the challenges in molecular simulations, and generating, analyzing, and developing biomolecule-based and two-dimensional semiconductor-based nanomaterials, and highlights the barriers that must be overcome to facilitate their application in clinical settings.

Biochemical Signal-Induced Supramolecular Hydrogelation for Structured Free-Standing Soft Material Formation

Cells coordinate their activity and regulate biological processes in response to chemical signals. Mimicking natural processes, control over the formation of artificial supramolecular materials is of high interest for their application in biology and medicine. Supramolecular material that can form in response to chemical signals is important for the development of autonomously responsive materials. Herein, a supramolecular hydrogel system is reported enabling in situ generation of hydrogelators in response to a specific chemical signal. Using self-immolative chemistry, spatial control over the formation of supramolecular hydrogel material and structured free-standing hydrogel objects via providing H2O2 locally is demonstrated. In addition, a hybrid system is developed enabling in situ generation of the H2O2 by the action of an enzyme and glucose, providing an extra handle for the development of an intelligent soft material. This generic design should enable the use of various (chemical)stimuli that can be obtained via coupling different stimuli and various chemical and/or biological markers and appears a versatile approach for the design of smart artificial soft materials that can find application in theranostic purposes.

Interfacial Assembly of Peptide Carbon Dot Hybrids Enables Photoinduced Electron Transfer with Improved Photoresponse

Assemblies at the interface represent a powerful tool for integrating organic and inorganic components into hybrid nanostructures. Carbon dots are both excellent electron donors and acceptors, offering opportunities for their potential uses in light-harvesting applications. To further improve their functions, integration of acceptor carbon dots into donor organic nanostructures is of great interest for improving photophysical properties useful for photoinduced electron transfer. Here, a one-step protocol for the interfacial assembly of a two-component hybrid consisting of carbon dots and perylene containing an l-phenylalanine-based dipeptide through noncovalent bonding is developed. The perylene-containing dipeptide derivative formed micrometer-long nanofibers on the water surface through J-aggregate formation. Spectroscopic studies reveal photoluminescence quenching of the donor dipeptide upon increasing the concentration of acceptor carbon dots in the hybrid, suggesting photoinduced electron transfer from the donor peptides to acceptor carbon dots. The hybrids integrated in a planar device architecture show a significantly improved photoresponse because of the favorable interactions between the donor-acceptor components. The one-step integration of donor-acceptor hybrids on the water surface offers opportunities for light harvesting and related applications.

The versatility of peptide hydrogels: From self-assembly to drug delivery applications

Pharmaceuticals often suffer from limitations such as low solubility, low stability, and  short half-life. To address these challenges and reduce the need for frequent drug administrations, a more efficient delivery is required. In this context, the development of controlled drug delivery systems, acting as a protective depot for the drug, has expanded significantly over the last decades. Among these, injectable hydrogels have emerged as a promising platform, especially in view of the rise of biologicals as therapeutics. Hydrogels are functional, solid-like biomaterials, composed of cross-linked hydrophilic polymers and high water content. Their physical properties, which closely mimic the extracellular matrix, make them suitable for various biomedical applications. This review discusses the different types of hydrogel systems and their self-assembly process, with an emphasis on peptide-based hydrogels. Due to their structural and functional diversity, biocompatibility, synthetic accessibility, and tunability, peptides are regarded as promising and versatile building blocks. A comprehensive overview of the variety of peptide hydrogels is outlined, with β-sheet forming sequences being highlighted. Key factors to consider when using peptide hydrogels as a controlled drug delivery system are reviewed, along with a discussion of the main drug release mechanisms and the emerging trend towards affinity-based systems to further refine drug release profiles.

