Performance of Doxorubicin-Conjugated Gold Nanoparticles: Regulation of Drug Location

Unravelling the potential of magnetic nanoparticles: a comprehensive review of design and applications in analytical chemistry

The study of nanoparticles has emerged as a prominent research field, offering a wide range of applications across various disciplines. With their unique physical and chemical properties within the size range of 1-100 nm, nanoparticles have garnered significant attention. Among them, magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs) exemplify promising super-magnetic characteristics, especially in the 10-20 nm size range, making them ideal for swift responses to applied magnetic fields. In this comprehensive review, we focus on MNPs suitable for analytical purposes. We investigate and classify them based on their analytical applications, synthesis routes, and overall utility, providing a detailed literature summary. By exploring a diverse range of MNPs, this review offers valuable insights into their potential application in various analytical scenarios.

Synthesis and toxicity assessment of Coffea arabica extract-derived gold nanoparticles loaded with doxorubicin in lung cancer cell cultures

Cancer is the second leading cause of death worldwide, despite the many treatments available, cancer patients face side effects that reduce their quality of life. Therefore, there is a need to develop novel strategies to increase the efficacy of treatments. In this study, gold nanoparticles obtained by green synthesis with Coffea arabica green bean extract were loaded with Doxorubicin, (a highly effective but non-specific drug) by direct interaction and using commercial organic ligands that allow colloidal dispersion at physiological and tumor pH. Conjugation of these components resulted in stable nanohybrids at physiological pH and a tumor pH release dependent, with a particle size less than 40 nm despite having the ligands and Doxorubicin loaded on their surface, which gave them greater specificity and cytotoxicity in H69 tumor cells.

In Situ Synthesis of Gold Nanoparticles from Chitin Nanogels and Their Drug Release Response to Stimulation

In this study, gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) were synthesized in situ using chitin nanogels (CNGs) as templates to prepare composites (CNGs@AuNPs) with good photothermal properties, wherein their drug release properties in response to stimulation by near-infrared (NIR) light were investigated. AuNPs with particle sizes ranging from 2.5 nm to 90 nm were prepared by varying the reaction temperature and chloroauric acid concentration. The photothermal effect of different materials was probed by near-infrared light. Under 1 mg/mL of chloroauric acid at 120 °C, the prepared CNGs@AuNPs could increase the temperature by 32 °C within 10 min at a power of 2 W/cm2. The Adriamycin hydrochloride (DOX) was loaded into the CNGs@AuNPs to investigate their release behaviors under different pH values, temperatures, and near-infrared light stimulations. The results showed that CNGs@AuNPs were pH- and temperature-responsive, suggesting that low pH and high temperature could promote drug release. In addition, NIR light stimulation accelerated the drug release. Cellular experiments confirmed the synergistic effect of DOX-loaded CNGs@AuNPs on chemotherapy and photothermal therapy under NIR radiation.

Research Progress of Polysaccharide-Gold Nanocomplexes in Drug Delivery

Clinical drug administration aims to deliver drugs efficiently and safely to target tissues, organs, and cells, with the objective of enabling their therapeutic effects. Currently, the main approach to enhance a drug's effectiveness is ensuring its efficient delivery to the intended site. Due to the fact that there are still various drawbacks of traditional drug delivery methods, such as high toxicity and side effects, insufficient drug specificity, poor targeting, and poor pharmacokinetic performance, nanocarriers have emerged as a promising alternative. Nanocarriers possess significant advantages in drug delivery due to their size tunability and surface modifiability. Moreover, nano-drug delivery systems have demonstrated strong potential in terms of prolonging drug circulation time, improving bioavailability, increasing drug retention at the tumor site, decreasing drug resistance, as well as reducing the undesirable side effects of anticancer drugs. Numerous studies have focused on utilizing polysaccharides as nanodelivery carriers, developing delivery systems based on polysaccharides, or exploiting polysaccharides as tumor-targeting ligands to enhance the precision of nanoparticle delivery. These types of investigations have become commonplace in the academic literature. This review aims to elucidate the preparation methods and principles of polysaccharide gold nanocarriers. It also provides an overview of the factors that affect the loading of polysaccharide gold nanocarriers with different kinds of drugs. Additionally, it outlines the strategies employed by polysaccharide gold nanocarriers to improve the delivery efficiency of various drugs. The objective is to provide a reference for further development of research on polysaccharide gold nanodelivery systems.

Exploration of inorganic nanoparticles for revolutionary drug delivery applications: a critical review

The nanosystems for delivering drugs which have evolved with time, are being designed for greater drug efficiency and lesser side-effects, and are also complemented by the advancement of numerous innovative materials. In comparison to the organic nanoparticles, the inorganic nanoparticles are stable, have a wide range of physicochemical, mechanical, magnetic, and optical characteristics, and also have the capability to get modified using some ligands to enrich their attraction towards the molecules at the target site, which makes them appealing for bio-imaging and drug delivery applications. One of the strong benefits of using the inorganic nanoparticles-drug conjugate is the possibility of delivering the drugs to the affected cells locally, thus reducing the side-effects like cytotoxicity, and facilitating a higher efficacy of the therapeutic drug. This review features the direct and indirect effects of such inorganic nanoparticles like gold, silver, graphene-based, hydroxyapatite, iron oxide, ZnO, and CeO2 nanoparticles in developing effective drug carrier systems. This article has remarked the peculiarities of these nanoparticle-based systems in pulmonary, ocular, wound healing, and antibacterial drug deliveries as well as in delivering drugs across Blood-Brain-Barrier (BBB) and acting as agents for cancer theranostics. Additionally, the article sheds light on the plausible modifications that can be carried out on the inorganic nanoparticles, from a researcher's perspective, which could open a new pathway.

