MRI Enhancement and Tumor Targeted Drug Delivery Using Zn2+-Doped Fe3O4 Core/Mesoporous Silica Shell Nanocomposites

Doped magnetic nanoparticles: From synthesis to applied technological frontiers

Doped magnetic nanoparticles (DMNPs) have become a fascinating class of nanomaterials with important implications in science and technology. The comprehensive review focuses on the synthetic methods, types of doping elements, distinctive properties, and extensive applications of DMNPs. The synthesis section highlights different methods, highlighting their benefits and drawbacks, such as chemical precipitation, co-precipitation, thermal breakdown, sol-gel, and other processes. Strategies for increasing the stability and functioning of DMNP are also reviewed, including surface functionalization and ligand exchange. An in-depth study is done to clarify how doping materials including transition metals, non-metals, and rare earth elements affect the chemical stability and magnetic characteristics of DMNP. Applications in various fields, such as biomedicine (MRI contrast agents, medication transport, antibacterial activity), environmental remediation (water purification, heavy metal removal), and sensing technologies, heavily rely on these features. DMNPs offer much potential in a variety of disciplines. Still, there are several challenges to their adoption, including regulatory and safety concerns, cost-effectiveness issues, and scalability issues. More research is required to overcome these difficulties and maximize the use of MDNPs for ensuring food safety.

Core-Shell Magnetic Particles: Tailored Synthesis and Applications

Core-shell magnetic particles consisting of magnetic core and functional shells have aroused widespread attention in multidisciplinary fields spanning chemistry, materials science, physics, biomedicine, and bioengineering due to their distinctive magnetic properties, tunable interface features, and elaborately designed compositions. In recent decades, various surface engineering strategies have been developed to endow them desired properties (e.g., surface hydrophilicity, roughness, acidity, target recognition) for efficient applications in catalysis, optical modulation, environmental remediation, biomedicine, etc. Moreover, precise control over the shell structure features like thickness, porosity, crystallinity and compositions including metal oxides, carbon, silica, polymers, and metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) has been developed as the major method to exploit new functional materials. In this review, we highlight the synthesis methods, regulating strategies, interface engineering, and applications of core-shell magnetic particles over the past half-century. The fundamental methodologies for controllable synthesis of core-shell magnetic materials with diverse organic, inorganic, or hybrid compositions, surface morphology, and interface property are thoroughly elucidated and summarized. In addition, the influences of the synthesis conditions on the physicochemical properties (e.g., dispersibility, stability, stimulus-responsiveness, and surface functionality) are also discussed to provide constructive insight and guidelines for designing core-shell magnetic particles in specific applications. The brand-new concept of "core-shell assembly chemistry" holds great application potential in bioimaging, diagnosis, micro/nanorobots, and smart catalysis. Finally, the remaining challenges, future research directions and new applications for the core-shell magnetic particles are predicted and proposed.

Magnetic engineering nanoparticles: Versatile tools revolutionizing biomedical applications

The use of nanoparticles has increased significantly over the past few years in a number of fields, including diagnostics, biomedicine, environmental remediation, and water treatment, generating public interest. Among various types of nanoparticles, magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs) have emerged as an essential tool for biomedical applications due to their distinct physicochemical properties compared to other nanoparticles. This review article focuses on the recent growth of MNPs and comprehensively reviews the advantages, multifunctional approaches, biomedical applications, and latest research on MNPs employed in various biomedical techniques. Biomedical applications of MNPs hold on to their ability to rapidly switch magnetic states under an external field at room temperature. Ideally, these MNPs should be highly susceptible to magnetization when the field is applied and then lose that magnetization just as quickly once the field is removed. This unique property allows MNPs to generate heat when exposed to high-frequency magnetic fields, making them valuable tools in developing treatments for hyperthermia and other heat-related illnesses. This review underscores the role of MNPs as tools that hold immense promise in transforming various aspects of healthcare, from diagnostics and imaging to therapeutic treatments, with discussion on a wide range of peer-reviewed articles published on the subject. At the conclusion of this work, challenges and potential future advances of MNPs in the biomedical field are highlighted.

