Biomimetic Mineralization: From Microscopic to Macroscopic Materials and Their Biomedical Applications

3D-printed bioinspired spicules: Strengthening and toughening via stereolithography

Recently, the replication of biological microstructures has garnered significant attention due to their superior flexural strength and toughness, coupled with lightweight structures. Among the most intriguing biological microstructures renowned for their flexural strength are those found in the Euplectella Aspergillum (EA) marine sponges. The remarkable strength of this sponge is attributed to its complex microstructure, which consists of concentric cylindrical layers known as spicules with organic interlayers. These features effectively impede large crack propagation, imparting extraordinary mechanical properties. However, there have been limited studies aimed at mimicking the spicule microstructure. In this study, structures inspired by spicules were designed and fabricated using the stereolithography (SLA) 3D printing technique. The mechanical properties of concentric cylindrical structures (CCSs) inspired by the spicule microstructure were evaluated, considering factors such as the wall thickness of the cylinders, the number of layers, and core diameter, all of which significantly affect the mechanical response. These results were compared with those obtained from solid rods used as solid samples. The findings indicated that CCSs with five layers or fewer exhibited a flexural strength close to or higher than that of solid rods. Particularly, samples with 4 and 5 cylindrical layers displayed architecture similar to natural spicules. Moreover, in all CCSs, the absorbed energy was at least 3-4 times higher than solid rods. Conversely, CCSs with a cylinder wall thickness of 0.65 mm exhibited a more brittle behavior under the 3-point bending test than those with 0.35 mm and 0.5 mm wall thicknesses. CCSs demonstrated greater resistance to failure, displaying different crack propagation patterns and shear stress distributions under the bending test compared to solid rods. These results underscore that replicating the structure of spicules and producing structures with concentric cylindrical layers can transform a brittle structure into a more flexible one, particularly in load-bearing applications.

Application of biomimetic nanovaccines in cancer immunotherapy: A useful strategy to help combat immunotherapy resistance

Breakthroughs in actual clinical applications have begun through vaccine-based cancer immunotherapy, which uses the body's immune system, both humoral and cellular, to attack malignant cells and fight diseases. However, conventional vaccine approaches still face multiple challenges eliciting effective antigen-specific immune responses, resulting in immunotherapy resistance. In recent years, biomimetic nanovaccines have emerged as a promising alternative to conventional vaccine approaches by incorporating the natural structure of various biological entities, such as cells, viruses, and bacteria. Biomimetic nanovaccines offer the benefit of targeted antigen-presenting cell (APC) delivery, improved antigen/adjuvant loading, and biocompatibility, thereby improving the sensitivity of immunotherapy. This review presents a comprehensive overview of several kinds of biomimetic nanovaccines in anticancer immune response, including cell membrane-coated nanovaccines, self-assembling protein-based nanovaccines, extracellular vesicle-based nanovaccines, natural ligand-modified nanovaccines, artificial antigen-presenting cells-based nanovaccines and liposome-based nanovaccines. We also discuss the perspectives and challenges associated with the clinical translation of emerging biomimetic nanovaccine platforms for sensitizing cancer cells to immunotherapy.

Fabrication and Functional Regulation of Biomimetic Interfaces and Their Antifouling and Antibacterial Applications: A Review

Biomimetic synthesis provides potential guidance for the synthesis of bio-nanomaterials by mimicking the structure, properties and functions of natural materials. Behavioral studies of biological surfaces with specific micro/nano structures are performed to explore the interactions of various molecules or organisms with biological surfaces. These explorations provide valuable inspiration for the development of biomimetic surfaces with similar effects. This work reviews some conventional preparation methods and functional modulation strategies for biomimetic interfaces. It aims to elucidate the important role of biomimetic interfaces with antifouling and low-pollution properties that can replace non-environmentally friendly coatings. Thus, biomimetic antifouling interfaces can be better applied in the field of marine antifouling and antimicrobial. In this review, the commonly used fabrication methods for biomimetic interfaces as well as some practical strategies for functional modulation is present in detail. These methods and strategies modify the physical structure and chemical properties of the biomimetic interfaces, thus improving the wettability, adsorption, drag reduction, etc. that they exhibit. In addition, practical applications are presented of various biomimetic interfaces for antifouling and look ahead to potential biomedical applications. By continuously discovering functional surfaces with biomimetic properties and studying their microstructure and macroscopic properties, more biomimetic interfaces will be developed.

Bottom-Up Film-to-Bulk Assembly Toward Bioinspired Bulk Structural Nanocomposites

Biological materials, although composed of meager minerals and biopolymers, often exhibit amazing mechanical properties far beyond their components due to hierarchically ordered structures. Understanding their structure-properties relationships and replicating them into artificial materials would boost the development of bulk structural nanocomposites. Layered microstructure widely exists in biological materials, serving as the fundamental structure in nanosheet-based nacres and nanofiber-based Bouligand tissues, and implying superior mechanical properties. High-efficient and scalable fabrication of bioinspired bulk structural nanocomposites with precise layered microstructure is therefore important yet remains difficult. Here, one straightforward bottom-up film-to-bulk assembly strategy is focused for fabricating bioinspired layered bulk structural nanocomposites. The bottom-up assembly strategy inherently offers a methodology for precise construction of bioinspired layered microstructure in bulk form, availability for fabrication of bioinspired bulk structural nanocomposites with large sizes and complex shapes, possibility for design of multiscale interfaces, feasibility for manipulation of diverse heterogeneities. Not limited to discussing what has been achieved by using the current bottom-up film-to-bulk assembly strategy, it is also envisioned how to promote such an assembly strategy to better benefit the development of bioinspired bulk structural nanocomposites. Compared to other assembly strategies, the highlighted strategy provides great opportunities for creating bioinspired bulk structural nanocomposites on demand.