Harnessing Nuclear Energy to Gold Nanoparticles for the Concurrent Chemoradiotherapy of Glioblastoma

Nuclear fission reactions can release massive amounts of energy accompanied by neutrons and γ photons, which create a mixed radiation field and enable a series of reactions in nuclear reactors. This study demonstrates a one-pot/one-step approach to synthesizing radioactive gold nanoparticles (RGNP) without using radioactive precursors and reducing agents. Trivalent gold ions are reduced into gold nanoparticles (8.6-146 nm), and a particular portion of 197Au atoms is simultaneously converted to 198Au atoms, rendering the nanoparticles radioactive. We suggest that harnessing nuclear energy to gold nanoparticles is feasible in the interests of advancing nanotechnology for cancer therapy. A combination of RGNP applied through convection-enhanced delivery (CED) and temozolomide (TMZ) through oral administration demonstrates the synergistic effect in treating glioblastoma-bearing mice. The mean survival for RGNP/TMZ treatment was 68.9 ± 9.7 days compared to that for standalone RGNP (38.4 ± 2.2 days) or TMZ (42.8 ± 2.5 days) therapies. Based on the verification of bioluminescence images, positron emission tomography, and immunohistochemistry inspection, the combination treatment can inhibit the proliferation of glioblastoma, highlighting the niche of concurrent chemoradiotherapy (CCRT) attributed to RGNP and TMZ.

B7H3 targeting gold nanocage pH-sensitive conjugates for precise and synergistic chemo-photothermal therapy against NSCLC

BACKGROUND

The combination of drug delivery with immune checkpoint targeting has been extensively studied in cancer therapy. However, the clinical benefit for patients from this strategy is still limited. B7 homolog 3 protein (B7-H3), also known as CD276 (B7-H3/CD276), is a promising therapeutic target for anti-cancer treatment. It is widely overexpressed on the surface of malignant cells and tumor vasculature, and its overexpression is associated with poor prognosis. Herein, we report B7H3 targeting doxorubicin (Dox)-conjugated gold nanocages (B7H3/Dox@GNCs) with pH-responsive drug release as a selective, precise, and synergistic chemotherapy-photothermal therapy agent against non-small-cell lung cancer (NSCLC).

RESULTS

In vitro, B7H3/Dox@GNCs exhibited a responsive release of Dox in the tumor acidic microenvironment. We also demonstrated enhanced intracellular uptake, induced cell cycle arrest, and increased apoptosis in B7H3 overexpressing NSCLC cells. In xenograft tumor models, B7H3/Dox@GNCs exhibited tumor tissue targeting and sustained drug release in response to the acidic environment. Wherein they synchronously destroyed B7H3 positive tumor cells, tumor-associated vasculature, and stromal fibroblasts.

CONCLUSION

This study presents a dual-compartment targeted B7H3 multifunctional gold conjugate system that can precisely control Dox exposure in a spatio-temporal manner without evident toxicity and suggests a general strategy for synergistic therapy against NSCLC.

Investigation of Gold Nanoparticle Naproxen-Derived Conjugations in Ovarian Cancer

Ovarian cancer, which is one of the most diagnosed cancer types among women, maintains its significance as a global health problem. Several drug candidates have been investigated for the potential treatment of ovarian cancer. Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) demonstrated anti-cancer activity through the inhibition of cyclooxygenase 2 (COX-2) and by inhibiting COX-2-dependent prostaglandin (PG) production. Naproxen is one of the most used NSAIDs and Naproxen-derived compounds (NDCs) may show potential treatment effects on cancer as chemotherapeutic drugs. Although there are successful drug development studies, the lack of solubility of these drug candidates in aqueous media results in limited bioavailability and high variability of patient responses during treatment. Low aqueous solubility is one of the main problems in the pharmaceutical industry in terms of drug development. Nanotechnology-based strategies provide solutions to hydrophobic drug limitations by increasing dispersion and improving internalization. In this study, two different NDCs (NDC-1 and NDC-2) bearing a thiosemicarbazide/1,2,4-triazole moiety were synthesized and tested for chemotherapeutic effects on ovarian cancer cells, which have a high COX-2 expression. To overcome the limited dispersion of these hydrophobic drugs, the drug molecules were conjugated to the surface of 13 nm AuNPs. Conjugation of drugs to AuNPs increased the distribution of drugs in aqueous media, and NDC@AuNP conjugates exhibited excellent colloidal stability for up to 8 weeks. The proposed system demonstrated an increased chemotherapeutic effect than the free drug counterparts with at least 5 times lower IC50 values. NDC@AuNP nanosystems induced higher apoptosis rates, which established a simple and novel way to investigate activity of prospective drugs in drug discovery research.

Gold Nanoparticles: Construction for Drug Delivery and Application in Cancer Immunotherapy

Cancer immunotherapy is an innovative treatment strategy to enhance the ability of the immune system to recognize and eliminate cancer cells. However, dose limitations, low response rates, and adverse immune events pose significant challenges. To address these limitations, gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) have been explored as immunotherapeutic drug carriers owing to their stability, surface versatility, and excellent optical properties. This review provides an overview of the advanced synthesis routes for AuNPs and their utilization as drug carriers to improve precision therapies. The review also emphasises various aspects of AuNP-based immunotherapy, including drug loading, targeting strategies, and drug release mechanisms. The application of AuNPs combined with cancer immunotherapy and their therapeutic efficacy are briefly discussed. Overall, we aimed to provide a recent understanding of the advances, challenges, and prospects of AuNPs for anticancer applications.

Albumin nanostructure assisted ABZ anti-parasite immune therapy for T. spiralis muscle infection

Currently, the treatment of Trichinella spiralis (T. spiralis) intracellular infection by oral administration of albendazole (ABZ) is hampered by its poor aqueous solubility and rapid metabolism. Herein, the nanoparticles with BSA and ABZ (ABZ-BSA Nps) were constructed by a desolvation technique in the study. The anti-parasite activity and pharmacokinetics of ABZ-BSA Nps were evaluated for T. spiralis muscle larvae during the encysted phase. The immune-responsive cytokines of ABZ-BSA Nps were quantitatively analyzed. The results showed that ABZ-BSA Nps could eliminate the muscle larvae by triggering the unbalance of Th1/Th2 immune-response in the infection mice. For ABZ-BSA Nps treatment group, the plasma concentration of ABZSO (ABZ active metabolite) was higher than ABZ and the muscle larvae were reduced by 70.2 %. In conclusion, the study had constructed a successful prospective protein nanoparticle delivery ABZ and evidenced the ABZ could be used for intracellular parasite therapy by triggering the anti-parasite immunity of hosts.