The Promise of Metal-Doped Iron Oxide Nanoparticles as Antimicrobial Agent

Antibiotic resistance (AMR) is one of the pressing global public health concerns and projections indicate a potential 10 million fatalities by the year 2050. The decreasing effectiveness of commercially available antibiotics due to the drug resistance phenomenon has spurred research efforts to develop potent and safe antimicrobial agents. Iron oxide nanoparticles (IONPs), especially when doped with metals, have emerged as a promising avenue for combating microbial infections. Like IONPs, the antimicrobial activities of doped-IONPs are also linked to their surface charge, size, and shape. Doping metals on nanoparticles can alter the size and magnetic properties by reducing the energy band gap and combining electronic charges with spins. Furthermore, smaller metal-doped nanoparticles tend to exhibit enhanced antimicrobial activity due to their higher surface-to-volume ratio, facilitating greater interaction with bacterial cells. Moreover, metal doping can also lead to increased charge density in magnetic nanoparticles and thereby elevate reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation. These ROS play a vital role to disrupt bacterial cell membrane, proteins, or nucleic acids. In this review, we compared the antimicrobial activities of different doped-IONPs, elucidated their mechanism(s), and put forth opinions for improved biocompatibility.

Preparation of size-tunable Fe3O4 magnetic nanoporous carbon composites by MOF pyrolysis regulation for magnetic resonance sensing of aflatoxin B1 with excellent anti-matrix effect

Magnetic nanoporous materials represent a new emerging category of magnetic materials for construction of magnetic resonance sensors. In this study, we adopted the metal-organic framework materials, MIL-101(Fe), as the precursor to prepare series nanoporous-carbon-Fe3O4 (NPC-Fe3O4) composites. Results showed that Fe3O4 were uniformly distributed in MIL-101(Fe) and the size of MNP was precisely tuned at different pyrolysis temperatures, conferring the optimal NPC-Fe3O4-450 °C composite with dramatically improved T2 relaxivity. The NPC-Fe3O4-450 °C composite was modified with antibodies and antigens, respectively, for detection of aflatoxin B1 in various food samples with complicated matrix. Range from 0.010 ng mL-1 to 2.0 ng mL-1, extreme low detection limit of 5.0 pg mL-1, and satisfied recoveries were successfully achieved, indicating excellent anti-matrix effect. These findings offer a new dimension to engineer novel magnetic materials with improved relaxivity for simple and easy sensing of food hazards in complicated food matrix without any purification or separation procedures.

Magnetic Fe3O4@ZIF-8 nanoparticles as a drug release vehicle: pH-sensitive release of norfloxacin and its antibacterial activity

Metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) have a high specific surface area and inherent biodegradability due to their unique structure and composition. As well, owing to the properties of nanomaterials and especially their magnetic features, Fe₃O₄ nanoparticles and MOFs composite materials have great potential in the design and application of drug release. The present work: firstly, investigated norfloxacin loading in magnetic metal organic framework (Fe₃O₄@ZIF-8); and secondly, studied the release of norfloxacin and its antibacterial activity. Results showed the release efficiencies reached 97 % at 310 K after 84 h (pH 7.4). Drug release behavior was tested at various pH levels and it was found that Fe₃O₄@ZIF-8 has pH-sensitive properties. Furthermore, the release model calculation illustrated that the release process fitted well to the Bhaskar model. The magnetic properties of Fe₃O₄@ZIF-8 confirmed that the composite has potential application for a targeted drug delivery system. The mechanism of pH-responsive norfloxacin release was combined with diffusion, ion exchange and electrostatic repulsion. Furthermore, the antibacterial activities of Fe₃O₄@ZIF-8 and NOR-Fe₃O₄@ZIF-8 were tested against Escherichia coli. Results showed that Fe₃O₄@ZIF-8 had good biocompatibility while NOR-Fe₃O₄@ZIF-8 can deter or inhibit the actions of microorganisms.

