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Jensen IM, Clark V, Kirby HL, Arroyo-Currás N, Jenkins DM. Tuning N-heterocyclic carbene wingtips to form electrochemically stable adlayers on metals. MATERIALS ADVANCES 2024; 5:7052-7060. [PMID: 39156595 PMCID: PMC11325317 DOI: 10.1039/d4ma00648h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2024] [Accepted: 08/08/2024] [Indexed: 08/20/2024]
Abstract
Self-assembled monolayers (SAMs) are employed in electrochemical biosensors to passivate and functionalize electrode surfaces. These monolayers prevent the occurrence of undesired electrochemical reactions and act as scaffolds for coupling bioaffinity reagents. Thiols are the most common adlayer used for this application; however, the thiol-gold bond is susceptible to competitive displacement by naturally occurring solvated thiols in biological fluids, as well as to desorption under continuous voltage interrogation. To overcome these issues, N-heterocyclic carbene (NHC) monolayers have been proposed as an alternative for electrochemical biosensor applications due to the strong carbon-gold bond. To maximize the effectiveness of NHCs for SAMs, a thorough understanding of both the steric effects of wingtip substituents and NHC precursor type to the passivation of electrode surfaces is required. In this study, five different NHC wingtips as well as two kinds of NHC precursors were evaluated. The best performing NHC adlayers can be cycled continuously for four days (over 30 000 voltammetric cycles) without appreciably desorbing from the electrode surface. Benchmark thiol monolayers, in contrast, rapidly desorb after only twelve hours. Investigations also show NHC adlayer formation on other biosensor-relevant electrodes such as platinum and palladium.
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Affiliation(s)
- Isabel M Jensen
- Department of Chemistry University of Tennessee Knoxville Knoxville TN 37996 USA
| | - Vincent Clark
- Chemistry-Biology Interface Program Johns Hopkins University Baltimore MD 21218 USA
| | - Harper L Kirby
- Department of Chemistry University of Tennessee Knoxville Knoxville TN 37996 USA
| | - Netzahualcóyotl Arroyo-Currás
- Chemistry-Biology Interface Program Johns Hopkins University Baltimore MD 21218 USA
- Department of Pharmacology and Molecular Sciences Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine Baltimore MD 21205 USA
| | - David M Jenkins
- Department of Chemistry University of Tennessee Knoxville Knoxville TN 37996 USA
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2
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Qi L, Mayall RM, Lee DS, Smith C, Woods A, Narouz MR, Hyla A, Bhattacharjee H, She Z, Crudden CM, Birss VI. Energetics and Redox Kinetics of Pure Ferrocene-Terminated N-Heterocyclic Carbene Self-Assembled Monolayers on Gold. LANGMUIR : THE ACS JOURNAL OF SURFACES AND COLLOIDS 2024; 40:17367-17377. [PMID: 39106183 DOI: 10.1021/acs.langmuir.4c01446] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/09/2024]
Abstract
N-heterocyclic carbene (NHC) self-assembled monolayers (SAMs) on gold have received considerable attention, but little is known about the lateral interactions between neighboring NHC molecules, their stability when subjected to aggressive oxidizing/reducing conditions, and their interactions with solution ions, all of which are essential for their use in a wide range of applications. To address these deficiencies, we present a comprehensive investigation of two different ferrocene (Fc)-terminated NHC SAMs with different chain lengths and linking groups. Pure monolayers of Fc-terminated NHCs display only a single, symmetrical pair of redox peaks, implying the formation of a homogeneous SAM structure with uniformly distributed Fc/Fc+ redox centers. By comparison, pure Fc-alkylthiol SAMs exhibit complex and impractical redox chemistry and require surface dilution in order to achieve reproducible properties. The NHC SAMs examined in this study exhibit very fast Fc redox kinetics and comparable or even superior stability against the application of multiple potential cycles or long-time holding at constant potential compared to alkylthiol SAMs. Furthermore, ion pairing of Fc+ and hydrophobic perchlorate and other hydrophilic anions is observed with Fc-NHC SAMs, highlighting conditions favorable for future applications of these monolayers. This study should therefore shed light on the very promising characteristics of redox-active NHC SAMs as an alternative to traditional Fc-alkylthiol SAMs for multiple practical applications, including in sensors and electrocatalysis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lin Qi