Recent advances of metal-based nanoparticles in nucleic acid delivery for therapeutic applications

Recent efforts in designing nanomaterials to deliver potential therapeutics to the targeted site are overwhelming and palpable. Engineering nanomaterials to deliver biological molecules to exert desirable physiological changes, with minimized side effects and optimal dose, has revolutionized the next-generation therapy for several diseases. The rapid progress of nucleic acids as biopharmaceutics is going to alter the traditional pharmaceutics practices in modern medicine. However, enzymatic instability, large size, dense negative charge (hydrophilic for cell uptake), and unintentional adverse biological responses-such as prolongation of the blood coagulation and immune system activation-hamper the potential use of nucleic acids for therapeutic purposes. Moreover, the safe delivery of nucleic acids into the clinical setting is an uphill task, and several efforts are being put forward to deliver them to targeted cells. Advances in Metal-based NanoParticles (MNPs) are drawing attention due to the unique properties offered by them for drug delivery, such as large surface-area-to-volume ratio for surface modification, increased therapeutic index of drugs through site-specific delivery, increased stability, enhanced half-life of the drug in circulation, and efficient biodistribution to the desired targeted site. Here, the potential of nanoparticles delivery systems for the delivery of nucleic acids, specially MNPs, and their ability and advantages over other nano delivery systems are reviewed.

Monodisperse Gold Nanoparticles: A Review on Synthesis and Their Application in Modern Medicine

Gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) are becoming increasingly popular as drug carriers due to their unique properties such as size tenability, multivalency, low toxicity and biocompatibility. AuNPs have physical features that distinguish them from bulk materials, small molecules and other nanoscale particles. Their unique combination of characteristics is just now being fully realized in various biomedical applications. In this review, we focus on the research accomplishments and new opportunities in this field, and we describe the rising developments in the use of monodisperse AuNPs for diagnostic and therapeutic applications. This study addresses the key principles and the most recent published data, focusing on monodisperse AuNP synthesis, surface modifications, and future theranostic applications. Moving forward, we also consider the possible development of functionalized monodisperse AuNPs for theranostic applications based on these efforts. We anticipate that as research advances, flexible AuNPs will become a crucial platform for medical applications.

Nanotechnology in drug and gene delivery

Over the last decade, nanotechnology has widely addressed many nanomaterials in the biomedical area with an opportunity to achieve better-targeted delivery, effective treatment, and an improved safety profile. Nanocarriers have the potential property to protect the active molecule during drug delivery. Depending on the employing nanosystem, the delivery of drugs and genes has enhanced the bioavailability of the molecule at the disease site and exercised an excellent control of the molecule release. Herein, the chapter discusses various advanced nanomaterials designed to develop better nanocarrier systems used to face different diseases such as cancer, heart failure, and malaria. Furthermore, we demonstrate the great attention to the promising role of nanocarriers in ease diagnostic and biodistribution for successful clinical cancer therapy.

Emerging concepts in designing next-generation multifunctional nanomedicine for cancer treatment

Nanotherapy has emerged as an improved anticancer therapeutic strategy to circumvent the harmful side effects of chemotherapy. It has been proven to be beneficial to offer multiple advantages, including their capacity to carry different therapeutic agents, longer circulation time and increased therapeutic index with reduced toxicity. Over time, nanotherapy evolved in terms of their designing strategies like geometry, size, composition or chemistry to circumvent the biological barriers. Multifunctional nanoscale materials are widely used as molecular transporter for delivering therapeutics and imaging agents. Nanomedicine involving multi-component chemotherapeutic drug-based combination therapy has been found to be an improved promising approach to increase the efficacy of cancer treatment. Next-generation nanomedicine has also utilized and combined immunotherapy to increase its therapeutic efficacy. It helps in targeting tumor immune response sparing the healthy systemic immune function. In this review, we have summarized the progress of nanotechnology in terms of nanoparticle designing and targeting cancer. We have also discussed its further applications in combination therapy and cancer immunotherapy. Integrating patient-specific proteomics and biomarker based information and harnessing clinically safe nanotechnology, the development of precision nanomedicine could revolutionize the effective cancer therapy.

A novel formulation of theranostic nanomedicine for targeting drug delivery to gastrointestinal tract cancer

Background

Theranostic nanomedicines contain a nanovehicle that has fluorescent properties and can be used for diagnostic, therapeutic and prognostic purposes. The transferrin receptor expression is 1000-fold higher in rapidly growing cancer cells as compared to the normal cells and, therefore, can be used in targeted drug delivery systems. The objective of the present study was to design a novel targeted gold nanoparticle (GNPs)-based theranostic formulation for gastrointestinal (GI) tract-related cancers. The synthesized GNPs were conjugated to transferrin and doxorubicin both separately and collectively to check their cytotoxic properties. The in vitro cytotoxicity of nanocomposites was observed against colon cancer cell line HCT-116. The doxorubicin conjugated nanocomposites showed almost the same cytotoxicity, but more effect at later hours (h). The IC50 and IC100 were 50 µg/ml and 250 µg/ml, respectively, equivalent to the doxorubicin weight for GNP theranostic nanomedicine.

Results

The maximum effect was observed after 12 h and nanomedicines were still active after 72 h of treatment. Our in vivo data proved that nanomedicine crossed all the barriers and was successfully delivered to the tumour cells. Theranostic nanomedicine’s (TNM) effect on body weight and survival rate on mice was many folds better than mice in pure doxorubicin group. It also showed almost 80% survival rate on day 40. The in vivo and in vitro results show the effects of prolonged drug release and the nanomedicine was not toxic to vital organs of the animal.