Chiral Self-Assembly of a Pyrene-Appended Glutamylalanine Dipeptide and Its Charge Transfer Complex: Fabrication of Magneto-Responsive Hydrogels and Human Cell Imaging

The formation of a robust, self-healing hydrogel of a novel pyrene-appended dipeptide, Py-E-A (L-Glutamic acid short as E; L-Alanine short as A) is demonstrated. Detailed studies suggest that nanoscopic fibers with a length of several micrometers have formed by chiral self-organization of Py-E-A gelators. Additionally, live human PBMCs imaging is shown using the Py-E-A fluorophore. Interestingly, electron-rich Py-E-A couples with electron-deficient NDI-β-A (β-Alanine short as β-A) by charge transfer (CT) complexation and forms stable deep violet-colored CT super-hydrogel. X-ray diffraction, DFT, and 2D ROESY NMR studies suggest lamellar packing of both Py-E-A and the alternating CT stack in its hydrogel matrixes. Supramolecular chirality of the Py-E-A donor can be altered by adding an achiral acceptor NDI-β-A. Notably, the fibers of the CT hydrogel are found to be even thinner than the Py-E-A fibers, which, in turn, makes the CT hydrogel more tolerant to the applied strain. Further, the self-healing and injectable properties of the hydrogels are shown. Finally, the magneto-responsive behavior of the Py-E-A and CT hydrogels loaded with spin-canted Cu-ferrite (Cu0.6Zn0.4Fe2O4) nanoparticles (NPs) is demonstrated. The presence of magnetic NPs within the hydrogels has changed the fibrous morphology to rod-like nanoclusters.

A Roadmap of Peptide-Based Materials in Neural Regeneration

Injuries to the nervous system lead to irreversible damage and limited functional recovery. The peripheral nervous system (PNS) can self-regenerate to some extent for short nerve gaps. In contrast, the central nervous system (CNS) has an intrinsic limitation to self-repair owing to its convoluted neural microenvironment and inhibitory response. The primary phase of CNS injury, happening within 48 h, results from external impacts like mechanical stress. Afterward, the secondary phase of the injury occurs, originating from neuronal excitotoxicity, mitochondrial dysfunction, and neuroinflammation. No golden standard to treat injured neurons exists, and conventional medicine serves only as a protective approach to alleviating the symptoms of chronic injury. Synthetic peptides provide a promising approach for neural repair, either as soluble drugs or by using their intrinsic self-assembly propensity to serve as an extracellular matrix (ECM) mimic for cell adhesion and to incorporate bioactive epitopes. In this review, an overview of nerve injury models, common in vitro models, and peptide-based therapeutics such as ECM mimics is provided. Due to the complexity of treating neuronal injuries, a multidisciplinary collaboration between biologists, physicians, and material scientists is paramount. Together, scientists with complementary expertise will be required to formulate future therapeutic approaches for clinical use.

Multiscale Materials Engineering via Self-Assembly of Pentapeptide Derivatives from SARS CoV E Protein

Short peptide-based supramolecular hydrogels hold enormous potential for a wide range of applications. However, the gelation of these systems is very challenging to control. Minor changes in the peptide sequence can significantly influence the self-assembly mechanism and thereby the gelation propensity. The involvement of SARS CoV E protein in the assembly and release of the virus suggests that it may have inherent self-assembling properties that can contribute to the development of hydrogels. Here, three pentapeptide sequences derived from C-terminal of SARS CoV E protein are explored with same amino acid residues but different sequence distributions and discovered a drastic difference in the gelation propensity. By combining spectroscopic and microscopic techniques, the relationship between peptide sequence arrangement and molecular assembly structure are demonstrated, and how these influence the mechanical properties of the hydrogel. The present study expands the variety of secondary structures for generating supramolecular hydrogels by introducing the 310-helix as the primary building block for gelation, facilitated by a water-mediated structural transition into β-sheet conformation. Moreover, these Fmoc-modified pentapeptide hydrogels/supramolecular assemblies with tunable morphology and mechanical properties are suitable for tissue engineering, injectable delivery, and 3D bio-printing applications.

Self-Assembly and Wound Healing Activity of Biomimetic Cycloalkane-Based Lipopeptides