Fe3O4/Au/porous Au nanohybrid for efficient delivery of doxorubicin as a model drug

Fe₃O₄/Au/porous Au nanohybrids being bi-functional nanoparticles with magnetic properties and high porosity, were synthesized and used for drug delivery. To achieve this purpose, after Fe₃O₄ nanoparticles synthesis, a gold layer coats them to increase their stability. Then, to improve the loading capacity of Fe₃O₄/Au nanoparticles, a shell of porous gold was synthesized on the Fe₃O₄/Au surface by creating an Ag-Au nanohybrid layer on Fe₃O₄/Au and dissolving the metallic silver atoms in HNO₃ (0.01 M). The DLS results show that the synthesized nanohybrid has an average size of 68.0 ± 7.7 nm and a zeta potential of - 28.1 ± 0.2 mV. Finally, doxorubicin (DOX), as a pharmaceutical agent, was loaded onto the Fe₃O₄/Au/porous Au nanohybrids. The prepared nano-drug enhanced the therapeutic efficacy of DOX on MCF-7 cancer cells compared to the free DOX. These results confirmed a 1.5 times improvement in the antitumor activity of DOX-loaded Fe₃O₄/Au/porous Au nanohybrids.

Recent advances in development of functional magnetic adsorbents for selective separation of proteins/peptides

Nowadays, proteins separation has attracted great attention in proteomics research. Because the proteins separation is helpful for making an early diagnosis of many diseases. Magnetic nanoparticles are an interesting and useful functional material, and have attracted extensive research interest during the past decades. Because of the excellent properties such as easy surface functionalization, tunable biocompatibility, high saturation magnetization etc, magnetic microspheres have been widely used in isolation of proteins/peptides. Notably, with the rapid development of surface decoration strategies, more and more functional magnetic adsorbents have been designed and fabricated to meet the growing demands of biological separation. In this review, we have collected recent information about magnetic adsorbents applications in selective separation of proteins/peptides. Furthermore, we present a comprehensive prospects and challenges in the field of protein separation relying on magnetic nanoparticles.

Magnetic Mesoporous Silica Nanorods Loaded with Ceria and Functionalized with Fluorophores for Multimodal Imaging

Multifunctional magnetic nanocomposites based on mesoporous silica have a wide range of potential applications in catalysis, biomedicine, or sensing. Such particles combine responsiveness to external magnetic fields with other functionalities endowed by the agents loaded inside the pores or conjugated to the particle surface. Different applications might benefit from specific particle morphologies. In the case of biomedical applications, mesoporous silica nanospheres have been extensively studied while nanorods, with a more challenging preparation, have attracted much less attention despite the positive impact on the therapeutic performance shown by seminal studies. Here, we report on a sol-gel synthesis of mesoporous rodlike silica particles of two distinct lengths (1.4 and 0.9 μm) and aspect ratios (4.7 and 2.2) using Pluronic P123 as a structure-directing template and rendering ∼1 g of rods per batch. Iron oxide nanoparticles have been synthesized within the pores yielding maghemite (γ-Fe₂O₃) nanocrystals of elongated shape (∼7 nm × 5 nm) with a [110] preferential orientation along the rod axis and a superparamagnetic character. The performance of the rods as T₂-weighted MRI contrast agents has also been confirmed. In a subsequent step, the mesoporous silica rods were loaded with a cerium compound and their surface was functionalized with fluorophores (fluorescamine and Cyanine5) emitting at λ = 525 and 730 nm, respectively, thus highlighting the possibility of multiple imaging modalities. The biocompatibility of the rods was evaluated in vitro in a zebrafish (Danio rerio) liver cell line (ZFL), with results showing that neither long nor short rods with magnetic particles caused cytotoxicity in ZFL cells for concentrations up to 50 μg/ml. We advocate that such nanocomposites can find applications in medical imaging and therapy, where the influence of shape on performance can be also assessed.

Recent Advances of Mesoporous Silica as a Platform for Cancer Immunotherapy

Immunotherapy is a promising modality of treatment for cancer. Immunotherapy is comprised of systemic and local treatments that induce an immune response, allowing the body to fight back against cancer. Systemic treatments such as cancer vaccines harness antigen presenting cells (APCs) to activate T cells with tumor-associated antigens. Small molecule inhibitors can be employed to inhibit immune checkpoints, disrupting tumor immunosuppression and immune evasion. Despite the current efficacy of immunotherapy, improvements to delivery can be made. Nanomaterials such as mesoporous silica can facilitate the advancement of immunotherapy. Mesoporous silica has high porosity, decent biocompatibility, and simple surface functionalization. Mesoporous silica can be utilized as a versatile carrier of various immunotherapeutic agents. This review gives an introduction on mesoporous silica as a nanomaterial, briefly covering synthesis and biocompatibility, and then an overview of the recent progress made in the application of mesoporous silica to cancer immunotherapy.