Conclusion

This is one of its kind studies in which a novel targeted nanomedicines approach was formulated for therapeutic as well as prognostic purposes against GI tract cancer.

Graphic Abstract

AuNPs Decorated PLA Stereocomplex Micelles for Synergetic Photothermal and Chemotherapy

A unique platform for combined photothermal and chemotherapy using PLA stereocomplex (PLA SC) micelles-induced hybrid gold nanocarriers is designed. The PLA SC micelles, made from the self-assembly of poly(ethylene glycol)-block-poly(l-lactide) (PEG-PLLA) and poly(2-(dimethylamino) ethyl methacrylate)-block-poly(d-lactide) (PDMAEMA-PDLA), for the first time are used as a template to fabricate the hybrid PLA SC@Au core-shell nanocarriers, in which the anticancer drugs are encapsulated within the core, while the Au nanoparticles are tethered in the shell via the in situ reduction of AuCl₄ ^- by PDMAEMA. The obtained PLA SC@Au hybrid nanocarriers exhibit low toxicity and remarkable photothermal effect. Upon near-infrared laser irradiation, the on-site photothermal therapy can further induce an accelerated drug release from the hybrid nanocarrier reservoir via hyperthermia heating of the nanocarriers, thus leading to a synergistic photothermal and chemotherapy toward a significantly improved efficacy in tumor shrinkage. The as-designed PLA SC@Au hybrid nanocarriers, with their biocompatible compositions, dual-drug delivery characteristics, and combined photothermal/chemotherapy, show high potential as a novel platform for cancer treatment.

Recent Development of Gold Nanoparticles as Contrast Agents for Cancer Diagnosis

Simple Summary

The development of nanotechnology has brought revolution to the diagnosis and therapy of diseases, with a high precision and efficacy. Because nanoparticles can integrate multifunctions together including imaging, targeting, and therapeutics, they are more efficient than the standalone diagnostic or therapeutic entities. Among which, gold nanoparticles are most extensively investigated due to their excellent biocompatibility, versatility and ease of functionalization. Excepting the using of gold nanoparticles as vehicles for therapeutics delivery, they are also good candidates as contrast agents for imaging diagnosis, from magnetic resonance imaging, CT and nuclear imaging, fluorescence imaging, photoacoustic imaging to X-ray fluorescence imaging. We summarize their recent applications in these imaging modalities and challenges for their clinical translation.

Abstract

The last decade has witnessed the booming of preclinical studies of gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) in biomedical applications, from therapeutics delivery, imaging diagnostics, to cancer therapies. The synthetic versatility, unique optical and electronic properties, and ease of functionalization make AuNPs an excellent platform for cancer theranostics. This review summarizes the development of AuNPs as contrast agents to image cancers. First, we briefly describe the AuNP synthesis, their physical characteristics, surface functionalization and related biomedical uses. Then we focus on the performances of AuNPs as contrast agents to diagnose cancers, from magnetic resonance imaging, CT and nuclear imaging, fluorescence imaging, photoacoustic imaging to X-ray fluorescence imaging. We compare these imaging modalities and highlight the roles of AuNPs as contrast agents in cancer diagnosis accordingly, and address the challenges for their clinical translation.

Gold nanoparticle-conjugated nanomedicine: design, construction, and structure-efficacy relationship studies

In comparison with conventional therapies, nanomedicine shows prominent clinical performance, with better therapeutic efficacy and less off-target toxicity. As an important component of nanomedicine, gold nanoparticle (GNP)-based nanodrugs have attracted considerable interest because of their excellent performance given by the unique structure. Although no pharmaceutical formulations of GNP-associated nanodrugs have been officially marketed yet, a substantial amount of research on this aspect is being carried out, producing numerous GNP-based drug delivery systems with potential clinical applications. In this review, we present an overview of our progress on GNP-based nanodrugs combined with other achievements in biomedical applications, including drug-conjugated GNPs prepared for disease treatments and specific tumour targeting, structure-efficacy relationship (SER) studies on GNP-conjugated nanodrugs, and therapeutic hybrid nanosystems composed of GNPs. In addition, we also put forward some proposals to guide future work in developing GNP-based nanomedicine. We hope that this review will offer some useful experience for our peers and GNP-based nanodrugs will be utilized in the clinic with further persistent efforts.

Protein corona-guided tumor targeting therapy via the surface modulation of low molecular weight PEG

The discovery of protein corona (PC) formed on the surface of nanomaterials has promoted research on PC regulation to guide the biological behavior of nanomaterials in vivo. Different from changing the size, shape, and surface charge of nanoparticles, we propose to control the nature of PC by adjusting the molecular weight of low molecular weight polyethylene glycol (LMW PEG, not more than 1000 Da) on the surface of the particles. After excluding the influence of physicochemical factors of PEGylated gold nanoparticles (GNPs), different proteins on the surface of PEGylated GNPs were separated and identified after incubation with human plasma. It is noted that GNP-550 bearing PEG chains of 550 Da absorbed more transferrin responsible for tumor targeting than the other two particles, i.e., GNP-350 and GNP-1000. To validate our speculation, doxorubicin (Dox) was inserted between GNPs and PEGs to explore the cellular and animal studies of Dox-conjugated GNPs. Interestingly, Dox-containing Conj-550 also showed the highest intracellular uptake, cytotoxicity, and apoptosis against HepG2 cells, as well as the best tumor targeting effect and antitumor efficacy in Heps-bearing mice. This protein corona-guided tumor targeting therapy by transferrin provides a new perspective on the function modulation of nanomedicine via LMW PEGs.