The self-assembly of lipopeptide (peptide amphiphile) molecules bearing single linear lipid chains has been widely studied, as has their diverse range of bioactivities. Here, we introduce lipopeptides bearing one or two cycloalkane chains (cycloheptadecyl or cyclododecyl) conjugated to the collagen-stimulating pentapeptide KTTKS used in Matrixyl formulations. The self-assembly of all four molecules is probed using fluorescence probe measurements to detect the critical aggregation concentration (CAC), and cryogenic-TEM and small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS) to image the nanostructure. The peptide conformation is studied using circular dichroism (CD) and FTIR spectroscopies. All the cycloalkane lipopeptides show excellent compatibility with dermal fibroblasts. The compounds bearing one or two cyclododecyl chains (denoted as DKT and DDKT, respectively) show wound healing in diabetic rats, the improvement being markedly enhanced for DDKT. Interestingly, the revival of hair follicles and blood vessels in the dermis were observed, which are the critical markers of effective wound repair. Analysis of H&E-stained tissue images (from a rat model) shows that the rat groups treated with DDKT and DKT displayed a significantly increased amount of regenerated hair follicles, indicating a faster healing process for DDKT compared to the control group. Collagen deposition was also enhanced, especially for DDKT, and by day 20, the DDKT-treated groups had developed a dense collagen network accompanied by a regenerated epidermis. At the same time, the number of blood vessels in DDKT-treated diabetic wounds was significantly higher than in control groups and neovascularization was substantially enhanced, as assayed using α-SMA (a marker for vascular smooth muscle cells) and CD31 (a marker specific to vascular endothelial cells). These results suggest that the lead lipopeptide DDKT exhibits a remarkable pro-vascularization capability and shows great promise for future application as a wound-healing biomaterial.

Thermoresponsive and Supramolecular Polymers: Interesting Biomaterials for Drug Delivery

How to use and deliver drugs to diseased and damaged areas has been one of the main concerns of pharmacologists and doctors for a long time. With the efforts of researchers, the advancement of technology, and the involvement of engineering in the health field, diverse and promising approaches have been studied and used to achieve this goal. A better understanding of biomaterials and the ability of production equipment led researchers to offer new drug delivery systems to the world. In recent decades, responsive polymers (exclusively to temperature and pH) and supramolecular polymers have received much attention due to their unique capabilities. Although this field of research still needs to be scrutinized and studied more, their recognition, examination, and use as drug delivery systems is a start for a promising future. This review study, focusing on temperature-responsive and supramolecular biomaterials and their application as drug delivery systems, deals with their structure, properties, and role in the noninvasive and effective delivery of medicinal agents.

Supramolecular materials constructed from synthetic glycopeptides via aqueous self-assembly and their bioapplications in immunotherapy

Synthetic glycopeptides capable of self-assembly in aqueous environments form a range of supramolecular nanostructures, such as nanoparticles and nanofibers, owing to their amphiphilic nature and the diverse structures of the saccharides introduced. These glycopeptide-based supramolecular materials are promising for immunotherapy applications because of their biocompatibility and multivalent saccharide display, which enhances lectin-saccharide interactions. This review highlights recent advances in the molecular design of synthetic glycopeptide-based supramolecular materials and their use as immunomodulatory agents.

A broad-spectrum antibacterial hydrogel based on the synergistic action of Fmoc-phenylalanine and Fmoc-lysine in a co-assembled state

Multicomponent biomolecular self-assembly is fundamental for accomplishing complex functionalities of biosystems. Self-assembling peptides, amino acids, and their conjugates serve as a versatile platform for developing biomaterials. However, the co-assembly of multiple building blocks showing synergistic interplay between individual components and producing biomaterials with emergent functional attributes is much less explored. In this study, we have formulated minimalistic co-assembled hydrogels composed of Fmoc-phenylalanine and Fmoc-lysine. The co-assembled systems display broad-spectrum antimicrobial potency, a feature absent in individual building blocks. A comprehensive biophysical analysis demonstrates the physicochemical features of the hydrogels eliciting the antibacterial response. MD simulation further reveals a unique fibrillar architecture with Fmoc-phenylalanine forming the fibril core surrounded by positively charged Fmoc-lysine surface residues, thereby enhancing the interaction with negatively charged bacterial membranes, causing membrane disruption and cell death. Thus, this study provides molecular-level insight into the emergent properties of a multicomponent system, affording an excellent paradigm for developing novel biomaterials.

