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Akbar MA, Sharif O, Selvaganapathy PR, Kruse P. Identification and Quantification of Aqueous Disinfectants Using an Array of Carbon Nanotube-Based Chemiresistors. ACS APPLIED ENGINEERING MATERIALS 2023; 1:3040-3052. [PMID: 38031538 PMCID: PMC10683762 DOI: 10.1021/acsaenm.3c00505] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2023] [Revised: 10/08/2023] [Accepted: 10/17/2023] [Indexed: 12/01/2023]
Abstract
Disinfection of water is essential to prevent the growth of pathogens, but at high levels, it can cause harm to human health. Therefore, accurate monitoring of disinfectant concentrations in water is essential to ensure safe drinking water. The use of multiple disinfectants at different stages in water treatment plants makes it necessary to also identify the type and concentrations of all of the disinfectant species present. Here, we demonstrate an effective approach to identify and quantify multiple disinfectants (using the example of free chlorine and potassium permanganate) in water using single-walled carbon nanotube (SWCNT)-based reagent-free chemiresistive sensing arrays. Facile fabrication of chemiresistive devices makes them a popular choice for the implementation of sensor arrays. Our sensing array consists of functionalized and unfunctionalized (blank) SWCNT sensors to distinguish the disinfectants. The distinct responses from the different sensors at varying concentrations and pH can be fitted to the mathematical model of a Langmuir adsorption isotherm separately for each sensor. Blank and functionalized sensors respond through different mechanisms that result in varying responses that are concentration- and pH-dependent. Chemometric techniques such as principal component analysis (PCA) and partial least-squares-discriminant analysis (PLS-DA) were used to analyze the sensor data. PCA showed an excellent separation of the analytes over five different pHs (5.5, 6.5, 7.5, 8.5, and 9.5). PLS-DA provided excellent separability as well as good predictability with a Q2 of 94.26% and an R2 of 95.67% for the five pH regions of the two analytes. This proof-of-concept solid-state chemiresistive sensing array can be developed for specific disinfectants that are commonly used in water treatment plants and can be deployed in water distribution and monitoring facilities. We have demonstrated the applicability of chemiresistive devices in a sensor array format for the first time for aqueous disinfectant monitoring.
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Affiliation(s)
- Md Ali Akbar
- Department
of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, McMaster
University, Hamilton ON L8S 4M1, Canada
| | - Omar Sharif
- Department
of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, McMaster
University, Hamilton ON L8S 4M1, Canada
| | - P. Ravi Selvaganapathy
- Department
of Mechanical Engineering, McMaster University, Hamilton ON L8S 4K1, Canada
- School
of Biomedical Engineering, McMaster University, Hamilton ON L8S 4K1, Canada
| | - Peter Kruse
- Department
of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, McMaster
University, Hamilton ON L8S 4M1, Canada
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Darestani-Farahani M, Ma F, Patel V, Selvaganapathy PR, Kruse P. An ion-selective chemiresistive platform as demonstrated for the detection of nitrogen species in water. Analyst 2023; 148:5731-5744. [PMID: 37840463 DOI: 10.1039/d3an01267k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/17/2023]
Abstract
The use of ion-selective electrodes (ISE) is a well-established technique for the detection of ions in aqueous solutions but requires the use of a reference electrode. Here, we introduce a platform of ion-selective chemiresistors for the detection of nitrogen species in water as an alternative method without the need for reference electrodes. Chemiresistors have a sensitive surface that is prone to damage during operation in aqueous solutions. By applying a layer of ion-selective membrane to the surface of the chemiresistive device, the surface becomes protected and highly selective. We demonstrate both anion-selective (NO3-, NO2-) and cation-selective (NH4+) membranes. The nitrate sensors are able to measure nitrate ions in a range of 2.2-220 ppm with a detection limit of 0.3 ppm. The nitrite sensors respond between 67 ppb and 67 ppm of nitrite ions (64 ppb detection limit). The ammonium sensors can measure ammonium concentrations in a wide range from 10 ppb to 100 ppm (0.5 ppb detection limit). The fast responses to nitrate and nitrite are due to a mechanism involving electrostatic gating repulsion between negative charge carriers of the film and anions while ammonium detection arises from two mechanisms based on electrostatic gating repulsion and adsorption of ammonium ions at the surface of the p-doped chemiresistive film. The adsorption phenomenon slows down the recovery time of the ammonium sensor. This sensor design is a new platform to continuously monitor ions in industrial, domestic, and environmental water resources by robust chemiresistive devices.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maryam Darestani-Farahani
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, McMaster University, 1280 Main Street West, Hamilton, Ontario L8S 4M1, Canada
| | - Fanqing Ma
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, McMaster University, 1280 Main Street West, Hamilton, Ontario L8S 4M1, Canada
| | - Vinay Patel
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, McMaster University, 1280 Main Street West, Hamilton, Ontario L8S 4L7, Canada.