Lenalidomide (LENA) Hybrid Gold Complex Nanoparticles: Synthesis, Physicochemical Evaluation, and Perspectives in Nanomedicine

This paper proposes a fast methodology to synthesize hybrid lenalidomide gold nanoparticles. Gold (HAuCl₄) is chelated with an antiangiogenic compound (lenalidomide (LENA)) and diacid poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) as capping agent and reagent. The suggested synthesis is rapid and results in gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) with enhanced drug solubility. The binding between LENA, PEG, and Au(III) ions forms hybrid nanovectors named LENA IN PEG-AuNPs, which were characterized by different spectroscopic techniques (Raman and UV-vis), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), and compared with LENA ON PEG-AuNPs, in which the drug was grafted onto gold surface by carbodiimide chemistry (1-ethyl-3-(3-dimethylaminopropyl)carbodiimide/N-hydroxysuccinimide, EDC/NHS). The effective drug delivery under pH conditions was also reached, combined with doxorubicin (DOX) to improve the synergic chemotherapy and stability under experimental conditions. For biomedical purposes, hybrid gold nanocarriers were conjugated with folic acid (FA), which is specifically overexpressed in cancer cells. This paper will be very important in the domain of therapeutic gold complex, paving the way for reaching progress of novel drug carrier synthesis in nanomedicine.

Fluorescence for biological logic gates

Biological logic gates are smart probes able to respond to biological conditions in behaviors similar to computer logic gates, and they pose a promising challenge for modern medicine. Researchers are creating many kinds of smart nanostructures that can respond to various biological parameters such as pH, ion presence, and enzyme activity. Each of these conditions alone might be interesting in a biological sense, but their interactions are what define specific disease conditions. Researchers over the past few decades have developed a plethora of stimuli-responsive nanodevices, from activatable fluorescent probes to DNA origami nanomachines, many explicitly defining logic operations. Whereas many smart configurations have been explored, in this review we focus on logic operations actuated through fluorescent signals. We discuss the applicability of fluorescence as a means of logic gate implementation, and consider the use of both fluorescence intensity as well as fluorescence lifetime.

Chondroitin-modified lipid nanoparticles target the Golgi to degrade extracellular matrix for liver cancer management

Liver cancer is a serious liver disease in which hepatoma cells and activated hepatic stellate cells (HSCs) overproduce extracellular matrix (ECM), which involves the Golgi apparatus. Here chondroitin-modified lipid nanoparticles (CSNs) were prepared and loaded with doxorubicin (DOX) and retinoic acid (RA) using a thin-film hydration-high pressure homogenization method. The resulting DOX + RA-CSNs were efficiently taken up by SMMC-7721 hepatoma cells and HSCs in culture, where they accumulated in the Golgi apparatus and destroyed it, inhibiting ECM production. Injecting DOX + RA-CSNs into mice with primary liver cancer or H22 allografts led to significantly higher tumor penetration by DOX and RA, greater antitumor efficacy, and lower DOX-related toxicity than injecting a solution of the two drugs. Immunofluorescence and immunohistochemistry of liver tissues showed that DOX + RA-CSNs dramatically reduced expression of the ECM components. These results suggest that CSNs show potential for targeting drugs to the Golgi apparatus of liver cancer cells and potentially other types of tumors.

Characterization and Therapeutic Effect of a pH Stimuli Responsive Polymeric Nanoformulation for Controlled Drug Release

Despite the large number of polymeric nanodelivery systems that have been recently developed, there is still room for improvement in terms of therapeutic efficiency. Most reported nanodevices for controlled release are based on drug encapsulation, which can lead to undesired drug leakage with a consequent reduction in efficacy and an increase in systemic toxicity. Herein, we present a strategy for covalent drug conjugation to the nanodevice to overcome this drawback. In particular, we characterize and evaluate an effective therapeutic polymeric PEGylated nanosystem for controlled pH-sensitive drug release on a breast cancer (MDA-MB-231) and two lung cancer (A549 and H520) cell lines. A significant reduction in the required drug dose to reach its half maximal inhibitory concentration (IC50 value) was achieved by conjugation of the drug to the nanoparticles, which leads to an improvement in the therapeutic index by increasing the efficiency. The genotoxic effect of this nanodevice in cancer cells was confirmed by nucleus histone H2AX specific immunostaining. In summary, we successfully characterized and validated a pH responsive therapeutic polymeric nanodevice in vitro for controlled anticancer drug release.

Ultrasmall gold nanoparticles in cancer diagnosis and therapy

Due to their lower systemic toxicity, faster kidney clearance and higher tumor accumulation, ultrasmall gold nanoparticles (less than 10 nm in diameter) have been proved to be promising in biomedical applications. However, their potential applications in cancer imaging and treatment have not been reviewed yet. This review summarizes the efforts to develop systems based on ultrasmall gold nanoparticles for use in cancer diagnosis and therapy. First, we describe the methods for controlling the size and surface functionalization of ultrasmall gold nanoparticles. Second, we review the research on ultrasmall gold nanoparticles in cancer imaging and treatment. Specifically, we focus on the applications of ultrasmall gold nanoparticles in tumor visualization and bioimaging in different fields such as magnetic resonance imaging, photoacoustic imaging, fluorescence imaging, and X-ray scatter imaging. We also highlight the applications of ultrasmall gold nanoparticles in tumor chemotherapy, radiotherapy, photodynamic therapy and gene therapy.

Bacterial Template Synthesis of Multifunctional Nanospindles for Glutathione Detection and Enhanced Cancer-Specific Chemo-Chemodynamic Therapy

Biological synthetic methods of nanoparticles have shown great advantages, such as environmental friendliness, low cost, mild reaction conditions, and enhanced biocompatibility and stability of products. Bacteria, as one of the most important living organisms, have been utilized as bioreducing nanofactories to biosynthesize many metal nanoparticles or compounds. Here, inspired by the disinfection process of KMnO₄, we for the first time introduce bacteria as both the template and the reducing agent to construct a novel tumor microenvironment-responsive MnO_x-based nanoplatform for biomedical applications in various aspects. It is found that the bacterium/MnO_x-based nanospindles (EM NSs) can efficiently encapsulate the chemotherapeutic agent doxorubicin (DOX), leading to the fluorescence quenching of the drug. The as-formed DOX-loaded EM NSs (EMD NSs) are proven to be decomposed by glutathione (GSH) and can simultaneously release DOX and Mn²⁺ ions. The former can be utilized for sensitive fluorescence-based GSH sensing with a limit of detection as low as 0.28 μM and selective cancer therapy, while the latter plays important roles in GSH-activated magnetic resonance imaging and chemodynamic therapy. We also demonstrate that these nanospindles can generate oxygen in the presence of endogenous hydrogen peroxide to inhibit P-glycoprotein expression under hypoxia and can achieve excellent tumor eradication and tumor metastasis inhibition performance. Taken together, this work designs a multifunctional bacterially synthesized nanomissile for imaging-guided tumor-specific chemo-chemodynamic combination therapy and will have implications for the design of microorganism-derived smart nanomedicines.