Dress me an outfit: advanced probiotics hybrid systems for intelligent IBD therapy

Inflammation bowel disease (IBD) has emerged as a public health challenge worldwide; with high incidence and rapid prevalence, it has troubled billions of people and further induced multitudinous systemic complications. Recent decade has witnessed the vigorous application of food-borne probiotics for IBD therapy; however, the complicated and changeable environments of digestive tract have forced probiotics to face multiple in vivo pressures, consequently causing unsatisfied prophylactic or therapeutic efficacy attributed to off-targeted arrival, damaged viability, insufficient colonization efficiency, etc. Fortunately, arisen hybrid technology has provided versatile breakthroughs for the targeted transplantation of probiotics. By ingeniously modifying probiotics to form probiotics hybrid systems (PHS), the biological behaviors of probiotics in vivo could be mediated, the interactions between probiotics with intestinal components can be facilitated, and diverse advanced probiotic-based therapies for IBD challenge can be developed, which attribute to the intelligent response to microenvironment of PHS, and intelligent design of PHS for multiple functions combination. In this review, various PHS were categorized and their intestinal behaviors were elucidated systematically, their therapeutic effects and intrinsic mechanism were further analyzed. Besides, shortages of present PHS and the corresponding solutions have been discussed, based on which the future perspectives of this field have also been proposed. The undeniable fact is that PHS show an incomparable future to bring the next generation of advanced food science.

Silver and Copper Nanoparticle-Loaded Self-Assembled Pseudo-Peptide Thiourea-Based Organic-Inorganic Hybrid Gel with Antibacterial and Superhydrophobic Properties for Antifouling Surfaces

The escalating threat of antimicrobial resistance has become a global health crisis. Therefore, there is a rising momentum in developing biomaterials with self-sanitizing capabilities and inherent antibacterial properties. Despite their promising antimicrobial properties, metal nanoparticles (MNPs) have several disadvantages, including increased toxicity as the particle size decreases, leading to oxidative stress and DNA damage that need consideration. One solution is surface functionalization with biocompatible organic ligands, which can improve nanoparticle dispersibility, reduce aggregation, and enable targeted delivery to microbial cells. The existing research predominantly concentrates on the advancement of peptide-based hydrogels for coating materials to prevent bacterial infection, with limited exploration of developing surface coatings using organogels. Herein, we have synthesized organogel-based coatings doped with MNPs that can offer superior hydrophobicity, oleophobicity, and high stability that are not easily achievable with hydrogels. The self-assembled gels displayed distinct morphologies, as revealed by scanning electron microscopy and atomic force microscopy. The cross-linked matrix helps in the controlled and sustained release of MNPs at the site of bacterial infection. The synthesized self-assembled gel@MNPs exhibited excellent antibacterial properties against harmful bacteria such as Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus and reduced bacterial viability up to 95% within 4 h. Cytotoxicity testing against metazoan cells demonstrated that the gels doped with MNPs were nontoxic (IC50 > 100 μM) to mammalian cells. Furthermore, in this study, we coated the organogel@MNPs on cotton fabric and tested it against Gram +ve and Gram -ve bacteria. Additionally, the developed cotton fabric exhibited superhydrophobic properties and developed a barrier that limits the interaction between bacteria and the surface, making it difficult for bacteria to adhere and colonize, which holds potential as a valuable resource for self-cleaning coatings.

Conformation Controlled Hydrogelation of Minimalistic α, γ Hybrid Peptide

A majority of short peptide (≤7 amino acids) hydrogels are primarily assembled via cross β-structure formation. In contrast to the natural trend, herein, we report the formation of supramolecular hydrogel from the ultrashort hybrid folded peptide composed of canonical α-amino acid and noncanonical γ-amino acid, Fmoc-γPhe-Phe-OH. The designed hybrid peptide hydrogel is composed of entangled fibers, has viscoelastic properties, exhibits proteolytic stability, and exhibits cytocompatibility with L929 fibroblast cells. Mutating the peptide sequence by altering the position of γPhe from the N-termini to C-termini transforms the self-assembly into crystalline aggregates. Combining FTIR, 2D NMR, and DFT calculations revealed that the hydrogel-forming peptide adopts a C9 H-bonded conformation, resembling the well-known γ-turn. However, the isomeric hybrid peptide adopts an extended structure. The present study highlights the importance of secondary structure in the higher order assembly of minimalist hybrid peptides and broadens the range of secondary structures to design short peptide-based hydrogels.