- Department of Chemistry, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta T2N1N4, Canada
| | - Robert M Mayall
- Department of Chemistry, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta T2N1N4, Canada
| | - Dianne S Lee
- Department of Chemistry, Queen's University, Kingston, Ontario K7L3N6, Canada
| | - Christene Smith
- Department of Chemistry, Queen's University, Kingston, Ontario K7L3N6, Canada
| | - April Woods
- Department of Chemistry, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta T2N1N4, Canada
| | - Mina R Narouz
- Department of Chemistry, Queen's University, Kingston, Ontario K7L3N6, Canada
| | - Alexander Hyla
- Department of Chemistry, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta T2N1N4, Canada
| | | | - Zhe She
- Department of Chemistry, Queen's University, Kingston, Ontario K7L3N6, Canada
| | - Cathleen M Crudden
- Department of Chemistry, Queen's University, Kingston, Ontario K7L3N6, Canada
| | - Viola Ingrid Birss
- Department of Chemistry, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta T2N1N4, Canada
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3
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Ye C, Lukas H, Wang M, Lee Y, Gao W. Nucleic acid-based wearable and implantable electrochemical sensors. Chem Soc Rev 2024; 53:7960-7982. [PMID: 38985007 PMCID: PMC11308452 DOI: 10.1039/d4cs00001c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/11/2024]
Abstract
The rapid advancements in nucleic acid-based electrochemical sensors for implantable and wearable applications have marked a significant leap forward in the domain of personal healthcare over the last decade. This technology promises to revolutionize personalized healthcare by facilitating the early diagnosis of diseases, monitoring of disease progression, and tailoring of individual treatment plans. This review navigates through the latest developments in this field, focusing on the strategies for nucleic acid sensing that enable real-time and continuous biomarker analysis directly in various biofluids, such as blood, interstitial fluid, sweat, and saliva. The review delves into various nucleic acid sensing strategies, emphasizing the innovative designs of biorecognition elements and signal transduction mechanisms that enable implantable and wearable applications. Special perspective is given to enhance nucleic acid-based sensor selectivity and sensitivity, which are crucial for the accurate detection of low-level biomarkers. The integration of such sensors into implantable and wearable platforms, including microneedle arrays and flexible electronic systems, actualizes their use in on-body devices for health monitoring. We also tackle the technical challenges encountered in the development of these sensors, such as ensuring long-term stability, managing the complexity of biofluid dynamics, and fulfilling the need for real-time, continuous, and reagentless detection. In conclusion, the review highlights the importance of these sensors in the future of medical engineering, offering insights into design considerations and future research directions to overcome existing limitations and fully realize the potential of nucleic acid-based electrochemical sensors for healthcare applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cui Ye
- Andrew and Peggy Cherng Department of Medical Engineering, Division of Engineering and Applied Science, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA, USA.
| | - Heather Lukas
- Andrew and Peggy Cherng Department of Medical Engineering, Division of Engineering and Applied Science, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA, USA.
| | - Minqiang Wang
- Andrew and Peggy Cherng Department of Medical Engineering, Division of Engineering and Applied Science, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA, USA.
| | - Yerim Lee
- Andrew and Peggy Cherng Department of Medical Engineering, Division of Engineering and Applied Science, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA, USA.
| | - Wei Gao
- Andrew and Peggy Cherng Department of Medical Engineering, Division of Engineering and Applied Science, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA, USA.