Targeted degradation of anaplastic lymphoma kinase by gold nanoparticle-based multi-headed proteolysis targeting chimeras

Anaplastic lymphoma kinase (ALK) is a major target in treating non-small-cell lung cancer, and several ALK inhibitors have been developed to antagonize its kinase activity. However, patients treated with inhibitors ultimately develop drug resistance. Therefore, therapies with new mechanisms of action are needed. Proteolysis targeting chimeras (PROTACs) are molecules that comprise a ligand for binding a protein of interest (POI), a connecting linker and a ligand for recruiting E3 ligase, and cause degradation of the target POI. Here, the first multi-headed PROTAC, as a proof of concept, is developed as a gold nanoparticle (GNP)-based drug delivery system for delivering PROTACs to target ALK. Pegylated GNPs loaded with both ceritinib and pomalidomide molecules, termed Cer/Pom-PEG@GNPs, showed good stability in several media. The GNP conjugates potently decreased the levels of ALK fusion proteins in a dose- and time-dependent manner, and specifically inhibited the proliferation of NCI-H2228 cells. In comparison with small molecule PROTACs, the new multi-headed PROTAC promoted the formation of coacervates of POIs/multi-headed PROTAC/E3 ubiquitin ligases, and POI and E3 ubiquitin ligase interacted through multidirectional ligands and a flexible linker, thereby avoiding the need for complicated structure optimization of PROTACs. In conclusion, Cer/Pom-PEG@GNPs can degrade intracellular ALK fusion proteins with minor off-target toxicity and can be applied in patients resistant to ALK inhibitors. As a nano-based drug carrier, Cer/Pom-PEG@GNPs have the potential to enable prolonged circulation and specifically distribute drugs to tumor regions in vivo; thus, further investigation is warranted.

Assisted delivery of anti-tumour platinum drugs using DNA-coiling gold nanoparticles bearing lumophores and intercalators: towards a new generation of multimodal nanocarriers with enhanced action

New gold and lipoic based nanocarriers for the delivery of platinum(ii) and platinum(iv) drugs are developed, which allow enhanced loading of the drug on the surface of the nanocarriers and release in a pH-dependent fashion, with superior release at lower pHs which are associated with many tumours. The conjugate nanoparticles and their conjugates enter cells rapidly (within 3 hours). They tend to cluster in vesicles and are also observed by light and electron microscopies in the cytoplasm, endoplasmic reticulum and nucleus. We further incorporate aminoanthraquinone units that are both fluorophores and DNA intercalators. This results in nanocarriers that after drug release will remain surface decorated with DNA-binders challenging the conventional design of the nanocarrier as an inert component. The outcome is nanocarriers that themselves have distinctive, remarkable and unusual DNA binding properties being able to bind and wrap DNA (despite their anionic charge) and provide enhanced cytotoxic activity beyond that conferred by the platinum agents they release. DNA coiling is usually associated with polycations which can disrupt cell membranes; anionic nanoparticles that can cause novel and dramatic effects on DNA may have fascinating potential for new approaches to in-cell nucleic acid recognition. Our findings have implications for the understanding and interpretation of the biological activities of nanoparticles used to deliver other DNA-binding drugs including clinical drug doxorubicin and its formulations.

Sono-Polymerization of Poly(ethylene glycol)-Based Nanoparticles for Targeted Drug Delivery

Engineering functional nanoparticles (NPs) with low nonspecific interactions and a high specific targeting property is highly desired for improved drug delivery. Herein, we report a targeted poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG)-based chemotherapy system synthesized via a catalyst-free sono-polymerization process for drug delivery. The polymerization process was fast (20 min), and different monomers were able to be polymerized to form NPs in a one-pot process. Glutathione (GSH)-responsive platinum prodrugs and fluorescent dyes could be encapsulated in NPs by amidation formation. Cyclic peptides containing Arg-Gly-Asp (RGD)-modified PEG-based NPs possessed a much higher cell targeting (∼90%) than the unmodified PEG-based NPs (∼10%) after a 12 h incubation with U87 MG cells, which could improve drug delivery efficacy. The IC₅₀ (50% inhibitory concentration) could also be reduced more than 50% compared to the nontargeted PEG-based NPs. Importantly, these PEG-based NPs can be freeze-dried into a powder form and redispersed in an aqueous solution without aggregation, which may facilitate the storage and transportation of nanomedicine. This study establishes a green and efficient method to engineer targeted drug carriers for drug delivery.

A GPC1-targeted and gemcitabine-loaded biocompatible nanoplatform for pancreatic cancer multimodal imaging and therapy

Aim: Biomarker-targeted nanocarrier holds promise for early diagnosis and effective therapy of cancer. Materials & methods: This work successfully designs and evaluates GPC1-targeted, gemcitabine (GEM)-loaded multifunctional gold nanocarrier for near-infrared fluorescence (NIRF)/MRI and targeted chemotherapy against pancreatic cancer in vitro and in vivo. Results: Blood biochemical and histological analyses show that the in vivo toxicity of GPC1-GEM-nanoparticles (NPs) was negligible. Both in vitro and in vivo studies demonstrate that GPC1-GEM-NPs can be used as NIRF/MR contrast agent for pancreatic cancer detection. Treatment of xenografted mice with GPC1-GEM-NPs shows a higher tumor inhibitory effect compared with controls. Conclusion: This novel theranostic nanoplatform provides early diagnostic and effective therapeutic potential for pancreatic cancer.