Comparison of the self-assembly and cytocompatibility of conjugates of Fmoc (9-fluorenylmethoxycarbonyl) with hydrophobic, aromatic, or charged amino acids

The self-assembly in aqueous solution of three Fmoc-amino acids with hydrophobic (aliphatic or aromatic, alanine or phenylalanine) or hydrophilic cationic residues (arginine) is compared. The critical aggregation concentrations were obtained using intrinsic fluorescence or fluorescence probe measurements, and conformation was probed using circular dichroism spectroscopy. Self-assembled nanostructures were imaged using cryo-transmission electron microscopy and small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS). Fmoc-Ala is found to form remarkable structures comprising extended fibril-like objects nucleating from spherical cores. In contrast, Fmoc-Arg self-assembles into plate-like crystals. Fmoc-Phe forms extended structures, in a mixture of straight and twisted fibrils coexisting with nanotapes. Spontaneous flow alignment of solutions of Fmoc-Phe assemblies is observed by SAXS. The cytocompatibility of the three Fmoc-amino acids was also compared via MTT [3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide] mitochondrial activity assays. All three Fmoc-amino acids are cytocompatible with L929 fibroblasts at low concentration, and Fmoc-Arg shows cell viability up to comparatively high concentration (0.63 mM).

Exploring a Solvent Dependent Strategy to Control Self-Assembling Behavior and Cellular Interaction in Laminin-Mimetic Short Peptide based Supramolecular Hydrogels

Self-assembled hydrogels, fabricated through diverse non-covalent interactions, have been extensively studied in regenerative medicines. Inspired from bioactive functional motifs of ECM protein, short peptide sequences have shown remarkable abilities to replicate the intrinsic features of the natural extracellular milieu. In this direction, we have fabricated two short hydrophobic bioactive sequences derived from the laminin protein i. e., IKVAV and YIGSR. Based on the substantial hydrophobicity of these peptides, we selected a co-solvent approach as a suitable gelation technique that included different concentrations of DMSO as an organic phase along with an aqueous solution containing 0.1 % TFA. These hydrophobic laminin-based bioactive peptides with limited solubility in aqueous physiological environment showed significantly enhanced solubility with higher DMSO content in water. The enhanced solubility resulted in extensive intermolecular interactions that led to the formation of hydrogels with a higher-order entangled network along with improved mechanical properties. Interestingly, by simply modulating DMSO content, highly tunable gels were accessed in the same gelator domain that displayed differential physicochemical properties. Further, the cellular studies substantiated the potential of these laminin-derived hydrogels in enhancing cell-matrix interactions, thereby reinforcing their applications in tissue engineering.

Solution-Phase Late-Stage Chemoselective Photocatalytic Removal of Sulfonyl and Phenacyl Groups in Peptides

Herein, BPC catalyzed visible-light-triggered target-specific late-stage solution phase desulfonylation from tryptophan in oligopeptides is portrayed by overcoming the isolation issue up to octamers. This robust and mild method is highly predictable and chemoselective, tolerating myriad of functional groups in aza-heteroaromatics and peptides. Interestingly, reductive desulfonylation is also amenable to biologically significant reactive histidine and tyrosine side chains, signifying the versatility of the strategy. Additional efficacy of BPC is demonstrated by solution phase phenacyl deprotection from C-terminal in peptides. Furthermore, excellent catalyst loading of 0.5 mol% and recyclability demonstrate the practical utility and applicability of this strategy.

Gelatin/O-carboxymethyl chitosan injectable self-healing hydrogels for ibuprofen and naproxen dual release

Recently, a significantly greater clinical benefit has been reported with a combination of glucosamine sulfate and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) compared to either treatment alone for the growing osteoarthritis (OA) disease. So, this study introduces hydrogels using O-carboxymethyl chitosan (O-CMC, structurally akin glucosamine glycan), and Gelatin type A (GA) in a 1:2 ratio with β-glycerophosphate (βGPh) at varying percentages (5 %, 12.5 %, and 15 %). We show that hydrogel properties, adaptable for drug delivery or tissue engineering, can be fine-tuned based on OCMC:βGPh ratio. CMC/GA/βGPh-12.5 exhibited a swelling rate of 189 %, compressive stress of 164 kPa, and compressive modulus of 3.4 kPa. The self-healing hydrogel also exhibited excellent injectability through a 21-gauge needle, requiring only 5 N of force. Ibuprofen and Naproxen release from CMC/GA/βGPh-12.5 and CMC/GA/βGPh-15 of designed dimensions (bi-layer structures of different diameter and height) were measured, and drug release kinetics were estimated using mathematical equations (MATLAB and polyfit program). CMC/GA/βGPh-12.5 demonstrated significant antibacterial effects against E. coli and S. aureus, a high cell survival rate of 89 % against L929 fibroblasts, and strong cell adhesion, all indicating biocompatibility. These findings underscore potential of these hydrogels as promising candidates for treating inflammatory diseases such as osteoarthritis.