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Lee J, Woo G, Lee G, Jeon J, Lee S, Wang Z, Shin H, Lee GW, Kim YJ, Lee DH, Kim MJ, Kim E, Seok H, Cho J, Kang B, No YS, Jang WJ, Kim T. Ultrastable 3D Heterogeneous Integration via N-Heterocyclic Carbene Self-Assembled Nanolayers. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2024; 16:35505-35515. [PMID: 38935928 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.4c04665] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/29/2024]
Abstract
The commercialization of 3D heterogeneous integration through hybrid bonding has accelerated, and accordingly, Cu-polymer bonding has gained significant attention as a means of overcoming the limitations of conventional Cu-SiO2 hybrid bonding, offering high compatibility with other fabrication processes. Polymers offer robust bonding strength and a low dielectric constant, enabling high-speed signal transmission with high reliability, but suffer from low thermomechanical stability. Thermomechanical stability of polymers was not achieved previously because of thermal degradation and unstable anchoring. To overcome these limitations, wafer-scale Cu-polymer bonding via N-heterocyclic carbene (NHC) nanolayers was presented for 3D heterogeneous integration, affording ultrastable packing density, crystallinity, and thermal properties. NHC nanolayers were deposited on copper electrodes via electrochemical deposition, and wafer-scale 3D heterogeneous integration was achieved by adhesive bonding at 170 °C for 1 min. Ultrastable conductivity and thermomechanical properties were observed by the spatial mapping of conductivity, work function, and force-distance curves. With regard to the characterization of NHC nanolayers, low-temperature bonding, robust corrosion inhibition, enhanced electrical conductivity, back-end-of-line process compatibility, and fabrication process reduction, NHC Cu/polymer bonding provides versatile advances in 3D heterogeneous integration, indicating that NHC Cu/polymer bonding can be utilized as a platform for future 3D vertical chip architectures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jinhyoung Lee
- School of Mechanical Engineering, Sungkyunkwan University (SKKU), Suwon-si, Gyeonggi-do 16419, Republic of Korea
- Center for Quantum Nanoscience, Institute for Basic Science (IBS), Seoul 03760, Republic of Korea
| | - Gunhoo Woo
- SKKU Advanced Institute of Nanotechnology (SAINT), Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon-si, Gyeonggi-do 16419, Republic of Korea
- Department of Nano Science and Technology, Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon-si, Gyeonggi-do 16419, Republic of Korea
| | - Gyuyoung Lee
- School of Mechanical Engineering, Sungkyunkwan University (SKKU), Suwon-si, Gyeonggi-do 16419, Republic of Korea
| | - Jongyeong Jeon
- School of Mechanical Engineering, Sungkyunkwan University (SKKU), Suwon-si, Gyeonggi-do 16419, Republic of Korea
| | - Seunghwan Lee
- School of Mechanical Engineering, Sungkyunkwan University (SKKU), Suwon-si, Gyeonggi-do 16419, Republic of Korea
| | - Ziyang Wang
- School of Mechanical Engineering, Sungkyunkwan University (SKKU), Suwon-si, Gyeonggi-do 16419, Republic of Korea
| | - Hyelim Shin
- Department of Semiconductor Convergence Engineering, Suwon-si, Gyeonggi-do 16419, Republic of Korea
| | - Gil-Woo Lee
- School of Mechanical Engineering, Sungkyunkwan University (SKKU), Suwon-si, Gyeonggi-do 16419, Republic of Korea
- Department of Physics, Konkuk University, Seoul 05029, Republic of Korea
| | - Yeon-Ji Kim
- School of Mechanical Engineering, Sungkyunkwan University (SKKU), Suwon-si, Gyeonggi-do 16419, Republic of Korea
- Department of Physics, Konkuk University, Seoul 05029, Republic of Korea
| | - Do-Hyun Lee
- School of Mechanical Engineering, Sungkyunkwan University (SKKU), Suwon-si, Gyeonggi-do 16419, Republic of Korea
- Department of Physics, Konkuk University, Seoul 05029, Republic of Korea
| | - Min-Jae Kim
- SKKU Advanced Institute of Nanotechnology (SAINT), Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon-si, Gyeonggi-do 16419, Republic of Korea
- Department of Nano Science and Technology, Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon-si, Gyeonggi-do 16419, Republic of Korea
| | - Eungchul Kim
- AVP Process Development Team, Samsung Electronics, Chungcheongnam-do, Cheonan-si 31086, South Korea
| | - Hyunho Seok