Predicting doxorubicin drug delivery by single-walled carbon nanotube through cell membrane in the absence and presence of nicotine molecules: a molecular dynamics simulation study

In order to study the interaction of the anticancer agent Doxorubicin with the single-walled carbon nanotubes with different diameters as drug delivery systems, the molecular dynamics (MD) simulations have been used. Also, for design and development of intracellular Doxorubicin drug delivery systems, a series of steered MD simulations are applied to explore the possibility of encapsulated Doxorubicin-carbon nanotube penetration through a lipid bilayer in presence and absence of Nicotine molecules at different pulling rates. Our simulation results showed that in spite of the adsorption of drug molecules on the outer sidewall of the nanotubes, the spontaneous localization of one Doxorubicin molecule into the cavity of the nanovectors with larger diameters is observed. It is found that the presence of Nicotine molecules in extracellular medium increases the required force for pulling nanotube-encapsulated drug as well as the required time for penetration process, especially at higher velocity. Also, the entering process of the Nicotine molecules into the carbon nanotube causes that the encapsulated drug molecule is fully released in the hydrophobic phase of the lipid bilayer.Communicated by Ramaswamy H. Sarma.

A novel theranostic system of AS1411 aptamer-functionalized albumin nanoparticles loaded on iron oxide and gold nanoparticles for doxorubicin delivery

Recently DNA aptamers have attracted remarkable attention as possible targeting ligands since selective targeting of cancer cells is a critical step in cancer diagnosis and therapy. Here, the development of AS1411 aptamer-functionalized albumin nanoparticles loaded on iron oxide and gold nanoparticles is reported for target delivery of the well-known anticancer drug of doxorubicin (Dox). Iron oxide nanoparticles (IONPs) and gold nanoparticles (GNPs) were prepared by ultrasound-assisted and controlled seeded growth synthetic methods, respectively. The nanocarrier was synthesized by a desolvation cross-linking method and characterized by dynamic light scattering, zeta potential measurement, thermogravimetric analysis, transmission electron microscopy, as well as vibrating sample magnetometer. The synthesized nanoparticles were found to be spherical with an average diameter of 120 nm and zeta potential of about -50.3 mV. The in-vitro anti-tumor effect of the designed delivery vehicle on MCF7 and SKBR3 human cancer cells was evaluated by MTT assay. The experimental results revealed that it could significantly inhibit the proliferation of cancerous cells. Moreover, GNPs and IONPs with the coating of albumin did not show any toxicity. AS1411 aptamer-functionalized nanoparticles improved cellular uptake and efficiency to MCF7 breast cancer cells as compared to non-targeting nanoparticles because of the high affinity of mentioned aptamer toward the overexpressed nucleolin on MCF7 cell surface.

One-pot synthesis of acid-induced in situ aggregating theranostic gold nanoparticles with enhanced retention in tumor cells

In this work, we took advantage of a one-pot reaction to prepare tumor-targeting nanoparticles (Au@T), which could respond to the intracellular acidic environment and form aggregates to enhance the retention effect of nanoparticles in tumor cells, for tumor dual-mode diagnose and photothermal therapy.

Applications of Noble Metal-Based Nanoparticles in Medicine

Nanoparticles have unique, size-dependent properties, which means they are widely used in various branches of industry. The ability to control the properties of nanoparticles makes these nanomaterials very interesting for medicine and pharmacology. The application of nanoparticles in medicine is associated with the design of specific nanostructures, which can be used as novel diagnostic and therapeutic modalities. There are a lot of applications of nanoparticles, e.g., as drug delivery systems, radiosensitizers in radiation or proton therapy, in bioimaging, or as bactericides/fungicides. This paper aims to introduce the characteristics of noble metal-based nanoparticles with particular emphasis on their applications in medicine and related sciences.

Iron-gold alloy nanoparticles serve as a cornerstone in hyperthermia-mediated controlled drug release for cancer therapy

INTRODUCTION

The efficacy of a chemotherapy drug in cancer therapy is highly determined by the ability to control the rate and extent of its release in vivo. However, the lack of techniques to accurately control drug release drastically limits the potency of a chemotherapy drug.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Here, we present a novel strategy to precisely monitor drug release under magnetic stimulation. Methotrexate (MTX), an anticancer drug, was covalently functionalized onto iron-gold alloy magnetic nanoparticles (Fe-Au alloy nanoparticles or NFAs) through 2-aminoethanethiol grafting and the ability of this drug-nanoparticle conjugate (NFA-MTX) in limiting HepG2 (liver carcinoma) cell growth was studied. Well-dispersed NFAs were prepared through pyrolysis.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Transmission electron microscopy revealed the average nanoparticle size to be 7.22±2.6 nm, while X-ray diffraction showed distinct 2θ peaks for iron and gold, confirming the presence of iron and gold nanoparticles. Inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry revealed that the amount of NFA-MTX conjugate ingested by HepG2 cancer cells was 1.5 times higher than that ingested by L929 fibroblasts, thereby proving a higher selective ingestion by cancer cells compared to normal cells. Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy revealed the breakage of Au-S bonds by the heat generated under magnetic field stimulation to release MTX from the NFA-MTX conjugate, triggering a 95% decrease in cellular viability at 100 µg/mL.

CONCLUSION

The ability of NFA-MTX to dissociate under the influence of an applied magnetic field provides a new strategy to induce cancer cell death via hyperthermia. Applications in drug delivery, drug development, and cancer research are expected.