A co-assembly platform engaging macrophage scavenger receptor A for lysosome-targeting protein degradation

Targeted degradation of proteins has emerged as a powerful method for modulating protein homeostasis. Identification of suitable degraders is essential for achieving effective protein degradation. Here, we present a non-covalent degrader construction strategy, based on a modular supramolecular co-assembly system consisting of two self-assembling peptide ligands that bind cell membrane receptors and the protein of interest simultaneously, resulting in targeted protein degradation. The developed lysosome-targeting co-assemblies (LYTACAs) can induce lysosomal degradation of extracellular protein IL-17A and membrane protein PD-L1 in several scavenger receptor A-expressing cell lines. The IL-17A-degrading co-assembly has been applied in an imiquimod-induced psoriasis mouse model, where it decreases IL-17A levels in the skin lesion and alleviates psoriasis-like inflammation. Extending to asialoglycoprotein receptor-related protein degradation, LYTACAs have demonstrated the versatility and potential in streamlining degraders for extracellular and membrane proteins.

A bio-inspired silkworm 3D cocoon-like hierarchical self-assembled structure from π-conjugated natural aromatic amino acids

The formation of spontaneous 3D self-assembled hierarchical structures from 1D nanofibers is a significant breakthrough in materials science. Overcoming the major challenges associated with developing these 3D structures, such as uncontrolled self-assembly, complex procedures, and machinery, has been a formidable task. However, the current discovery reveals that simple π-system (fluorenyl)-functionalized natural aromatic amino acids, phenylalanine (Fmoc-F) and tyrosine (Fmoc-Y), can form bio-inspired 3D cocoon-like structures. These structures are composed of entangled 1D nanofibers created through supramolecular self-assembly using a straightforward one-step process of solvent casting. The self-assembly process relies on π-π stacking of the fluorenyl (π-system) moieties and intermolecular hydrogen bonding between urethane amide groups. The cocoon-like structures are versatile and independent of concentration, temperature, and humidity, making them suitable for various applications. This discovery has profound implications for materials science and the developed advanced biomaterials, such as Fmoc-F and Fmoc-Y, can serve as flexible foundational components for constructing 3D fiber-based structures.

Atomic structures of naphthalene dipeptide micelles unravel mechanisms of assembly and gelation

Peptide-based biopolymers have gained increasing attention due to their versatile applications. A naphthalene dipeptide (2NapFF) can form chirality-dependent tubular micelles, leading to supramolecular gels. The precise molecular arrangement within these micelles and the mechanism governing gelation have remained enigmatic. We determined, at near-atomic resolution, cryoelectron microscopy structures of the 2NapFF micelles LL-tube and LD-tube, generated by the stereoisomers (l,l)-2NapFF and (l,d)-2NapFF, respectively. The structures reveal that the fundamental packing of dipeptides is driven by the systematic π-π stacking of aromatic rings and that same-charge repulsion between the carbonyl groups is responsible for the stiffness of both tubes. The structural analysis elucidates how a single residue's altered chirality gives rise to markedly distinct tubular structures and sheds light on the mechanisms underlying the pH-dependent gelation of LL- and LD-tubes. The understanding of dipeptide packing and gelation mechanisms provides insights for the rational design of 2NapFF derivatives, enabling the modulation of micellar dimensions.

Self-Assembly and Antimicrobial Activity of Lipopeptides Containing Lysine-Rich Tripeptides

The conformation and self-assembly of two pairs of model lipidated tripeptides in aqueous solution are probed using a combination of spectroscopic methods along with cryogenic-transmission electron microscopy (cryo-TEM) and small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS). The palmitoylated lipopeptides comprise C16-YKK or C16-WKK (with two l-lysine residues) or their respective derivatives containing d-lysine (k), i.e., C16-Ykk and C16-Wkk. All four molecules self-assemble into spherical micelles which show structure factor effects in SAXS profiles due to intermicellar packing in aqueous solution. Consistent with micellar structures, the tripeptides in the coronas have a largely unordered conformation, as probed using spectroscopic methods. The molecules are found to have good cytocompatibility with fibroblasts at sufficiently low concentrations, although some loss of cell viability is noted at the highest concentrations examined (above the critical aggregation concentration of the lipopeptides, determined from fluorescence dye probe measurements). Preliminary tests also showed antimicrobial activity against both Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria.