Controllable synthesis of variable-sized magnetic nanocrystals self-assembled into porous nanostructures for enhanced cancer chemo-ferroptosis therapy and MR imaging

Magnetic-based nanomaterials are promising for cancer diagnosis and treatment. Herein, we develop a self-assembled approach for the preparation of a porous magnetic nanosystem, DOX/Mn(0.25)-Fe₃O₄-III NPs, which can simultaneously achieve chemotherapy, ferroptosis therapy and MRI to improve the therapeutic efficacy. By tuning its porous structures, whole particle sizes and compositions, this nanosystem possesses both a high drug loading capacity and excellent Fenton reaction activity. Owing to the synergetic catalysis effect of iron and manganese ions, the Fenton catalytic activity of Mn(0.25)-Fe₃O₄-III NPs (K _cat = 1.2209 × 10^-2 min^-1) was six times higher than that of pure porous Fe₃O₄ NPs (K _cat = 1.9476 × 10^-3 min^-1), making them greatly advantageous in ferroptosis-inducing cancer therapy. Moreover, we found out that these Mn(0.25)-Fe₃O₄-III NPs show a pH-dependent Fenton reaction activity. At acidic tumorous pH, this nanosystem could catalyze H₂O₂ to produce the cytotoxic ˙OH to kill cancer cells, while in neutral physiological conditions it decomposed H₂O₂ into biosafe species (H₂O and O₂). In vivo studies demonstrated that DOX/Mn(0.25)-Fe₃O₄-III NPs exhibited a significant synergistic anticancer effect of combining chemotherapy and ferroptosis therapy and effective T₂-weighted MRI with minimal side effects. Therefore, this porous magnetic nanoplatform has a great potential for combined diagnosis and therapy in future clinical applications.

Fe3O4 Nanoparticles: Structures, Synthesis, Magnetic Properties, Surface Functionalization, and Emerging Applications

Magnetite (Fe3O4) nanoparticles (NPs) are attractive nanomaterials in the field of material science, chemistry, and physics because of their valuable properties, such as soft ferromagnetism, half-metallicity, and biocompatibility. Various structures of Fe3O4 NPs with different sizes, geometries, and nanoarchitectures have been synthesized, and the related properties have been studied with targets in multiple fields of applications, including biomedical devices, electronic devices, environmental solutions, and energy applications. Tailoring the sizes, geometries, magnetic properties, and functionalities is an important task that determines the performance of Fe3O4 NPs in many applications. Therefore, this review focuses on the crucial aspects of Fe3O4 NPs, including structures, synthesis, magnetic properties, and strategies for functionalization, which jointly determine the application performance of various Fe3O4 NP-based systems. We first summarize the recent advances in the synthesis of magnetite NPs with different sizes, morphologies, and magnetic properties. We also highlight the importance of synthetic factors in controlling the structures and properties of NPs, such as the uniformity of sizes, morphology, surfaces, and magnetic properties. Moreover, emerging applications using Fe3O4 NPs and their functionalized nanostructures are also highlighted with a focus on applications in biomedical technologies, biosensing, environmental remedies for water treatment, and energy storage and conversion devices.

Magnetic Nanoparticles for Biomedical Applications: From the Soul of the Earth to the Deep History of Ourselves

Precisely engineered magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs) have been widely explored for applications including theragnostic platforms, drug delivery systems, biomaterial/device coatings, tissue engineering scaffolds, performance-enhanced therapeutic alternatives, and even in SARS-CoV-2 detection strips. Such popularity is due to their unique, challenging, and tailorable physicochemical/magnetic properties. Given the wide biomedical-related potential applications of MNPs, significant achievements have been reached and published (exponentially) in the last five years, both in synthesis and application tailoring. Within this review, and in addition to essential works in this field, we have focused on the latest representative reports regarding the biomedical use of MNPs including characteristics related to their oriented synthesis, tailored geometry, and designed multibiofunctionality. Further, actual trends, needs, and limitations of magnetic-based nanostructures for biomedical applications will also be discussed.