| | | | - Peter Kruse
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, McMaster University, 1280 Main Street West, Hamilton, Ontario L8S 4M1, Canada
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Yin J, Zhang J, Feng L, Guan Y, Gao W, Jin Q. Free chlorine ultra-sensitive detection in tap water via an enrichment-sensing process by an interdigitated microelectrode sensor. Electrochim Acta 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.electacta.2022.140428] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
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4
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Water Quality Carbon Nanotube-Based Sensors Technological Barriers and Late Research Trends: A Bibliometric Analysis. CHEMOSENSORS 2022. [DOI: 10.3390/chemosensors10050161] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Water is the key element that defines and individualizes our planet. Relative to body weight, water represents 70% or more for the majority of all species on Earth. Taking care of water as a whole is equivalent with taking care of the entire biodiversity or the whole of humanity itself. Water quality is becoming an increasingly important component of terrestrial life, hence intensive work is being conducted to develop sensors for detecting contaminants and assessing water quality and characteristics. Our bibliometric analysis is focused on water quality sensors based on carbon nanotubes and highlights the most important objectives and achievements of researchers in recent years. Due to important measurement characteristics such as sensitivity and selectivity, or low detection limit and linearity, up to the ability to measure water properties, including detection of heavy metal content or the presence of persistent organic compounds, carbon nanotube (CNT) sensors, taking advantage of available nanotechnologies, are becoming increasingly attractive. The conducted bibliometric analysis creates a visual, more efficient keystones mapping. CNT sensors can be integrated into an inexpensive real-time monitoring data acquisition system as an alternative for classical expensive and time-consuming offline water quality monitoring. The conducted bibliometric analysis reveals all connections and maps all the results in this water quality CNT sensors research field and gives a perspective on the approached methods on this specific type of sensor. Finally, challenges related to integration of other trends that have been used and proven to be valuable in the field of other sensor types and capable to contribute to the development (and outlook) for future new configurations that will undoubtedly emerge are presented.
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Zubiarrain-Laserna A, Angizi S, Akbar MA, Divigalpitiya R, Selvaganapathy PR, Kruse P. Detection of free chlorine in water using graphene-like carbon based chemiresistive sensors. RSC Adv 2022; 12:2485-2496. [PMID: 35425275 PMCID: PMC8979178 DOI: 10.1039/d1ra08264g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2021] [Accepted: 01/12/2022] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Free chlorine is the most commonly used water disinfectant. Measuring its concentration during and after water treatment is crucial to ensure its effectiveness. However, many of the existing methods do not allow for continuous on-line monitoring. Here we demonstrate a solid state chemiresistive sensor using graphene-like carbon (GLC) that overcomes that issue. GLC films that were either bare or non-covalently functionalized with the redox-active phenyl-capped aniline tetramer (PCAT) were successfully employed to quantify aqueous free chlorine, although functionalized devices showed better performance. The response of the sensors to increasing concentrations of free chlorine followed a Langmuir adsorption isotherm in the two tested ranges: 0.01–0.2 ppm and 0.2–1.4 ppm. The limit of detection was estimated to be 1 ppb, permitting the detection of breaches in chlorine filters. The devices respond to decreasing levels of free chlorine without the need for a reset, allowing for the continuous monitoring of fluctuations in the concentration. The maximum sensor response and saturation concentration were found to depend on the thickness of the GLC film. Hence, the sensitivity and dynamic range of the sensors can be tailored to different applications by adjusting the thickness of the films. Tap water samples from a residential area were tested using these sensors, which showed good agreement with standard colorimetric measurement methods. The devices did not suffer from interferences in the presence of ions commonly found in drinking water. Overall, these sensors are a cost-effective option for the continuous automated monitoring of free chlorine in drinking water. Chemiresistive sensors based on graphene-like carbon films are very stable and sensitive. They can be used for continuous online monitoring of free chlorine.![]()
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana Zubiarrain-Laserna