How Chromophore Labels Shape the Structure and Dynamics of a Peptide Hydrogel

Biocompatible and functionalizable hydrogels have a wide range of (potential) medicinal applications. The hydrogelation process, particularly for systems with very low polymer weight percentages (<1 wt %), remains poorly understood, making it challenging to predict the self-assembly of a given molecular building block into a hydrogel. This severely hinders the rational design of self-assembled hydrogels. In this study, we demonstrate the impact of an N-terminal group on the self-assembly and rheology of the peptide hydrogel hFF03 (hydrogelating, fibril forming peptide 03) using molecular dynamics simulations, oscillatory shear rheology, and circular dichroism spectroscopy. We find that the chromophore and even its specific regioisomers have a significant influence on the microscopic structure and dynamics of the self-assembled fibril, and on the macroscopic mechanical properties. This is because the chromophore influences the possible salt bridges, which form and stabilize the fibril formation. Furthermore, we find that the solvation shell fibrils by itself cannot explain the viscoelasticity of hFF03 hydrogels. Our atomistic model of the hFF03 fibril formation enables a more rational design of these hydrogels. In particular, altering the N-terminal chromophore emerges as a design strategy to tune the mechanic properties of these self-assembled peptide hydrogels.

Thermo-Chemical Cues-Mediated Strategy to Control Peptide Self-Assembly and Charge Transfer Complexation

Peptide amphiphiles (PAs) are known for their remarkable ability to undergo molecular self-assembly, a process that is highly responsive to the local microenvironment. Herein, we design a pyrene tethered peptide amphiphile Py-VFFAKK, 1 that exhibits pathway-driven self-assembly from metastable nanoparticles to kinetically controlled nanofibers and thermodynamically stable twisted bundles upon modulations in pH, temperature, and chemical cues. The presence of the pyrene moiety ensures donation of the electron to an electron acceptor, namely, 7,7,8,8-tetracyanoquinodimethane (TCNQ), to form a supramolecular charge transfer complex in aqueous solution that was studied in detail with microscopic and spectroscopic techniques. Excitation of the donor species in its excimer state facilitates electron donation to the acceptor moiety, paving away a long-lived charge-separated state that persists for over a nanosecond, as ascertained through transient absorption spectroscopy. Finally, the self-assembled charge transfer complex is explored toward antimicrobial properties with Escherichia coli while maintaining biocompatibility toward L929 mice fibroblast cells.

Bioinspired Amino Acid Based Materials in Bionanotechnology: From Minimalistic Building Blocks and Assembly Mechanism to Applications

Inspired by natural hierarchical self-assembly of proteins and peptides, amino acids, as the basic building units, have been shown to self-assemble to form highly ordered structures through supramolecular interactions. The fabrication of functional biomaterials comprised of extremely simple biomolecules has gained increasing interest due to the advantages of biocompatibility, easy functionalization, and structural modularity. In particular, amino acid based assemblies have shown attractive physical characteristics for various bionanotechnology applications. Herein, we propose a review paper to summarize the design strategies as well as research advances of amino acid based supramolecular assemblies as smart functional materials. We first briefly introduce bioinspired reductionist design strategies and assembly mechanism for amino acid based molecular assembly materials through noncovalent interactions in condensed states, including self-assembly, metal ion mediated coordination assembly, and coassembly. In the following part, we provide an overview of the properties and functions of amino acid based materials toward applications in nanotechnology and biomedicine. Finally, we give an overview of the remaining challenges and future perspectives on the fabrication of amino acid based supramolecular biomaterials with desired properties. We believe that this review will promote the prosperous development of innovative bioinspired functional materials formed by minimalistic building blocks.