Advanced mesoporous silica nanocarriers in cancer theranostics and gene editing applications

Targeted nanomaterials for cancer theranostics have been the subject of an expanding volume of research studies in recent years. Mesoporous silica nanoparticles (MSNs) are particularly attractive for such applications due to possibilities to synthesize nanoparticles (NPs) of different morphologies, pore diameters and pore arrangements, large surface areas and various options for surface functionalization. Functionalization of MSNs with different organic and inorganic molecules, polymers, surface-attachment of other NPs, loading and entrapping cargo molecules with on-desire release capabilities, lead to seemingly endless prospects for designing advanced nanoconstructs exerting multiple functions, such as simultaneous cancer-targeting, imaging and therapy. Describing composition and multifunctional capabilities of these advanced nanoassemblies for targeted therapy (passive, ligand-functionalized MSNs, stimuli-responsive therapy), including one or more modalities for imaging of tumors, is the subject of this review article, along with an overview of developments within a novel and attractive research trend, comprising the use of MSNs for CRISPR/Cas9 systems delivery and gene editing in cancer. Such advanced nanconstructs exhibit high potential for applications in image-guided therapies and the development of personalized cancer treatment.

Chemodynamic nanomaterials for cancer theranostics

It is of utmost urgency to achieve effective and safe anticancer treatment with the increasing mortality rate of cancer. Novel anticancer drugs and strategies need to be designed for enhanced therapeutic efficacy. Fenton- and Fenton-like reaction-based chemodynamic therapy (CDT) are new strategies to enhance anticancer efficacy due to their capacity to generate reactive oxygen species (ROS) and oxygen (O2). On the one hand, the generated ROS can damage the cancer cells directly. On the other hand, the generated O2 can relieve the hypoxic condition in the tumor microenvironment (TME) which hinders efficient photodynamic therapy, radiotherapy, etc. Therefore, CDT can be used together with many other therapeutic strategies for synergistically enhanced combination therapy. The antitumor applications of Fenton- and Fenton-like reaction-based nanomaterials will be discussed in this review, including: (iþ) producing abundant ROS in-situ to kill cancer cells directly, (ii) enhancing therapeutic efficiency indirectly by Fenton reaction-mediated combination therapy, (iii) diagnosis and monitoring of cancer therapy. These strategies exhibit the potential of CDT-based nanomaterials for efficient cancer therapy.

Recent advances in porous nanostructures for cancer theranostics

Porous nanomaterials with high surface area, tunable porosity, and large mesopores have recently received particular attention in cancer therapy and imaging. Introduction of additional pores to nanostructures not only endows the tunability of optoelectronic and optical features optimal for tumor treatment, but also modulates the loading capacity and controlled release of therapeutic agents. In recognition, increasing efforts have been made to fabricate various porous nanomaterials and explore their potentials in oncology applications. Thus, a systematic and comprehensive summary is necessary to overview the recent progress, especially in last ten years, on the development of various mesoporous nanomaterials for cancer treatment as theranostic agents. While outlining their individual synthetic mechanisms after a brief introduction of the structures and properties of porous nanomaterials, the current review highlighted the representative applications of three main categories of porous nanostructures (organic, inorganic, and organic-inorganic nanomaterials). In each category, the synthesis, representative examples, and interactions with tumors were further detailed. The review was concluded with deliberations on the key challenges and future outlooks of porous nanostructures in cancer theranostics.

Dual Modal Imaging-Guided Drug Delivery System for Combined Chemo-Photothermal Melanoma Therapy

PURPOSE

Malignant melanoma is one of the most devastating types of cancer with rapid relapse and low survival rate. Novel strategies for melanoma treatment are currently needed to enhance therapeutic efficiency for this disease. In this study, we fabricated a multifunctional drug delivery system that incorporates dacarbazine (DTIC) and indocyanine green (ICG) into manganese-doped mesoporous silica nanoparticles (MSN(Mn)) coupled with magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and photothermal imaging (PI), for achieving the superior antitumor effect of combined chemo-photothermal therapy.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

MSN(Mn) were characterized in terms of size and structural properties, and drug loading and release efficiency MSN(Mn)-ICG/DTIC were analyzed by UV spectra. Photothermal imaging effect and MR imaging effect of MSN(Mn)-ICG/DTIC were detected by thermal imaging system and 3.0 T MRI scanner, respectively. Then, the combined chemo-phototherapy was verified in vitro and in vivo by morphological evaluation, ultrasonic and pathological evaluation.