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, McMaster University 1280 Main Street West Hamilton Ontario L8S 4M1 Canada
| | - Shayan Angizi
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, McMaster University 1280 Main Street West Hamilton Ontario L8S 4M1 Canada
| | - Md Ali Akbar
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, McMaster University 1280 Main Street West Hamilton Ontario L8S 4M1 Canada
| | | | | | - Peter Kruse
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, McMaster University 1280 Main Street West Hamilton Ontario L8S 4M1 Canada
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Demonstration of Tryptophan-Like Fluorescence Sensor Concepts for Fecal Exposure Detection in Drinking Water in Remote and Resource Constrained Settings. SUSTAINABILITY 2020. [DOI: 10.3390/su12093768] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Low-cost, field-deployable, near-time methods for assessing water quality are not available when and where waterborne infection risks are greatest. We describe the development and testing of a novel device for the measurement of tryptophan-like fluorescence (TLF), making use of recent advances in deep-ultraviolet light emitting diodes (UV-LEDs) and sensitive semiconductor photodiodes and photomultipliers. TLF is an emerging indicator of water quality that is associated with members of the coliform group of bacteria and therefore potential fecal contamination. Following the demonstration of close correlation between TLF and E. coli in model waters and proof of principle with sensitivity of 4 CFU/mL for E. coli, we further developed a two-LED flow-through configuration capable of detecting TLF levels corresponding to “high risk” fecal contamination levels (>10 CFU/100 mL). Findings to date suggest that this device represents a scalable solution for remote monitoring of drinking water supplies to identify high-risk drinking water in near-time. Such information can be immediately actionable to reduce risks.
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Kodera F, Saito R, Ishikawa H, Miyakoshi A, Umeda M. Electrochemical Detection of Free Chlorine Using Ni Metal Nanoparticles Combined with Multilayered Graphene Nanoshells. ELECTROANAL 2019. [DOI: 10.1002/elan.201800326] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Fumihiro Kodera
- National Institute of TechnologyAsahikawa College 2-2-1-6 Shunkodai, Asahikawa Hokkaido 071-8142 Japan
| | - Ryou Saito
- National Institute of TechnologyAsahikawa College 2-2-1-6 Shunkodai, Asahikawa Hokkaido 071-8142 Japan
- Graduate School of Environmental ScienceHokkaido University, N10 W5, Kita, Sapporo Hokkaido 060-0810 Japan
| | - Hiroya Ishikawa
- National Institute of TechnologyAsahikawa College 2-2-1-6 Shunkodai, Asahikawa Hokkaido 071-8142 Japan
- School of Engineering ScienceOsaka University 1-3 Machikaneyama, Toyonaka Osaka 560-8531 Japan
| | - Akihiko Miyakoshi
- National Institute of TechnologyAsahikawa College 2-2-1-6 Shunkodai, Asahikawa Hokkaido 071-8142 Japan
| | - Minoru Umeda
- Department of Materials Science and TechnologyFaculty of EngineeringNagaoka University of Technology 1603-1 Kamitomioka, Nagaoka Niigata 940-2188 Japan
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Hull KL, Cairns AJ, Haq M. Bromate Oxidation of Ammonium Salts: In Situ Acid Formation for Reservoir Stimulation. Inorg Chem 2019; 58:3007-3014. [PMID: 30777427 DOI: 10.1021/acs.inorgchem.8b02891] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
A redox chemistry approach has been employed to synthesize an assortment of acids in the subterranean environment for the purpose of enhancing productivity from hydrocarbon-bearing rock formations. Experimental studies revealed that bromate selectively oxidizes a series of ammonium salts NH4X where X = F-, Cl-, Br-, SO42-, and CF3CO2- to produce 5-17 wt % HX. Importantly, the in situ method allows strategic placement of the acid in the zone of interest where the fluid is heated, and the reaction is triggered. Ammonium counteranions are shown to influence the kinetics of the bromate-ammonium reaction, and the conditions are tailored to promote oxidation of ammonium at reservoir temperatures. The reaction is observed to be acid-catalyzed, where the formation of bromous acid (HBrO2) is involved in the rate-limiting step. As a result, an induction period that scales with the p Ka of the acid being formed is followed by rapid formation of the reaction products.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katherine L Hull
- Aramco Services Company: Aramco Research Center - Houston, 16300 Park Row , Houston , Texas 77084 , United States
| | - Amy J Cairns
- Aramco Services Company: Aramco Research Center - Houston, 16300 Park Row , Houston , Texas 77084 , United States
| | - Marium Haq
- Aramco Services Company: Aramco Research Center - Houston, 16300 Park Row , Houston , Texas 77084 , United States