Targeted delivery of doxorubicin by CSA-binding nanoparticles for choriocarcinoma treatment

Gestational trophoblastic neoplasia (GTN) can result from the over-proliferation of trophoblasts. Treatment of choriocarcinoma, the most aggressive GTN, currently requires high doses of systemic chemotherapeutic agents, which result in indiscriminate drug distribution and severe toxicity. To overcome these disadvantages and enhance the chemotherapeutic efficacy, chondroitin sulfate A (CSA)-binding nanoparticles were developed for the targeted delivery of doxorubicin (DOX) to choriocarcinoma cells using a synthetic CSA-binding peptide (CSA-BP), derived from malarial protein, which specifically binds to the CSA exclusively expressed in the placental trophoblast. CSA-BP-conjugated nanoparticles rapidly bonded to choriocarcinoma (JEG3) cells and were efficiently internalized into the lysosomes. Moreover, CSA-BP modification significantly increased the anti-cancer activity of the DOX-loaded nanoparticles in vitro. Intravenous injections of CSA-BP-conjugated nanoparticles loaded with indocyanine green (CSA-INPs) were rapidly localized to the tumor. The CSA-targeted nanoparticles loaded with DOX (CSA-DNPs) strongly inhibited primary tumor growth and, more importantly, significantly suppressed metastasis in vivo. Collectively, our results highlight the potential of the CSA-BP-decorated nanoparticles as an alternative targeted delivery system of chemotherapeutic agents for treating choriocarcinoma and for developing new GTN therapies based on drug targeting.

The Cytotoxic Effects of Betulin-Conjugated Gold Nanoparticles as Stable Formulations in Normal and Melanoma Cells

Gold nanoparticles are currently investigated as theranostics tools in cancer therapy due to their proper biocompatibility and increased efficacy related to the ease to customize the surface properties and to conjugate other molecules. Betulin, [lup-20(29)-ene-3β, 28-diol], is a pentacyclic triterpene that has raised scientific interest due to its antiproliferative effect on several cancer types. Herein we described the synthesis of surface modified betulin-conjugated gold nanoparticles using a slightly modified Turkevich method. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) imaging, dynamic light scattering (DLS), scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX) were used for the characterization of obtained gold nanoparticles. Cytotoxic activity and apoptosis assessment were carried out using the MTT and Annexin V/PI apoptosis assays. The in vitro results showed that betulin coated gold nanoparticles presented a dose-dependent cytotoxic effect and induced apoptosis in all tested cell lines.

Biocompatible properties of nano-drug carriers using TiO2-Au embedded on multiwall carbon nanotubes for targeted drug delivery

Nanomaterial-based drug carriers have become a hot spot of research at the interface of nanotechnology and biomedicine because they allow efficient loading, targeted delivery, controlled release of drugs, and therefore are promising for biomedical applications. The current study made an attempt to decorate the multiwalled carbon nanotubes (MWCNT) with titanium dioxide‑gold nanoparticles in order to enhance the biocompatibility for doxorubicin (DOX) delivery. The successful synthesis of nano drug carrier (NDC) was confirmed by XRD, XPS and UV-Visible spectroscopy. FESEM and TEM revealed that the morphology of NDC can be controlled by manipulating the reaction duration, MWCNT concentration and TiO₂-Au source concentration. Results showed that TiO₂ and Au nanoparticles were well coated on MWCNT. NDC had finely tuned biocompatible properties, as elucidated by hemolytic and antimicrobial assays. NDC also showed a high antioxidant potential, 80.7% expressed as ascorbic acid equivalents. Commercial DOX drug was utilized to treat A549 and MCF7 cancer cell lines showing improved efficiency by formulating it with NDC, which selectively delivered at the pH 5.5 with drug loading capacity of 0.45 mg/mL. The drug releasing capacity achieved by NDC was 90.66% for 10 h, a performance that far encompasses a wide number of current literature reports.

A Dual Bioconjugated Virus-Like Nanoparticle as a Drug Delivery System and Comparison with a pH-Responsive Delivery System

Modifications of virus-like nanoparticles (VLNPs) using chemical conjugation techniques have brought the field of virology closer to nanotechnology. The huge surface area to volume ratio of VLNPs permits multiple copies of a targeting ligand and drugs to be attached per nanoparticle. By exploring the chemistry of truncated hepatitis B core antigen (tHBcAg) VLNPs, doxorubicin (DOX) was coupled covalently to the external surface of these nanoparticles via carboxylate groups. About 1600 DOX molecules were conjugated on each tHBcAg VLNP. Then, folic acid (FA) was conjugated to lysine residues of tHBcAg VLNPs to target the nanoparticles to cancer cells over-expressing folic acid receptor (FR). The result demonstrated that the dual bioconjugated tHBcAg VLNPs increased the accumulation and uptake of DOX in the human cervical and colorectal cancer cell lines compared with free DOX, resulting in enhanced cytotoxicity of DOX towards these cells. The fabrication of these dual bioconjugated nanoparticles is simple, and drugs can be easily conjugated with a high coupling efficacy to the VLNPs without any limitation with respect to the cargo’s size or charge, as compared with the pH-responsive system based on tHBcAg VLNPs. These dual bioconjugated nanoparticles also have the potential to be modified for other combinatorial drug deliveries.

Effects of major parameters of nanoparticles on their physical and chemical properties and recent application of nanodrug delivery system in targeted chemotherapy

Chemotherapy is still one of the main cancer therapy treatments, but the curative effect of chemotherapy is relatively low, as such the development of a new cancer treatment is highly desirable. The gradual maturation of nanotechnology provides an innovative perspective not only for cancer therapy but also for many other applications. There are a diverse variety of nanoparticles available, and choosing the appropriate carriers according to the demand is the key issue. The performance of nanoparticles is affected by many parameters, mainly size, shape, surface charge, and toxicity. Using nanoparticles as the carriers to realize passive targeting and active targeting can improve the efficacy of chemotherapy drugs significantly, reduce the mortality rate of cancer patients, and improve the quality of life of patients. In recent years, there has been extensive research on nanocarriers. In this review, the effects of several major parameters of nanoparticles on their physical and chemical properties are reviewed, and then the recent progress in the application of several commonly used nanoparticles is presented.