RESULTS

The as-synthesized MSN(Mn) were characterized as mesoporous spherical nanoparticles with 125.57±5.96 nm. MSN(Mn)-ICG/DTIC have the function of drug loading-release which loading ratio of ICG and DTIC could reach to 34.25±2.20% and 50.00±3.24%, and 32.68±2.10% of DTIC was released, respectively. Manganese doping content could reach up to 65.09±2.55 wt%, providing excellent imaging capability in vivo which the corresponding relaxation efficiency was 14.33 mM-1s-1. And outstanding photothermal heating ability and stability highlighted the potential biomedical applicability of MSN(Mn)-ICG/DTIC to kill cancer cells. Experiments by A375 melanoma cells and tumor-bearing mice demonstrated that the compound MSN(Mn)-ICG/DTIC have excellent biocompatibility and our combined therapy platform delivered a superior antitumor effect compared to standalone treatment in vivo and in vitro.

CONCLUSION

Our findings demonstrate that composite MSN(Mn)-ICG/DTIC could serve as a multifunctional platform to achieve a highly effective chemo-photothermal combined therapy for melanoma treatment.

Inorganic-inorganic nanohybrids for drug delivery, imaging and photo-therapy: recent developments and future scope

Advanced nanotechnology has been emerging rapidly in terms of novel hybrid nanomaterials that have found various applications in day-to-day life for the betterment of the public. Specifically, gold, iron, silica, hydroxy apatite, and layered double hydroxide based nanohybrids have shown tremendous progress in biomedical applications, including bio-imaging, therapeutic delivery and photothermal/dynamic therapy. Moreover, recent progress in up-conversion nanohybrid materials is also notable because they have excellent NIR imaging capability along with therapeutic benefits which would be useful for treating deep-rooted tumor tissues. Our present review highlights recent developments in inorganic-inorganic nanohybrids, and their applications in bio-imaging, drug delivery, and photo-therapy. In addition, their future scope is also discussed in detail.

Preparation and Thermal Decomposition Kinetics of a New Type of a Magnetic Targeting Drug Carrier

We have designed a new magnetic targeting drug carrier Fe3O4-PVA with a core of triiron tetroxide (Fe3O4) and a shell made of polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) to improve the hydrophilicity of Fe3O4. With adriamycin hydrochloride as a model drug, this study goes on to measure the drug carrier performance of Fe3O4-PVA. In addition, the thermal stability and enthalpy of thermal decomposition of Fe3O4-PVA were measured using a differential scanning calorimeter with a non-isothermal decomposition method. The kinetics of thermal decomposition of Fe3O4-PVA were also investigated. Over the course of this study, it was determined that the resulting drug carrier Fe3O4-PVA exhibited high drug loading levels and excellent release levels.

Comparison of the performance of magnetic targeting drug carriers prepared using two synthesis methods

In this paper, two methods were used to prepare the magnetic targeting drug carrier Fe₃O₄–PVA@SH, the step-by-step method and the one-pot method. The loading and release properties of the compound were measured. The results show that the Fe₃O₄–PVA@SH prepared using both methods exhibited excellent drug delivery properties in an environment that simulates human body fluid (pH 7.2) and a lysosomal in vitro simulation (pH 4.7). In applications such as drug delivery, magnetic targeted drug carriers prepared by both methods demonstrated superparamagnetism, high fat solubility, high hydroxyl content, and good water solubility.

Roadmap for the synthesis of Fe₃O₄–PVA@SH using the step-by-step method and one-pot method.

Emerging Strategies in Anticancer Combination Therapy Employing Silica-Based Nanosystems

Combination therapy has emerged as one of the most promising approaches for cancer treatment. However, beyond remotely-triggered therapies that require advanced infrastructures and optimization, new combination therapies based on internally triggered cell-killing effects have also demonstrated promising therapeutic profiles. In this revision, the focus is on self-triggered strategies able to improve the therapeutic effect of drug delivery nanosystems. As reviewed, ferroptosis, hypoxia, and immunotherapy show potency enough to treat satisfactorily tumors in vivo. However, the interest of combining those with chemotherapeutics, especially with carriers based on mesoporous silica, has provided a new generation of therapeutic nanomedicines with potential enough to achieve complete tumor remission in murine models.