- SKKU Advanced Institute of Nanotechnology (SAINT), Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon-si, Gyeonggi-do 16419, Republic of Korea
- Department of Nano Science and Technology, Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon-si, Gyeonggi-do 16419, Republic of Korea
| | - Jinill Cho
- School of Mechanical Engineering, Sungkyunkwan University (SKKU), Suwon-si, Gyeonggi-do 16419, Republic of Korea
| | - Boseok Kang
- SKKU Advanced Institute of Nanotechnology (SAINT), Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon-si, Gyeonggi-do 16419, Republic of Korea
- Department of Nano Science and Technology, Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon-si, Gyeonggi-do 16419, Republic of Korea
- Department of Nano Engineering, Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon-si, Gyeonggi-do 16419, Republic of Korea
| | - You-Shin No
- Department of Physics, Konkuk University, Seoul 05029, Republic of Korea
| | - Won-Jun Jang
- Center for Quantum Nanoscience, Institute for Basic Science (IBS), Seoul 03760, Republic of Korea
- Department of Physics, Ewha Womans University, Seoul 03760, Republic of Korea
| | - Taesung Kim
- School of Mechanical Engineering, Sungkyunkwan University (SKKU), Suwon-si, Gyeonggi-do 16419, Republic of Korea
- SKKU Advanced Institute of Nanotechnology (SAINT), Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon-si, Gyeonggi-do 16419, Republic of Korea
- Department of Nano Science and Technology, Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon-si, Gyeonggi-do 16419, Republic of Korea
- Department of Semiconductor Convergence Engineering, Suwon-si, Gyeonggi-do 16419, Republic of Korea
- Department of Nano Engineering, Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon-si, Gyeonggi-do 16419, Republic of Korea
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5
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Arroyo-Currás N. Beyond the Gold-Thiol Paradigm: Exploring Alternative Interfaces for Electrochemical Nucleic Acid-Based Sensing. ACS Sens 2024; 9:2228-2236. [PMID: 38661283 PMCID: PMC11129698 DOI: 10.1021/acssensors.4c00331] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2024] [Revised: 04/04/2024] [Accepted: 04/16/2024] [Indexed: 04/26/2024]
Abstract
Nucleic acid-based electrochemical sensors (NBEs) use oligonucleotides as affinity reagents for the detection of a variety of targets, ranging from small-molecule therapeutics to whole viruses. Because of their versatility in molecular sensing, NBEs are being developed broadly for diagnostic and biomedical research applications. Benchmark NBEs are fabricated via self-assembly of thiol-based monolayers on gold. Although robust for rapid prototyping, thiol monolayers suffer from limitations in terms of stability under voltage modulation and in the face of competitive ligands such as thiolated molecules naturally occurring in biofluids. Additionally, gold cannot be deployed as an NBE substrate for all biomedical applications, such as in cases where molecular measurements coupled to real-time, under-the-sensor tissue imaging is needed. Seeking to overcome these limitations, the field of NBEs is pursuing alternative ligands and electrode surfaces. In this perspective, I discuss new interface fabrication strategies that have successfully achieved NBE sensing, or that have the potential to allow NBE sensing on conductive surfaces other than gold. I hope this perspective will provide the reader with a fresh view of how future NBE interfaces could be constructed and will serve as inspiration for the pursuit of collaborative developments in the field of NBEs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Netzahualcóyotl Arroyo-Currás
- Department of Pharmacology
and Molecular
Sciences, Johns Hopkins University School
of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland 21205, United States
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Palasz JM, Long Z, Meng J, Videla PE, Kelly HR, Lian T, Batista VS, Kubiak CP. A Resilient Platform for the Discrete Functionalization of Gold Surfaces Based on N-Heterocyclic Carbene Self-Assembled Monolayers. J Am Chem Soc 2024; 146:10489-10497. [PMID: 38584354 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.3c14113] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/09/2024]
Abstract