Solvent-Induced Transient Self-Assembly of Peptide Gels: Gelator-Solvent Reactions and Material Properties Correlation

Herein, we introduce a new methodology for designing transient organogels that offers tunability of the mechanical properties simply by matching the protective groups of the precursor to that of the solvent. We developed solvent-induced transient materials in which the solvent chemically participates in a set of reactions and actively supports the assembly event. The activation of a single precursor by an acid (accelerator) yields the formation of two distinct gelators and induces gelation. The interconversion cycle is supplied by the secondary solvent (originating from hydrolysis of the primary solvent by the accelerator), which then progressively solubilizes the gel network. We show that this gelation method offers a direct correlation between the mechanical and transient properties by modifying the chemical structure of the precursors and the presence of an accelerator in the system. Such a method paves the way for the design of self-abolishing and mechanically tunable materials for targeted purposes. The biocompatibility and versatility of amino acid-based gelators can offer a wide range of biomaterials for applications requiring a controllable and definite lifetime such as drug delivery platforms exhibiting a burst release or self-abolishing cell culture substrates.

Self-Assembly and Cytocompatibility of Amino Acid Conjugates Containing a Novel Water-Soluble Aromatic Protecting Group

There has been considerable interest in peptides in which the Fmoc (9-fluorenylmethoxycarbonyl) protecting group is retained at the N-terminus, since this bulky aromatic group can drive self-assembly, and Fmoc-peptides are biocompatible and have applications in cell culture biomaterials. Recently, analogues of new amino acids with 2,7-disulfo-9-fluorenylmethoxycarbonyl (Smoc) protecting groups have been developed for water-based peptide synthesis. Here, we report on the self-assembly and biocompatibility of Smoc-Ala, Smoc-Phe and Smoc-Arg as examples of Smoc conjugates to aliphatic, aromatic, and charged amino acids, respectively. Self-assembly occurs at concentrations above the critical aggregation concentration (CAC). Cryo-TEM imaging and SAXS reveal the presence of nanosheet, nanoribbon or nanotube structures, and spectroscopic methods (ThT fluorescence circular dichroism and FTIR) show the presence of β-sheet secondary structure, although Smoc-Ala solutions contain significant unaggregated monomer content. Smoc shows self-fluorescence, which was used to determine CAC values of the Smoc-amino acids from fluorescence assays. Smoc fluorescence was also exploited in confocal microscopy imaging with fibroblast cells, which revealed its uptake into the cytoplasm. The biocompatibility of these Smoc-amino acids was found to be excellent with zero cytotoxicity (in fact increased metabolism) to fibroblasts at low concentration.

Self-assembling tripeptide forming water-bound channels and hydrogels

D-Ser(tBu)-L-Phe-L-Trp is described as a self-assembling tripeptide that yields nanofibrillar hydrogels at physiological conditions (phosphate buffer at pH 7.4). The peptide is characterized by several spectroscopic methods, such as circular dichroism and fluorescence, oscillatory rheometry, and transmission electron microscopy. Single-crystal X-ray diffraction reveals supramolecular packing into water-bound channels and allows the visualization of the intermolecular interactions holding together peptide stacks.

DNA-templated self-assembly of bradykinin into bioactive nanofibrils

Bradykinin (BK) is a peptide hormone that plays a crucial role in blood pressure control, regulates inflammation in the human body, and has recently been implicated in the pathophysiology of COVID-19. In this study, we report a strategy for fabricating highly ordered 1D nanostructures of BK using DNA fragments as a template for self-assembly. We have combined synchrotron small-angle X-ray scattering and high-resolution microscopy to provide insights into the nanoscale structure of BK-DNA complexes, unveiling the formation of ordered nanofibrils. Fluorescence assays hint that BK is more efficient at displacing minor-groove binders in comparison with base-intercalant dyes, thus, suggesting that interaction with DNA strands is mediated by electrostatic attraction between cationic groups at BK and the high negative electron density of minor-grooves. Our data also revealed an intriguing finding that BK-DNA complexes can induce a limited uptake of nucleotides by HEK-293t cells, which is a feature that has not been previously reported for BK. Moreover, we observed that the complexes retained the native bioactivity of BK, including the ability to modulate Ca²⁺ response into endothelial HUVEC cells. Overall, the findings presented here demonstrate a promising strategy for the fabrication of fibrillar structures of BK using DNA as a template, which keep bioactivity features of the native peptide and may have implications in the development of nanotherapeutics for hypertension and related disorders.