Remineralization of Dentin with Cerium Oxide and Its Potential Use for Root Canal Disinfection

Objective

This study was to investigate a novel antibacterial biomimetic mineralization strategy for exploring its potential application for root canal disinfection when stabilized cerium oxide was used.

Material and Methods

A biomimetic mineralization solution (BMS) consisting of cerium nitrate and dextran was prepared. Single-layer collagen fibrils, collagen membranes, demineralized dentin, and root canal system were treated with the BMS for mineralization. The mineralized samples underwent comprehensive characterization using various techniques, including transmission electron microscopy (TEM), high-resolution TEM (HRTEM), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), scanning transmission electron microscopy (STEM), selected-area electron diffraction (SAED), energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and micro-CT. Additionally, the antimicrobial properties of the BMS and the remineralized dentin were also analyzed with broth microdilution method, live/dead staining, and SEM.

Results

Cerium ions in the BMS underwent a transformation into cerium oxide nanoparticles, which were deposited in the inter- and intra-fibrillar collagen spaces through a meticulous bottom-up process. XPS analysis disclosed the presence of both Ce (III) and Ce (IV) of the generated cerium oxides. A comprehensive examination utilizing SEM and micro-CT identified the presence of cerium oxide nanoparticles deposited within the dentinal tubules and lateral canals of the root canal system. The BMS and remineralized dentin exhibited substantial antibacterial efficacy against E. faecalis, as substantiated by assessments involving the broth dilution method and live/dead staining technique. The SEM findings revealed the cell morphological changes of deceased E. faecalis.

Conclusion

This study successfully demonstrated antibacterial biomimetic mineralization as well as sealing dentinal tubules and lateral branches of root canals using cerium nitrate and dextran. This novel biomimetic mineralization could be used as an alternative strategy for root canal disinfection.

Biomimetic Sol-Gel Chemistry to Tailor Structure, Properties, and Functionality of Bionanocomposites by Biopolymers and Cells

Biosilica, synthesized annually only by diatoms, is almost 1000 times more abundant than industrial silica. Biosilicification occurs at a high rate, although the concentration of silicic acid in natural waters is ~100 μM. It occurs in neutral aqueous solutions, at ambient temperature, and under the control of proteins that determine the formation of hierarchically organized structures. Using diatoms as an example, the fundamental differences between biosilicification and traditional sol-gel technology, which is performed with the addition of acid/alkali, organic solvents and heating, have been identified. The conditions are harsh for the biomaterial, as they cause protein denaturation and cell death. Numerous attempts are being made to bring sol-gel technology closer to biomineralization processes. Biomimetic synthesis must be conducted at physiological pH, room temperature, and without the addition of organic solvents. To date, significant progress has been made in approaching these requirements. The review presents a critical analysis of the approaches proposed to date for the silicification of biomacromolecules and cells, the formation of bionanocomposites with controlled structure, porosity, and functionality determined by the biomaterial. They demonstrated the broad capabilities and prospects of biomimetic methods for creating optical and photonic materials, adsorbents, catalysts and biocatalysts, sensors and biosensors, and biomaterials for biomedicine.

Towards Polycaprolactone-Based Scaffolds for Alveolar Bone Tissue Engineering: A Biomimetic Approach in a 3D Printing Technique

The alveolar bone is a unique type of bone, and the goal of bone tissue engineering (BTE) is to develop methods to facilitate its regeneration. Currently, an emerging trend involves the fabrication of polycaprolactone (PCL)-based scaffolds using a three-dimensional (3D) printing technique to enhance an osteoconductive architecture. These scaffolds are further modified with hydroxyapatite (HA), type I collagen (CGI), or chitosan (CS) to impart high osteoinductive potential. In conjunction with cell therapy, these scaffolds may serve as an appealing alternative to bone autografts. This review discusses research gaps in the designing of 3D-printed PCL-based scaffolds from a biomimetic perspective. The article begins with a systematic analysis of biological mineralisation (biomineralisation) and ossification to optimise the scaffold's structural, mechanical, degradation, and surface properties. This scaffold-designing strategy lays the groundwork for developing a research pathway that spans fundamental principles such as molecular dynamics (MD) simulations and fabrication techniques. Ultimately, this paves the way for systematic in vitro and in vivo studies, leading to potential clinical applications.

Research Progress in Preparation, Properties and Applications of Biomimetic Organic-Inorganic Composites with "Brick-and-Mortar" Structure

Inspired by nature, materials scientists have been exploring and designing various biomimetic materials. Among them, composite materials with brick-and-mortar-like structure synthesized from organic and inorganic materials (BMOIs) have attracted increasing attention from scholars. These materials have the advantages of high strength, excellent flame retardancy, and good designability, which can meet the requirements of various fields for materials and have extremely high research value. Despite the increasing interest in and applications of this type of structural material, there is still a dearth of comprehensive reviews, leaving the scientific community with a limited understanding of its properties and applications. In this paper, we review the preparation, interface interaction, and research progress of BMOIs, and propose possible future development directions for this class of materials.