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Shang J, Yu L, Sun Y, Chen X, Kang Q, Shen D. On site determination of free chlorine in water samples by a smartphone-based colorimetric device with improved sensitivity and reliability. NEW J CHEM 2019. [DOI: 10.1039/c9nj03954f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Absorbance in a long-path portable colorimetric device was measured by a ratiometric fluorescent strategy in a smartphone platform.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jian Shang
- College of Chemistry
- Chemical Engineering and Materials Science
- Collaborative Innovation Center of Functionalized Probes for Chemical Imaging in Universities of Shandong
- Shandong Normal University
- Jinan 250014
| | - Lei Yu
- College of Chemistry
- Chemical Engineering and Materials Science
- Collaborative Innovation Center of Functionalized Probes for Chemical Imaging in Universities of Shandong
- Shandong Normal University
- Jinan 250014
| | - Yan Sun
- College of Chemistry
- Chemical Engineering and Materials Science
- Collaborative Innovation Center of Functionalized Probes for Chemical Imaging in Universities of Shandong
- Shandong Normal University
- Jinan 250014
| | - Xiaolan Chen
- College of Chemistry
- Chemical Engineering and Materials Science
- Collaborative Innovation Center of Functionalized Probes for Chemical Imaging in Universities of Shandong
- Shandong Normal University
- Jinan 250014
| | - Qi Kang
- College of Chemistry
- Chemical Engineering and Materials Science
- Collaborative Innovation Center of Functionalized Probes for Chemical Imaging in Universities of Shandong
- Shandong Normal University
- Jinan 250014
| | - Dazhong Shen
- College of Chemistry
- Chemical Engineering and Materials Science
- Collaborative Innovation Center of Functionalized Probes for Chemical Imaging in Universities of Shandong
- Shandong Normal University
- Jinan 250014
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Aryasomayajula A, Wojnas C, Divigalpitiya R, Selvaganapathy PR, Kruse P. Robust Chemiresistive Sensor for Continuous Monitoring of Free Chlorine Using Graphene-like Carbon. ACS Sens 2018; 3:451-457. [PMID: 29369621 DOI: 10.1021/acssensors.7b00884] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Free chlorine is widely used in industry as a bleaching and oxidizing agent. Its concentration is tightly monitored to avoid environmental contamination and deleterious human health effects. Here, we demonstrate a solid state chemiresistive sensor using graphene like carbon (GLC) to detect free chlorine in water. A 15-20 nm thick GLC layer on a PET substrate was modified with a redox-active aniline oligomer (phenyl-capped aniline tetramer, PCAT) to increase sensitivity, improve selectivity, and impart fouling resistance. Both the bare GLC sensor and the PCAT-modified GLC sensor can detect free chlorine continuously and, unlike previous chemiresistive sensors, do not require a reset. The PCAT-modified sensor showed a linear response with a slope of 13.89 (mg/L)-1 to free chlorine concentrations between 0.2 and 0.8 mg/L which is relevant for free chlorine monitoring for drinking water and wastewater applications. The PCAT-modified GLC sensors were found to be selective and showed less than 0.5% change in current in response to species such as nitrates, phosphates and sulfates in water. They also were resistant to fouling from organic material and showed only a 2% loss in signal. Tap water samples from residential area were tested using this sensor which showed good agreement with standard colorimetric measurement methods. The GLC and PCAT-GLC sensors show high sensitivity and excellent selectivity to free chlorine and can be used for continuous automated monitoring of free chlorine.
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Abstract
Abstract
The focus of this review is an introduction to chemiresistive chemical sensors. The general concept of chemical sensors is briefly introduced, followed by different architectures of chemiresistive sensors and relevant materials. For several of the most common systems, the fabrication of the active materials used in such sensors and their properties are discussed. Furthermore, the sensing mechanism, advantages, and limitations of each group of chemiresistive sensors are briefly elaborated. Compared to electrochemical sensors, chemiresistive sensors have the key advantage of a simpler geometry, eliminating the need for a reference electrode. The performance of bulk chemiresistors can be improved upon by using freestanding ultra-thin films (nanomaterials) or field effect geometries. Both of those concepts have also been combined in a gateless geometry, where charge transport though a percolation network of nanomaterials is modulated via adsorbate doping.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amirmasoud Mohtasebi
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology , McMaster University , 1280 Main Street West , Hamilton , Ontario, L8S 4M1 , Canada
| | - Peter Kruse
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology , McMaster University , 1280 Main Street West , Hamilton , Ontario, L8S 4M1 , Canada
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