We describe the synthesis and characterization of a versatile platform for gold functionalization, based on self-assembled monolayers (SAMs) of distal-pyridine-functionalized N-heterocyclic carbenes (NHC) derived from bis(NHC) Au(I) complexes. The SAMs are characterized using polarization-modulation infrared reflectance-absorption spectroscopy, surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy, and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy. The binding mode is examined computationally using density functional theory, including calculations of vibrational spectra and direct comparisons to the experimental spectroscopic signatures of the monolayers. Our joint computational and experimental analyses provide structural information about the SAM binding geometries under ambient conditions. Additionally, we examine the reactivity of the pyridine-functionalized SAMs toward H2SO4 and W(CO)5(THF) and verify the preservation of the introduced functionality at the interface. Our results demonstrate the versatility of N-heterocyclic carbenes as robust platforms for on-surface acid-base and ligand exchange reactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joseph M Palasz
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, MC 0358, La Jolla, California 92093, United States
| | - Zhuoran Long
- Department of Chemistry and Energy Sciences Institute, Yale University, 225 Prospect Street, New Haven, Connecticut 06520, United States
| | - Jinhui Meng
- Department of Chemistry, Emory University, 1515 Dickey Drive Northeast, Atlanta, Georgia 30322, United States
| | - Pablo E Videla
- Department of Chemistry and Energy Sciences Institute, Yale University, 225 Prospect Street, New Haven, Connecticut 06520, United States
| | - H Ray Kelly
- Department of Chemistry and Energy Sciences Institute, Yale University, 225 Prospect Street, New Haven, Connecticut 06520, United States
| | - Tianquan Lian
- Department of Chemistry, Emory University, 1515 Dickey Drive Northeast, Atlanta, Georgia 30322, United States
| | - Victor S Batista
- Department of Chemistry and Energy Sciences Institute, Yale University, 225 Prospect Street, New Haven, Connecticut 06520, United States
| | - Clifford P Kubiak
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, MC 0358, La Jolla, California 92093, United States
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7
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Dominique NL, Chandran A, Jensen IM, Jenkins DM, Camden JP. Unmasking the Electrochemical Stability of N-Heterocyclic Carbene Monolayers on Gold. Chemistry 2023:e202303681. [PMID: 38116819 DOI: 10.1002/chem.202303681] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2023] [Accepted: 12/16/2023] [Indexed: 12/21/2023]
Abstract
N-heterocyclic carbene (NHC) monolayers are transforming electrocatalysis and biosensor design via their increased performance and stability. Despite their increasing use in electrochemical systems, the integrity of the NHC monolayer during voltage perturbations remains largely unknown. Herein, we deploy surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS) to measure the stability of two model NHCs on gold in ambient conditions as a function of applied potential and under continuous voltammetric interrogation. Our results illustrate that NHC monolayers exhibit electrochemical stability over a wide voltage window (-1 V to 0.5 V vs Ag|AgCl), but they are found to degrade at strongly reducing (< -1 V) or oxidizing (>0.5 V) potentials. We also address NHC monolayer stability under continuous voltammetric interrogation between 0.2 V and -0.5 V, a commonly used voltage window for sensing, showing they are stable for up to 43 hours. However, we additionally find that modifications of the backbone NHC structure can lead to significantly shorter operational lifetimes. While these results highlight the potential of NHC architectures for electrode functionalization, they also reveal potential pitfalls that have not been fully appreciated in electrochemical applications of NHCs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nathaniel L Dominique
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN-46556, United States
| | - Aruna Chandran
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN-46556, United States
| | - Isabel M Jensen
- Department of Chemistry, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Knoxville, TN-37996
| | - David M Jenkins
- Department of Chemistry, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Knoxville, TN-37996
| | - Jon P Camden
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN-46556, United States
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