1
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Liang ZX, Chen HD, Hu CK, Fang YX, Fang YP, Lu CX, Wang J, Mi L, Chen XC. Microporous Polyelectrolyte Complexes by Hydroplastic Foaming. LANGMUIR : THE ACS JOURNAL OF SURFACES AND COLLOIDS 2024; 40:1892-1901. [PMID: 38192235 DOI: 10.1021/acs.langmuir.3c03285] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2024]
Abstract
Polyelectrolyte complexes (PECs) have emerged as an attractive category of materials for their water processability and some similarities to natural biopolymers. Herein, we employ the intrinsic hydroplasticity of PEC materials to enable the generation of porous structures with the aid of gas foaming. Such foamable materials are fabricated by simply mixing polycation, polyanion, and a UV-initiated chemical foaming agent in an aqueous solution, followed by molding into thin films. The gas foaming of the PEC films can be achieved upon exposure to UV illumination under water, where the films are plasticized and the gaseous products from the photolysis of foaming agents afford the formation, expanding, and merging of numerous bubbles. The porosity and morphology of the resulting porous films can be customized by tuning film composition, foaming conditions, and especially the degree of plasticizing effect, illustrating the high flexibility of this hydroplastic foaming method. Due to the rapid initiation of gas foaming, the present method enables the formation of porous structures via an instant one-step process, much more efficient than those existing strategies for porous PEC materials. More importantly, such a pore-forming mechanism might be extended to other hydroplastic materials (e.g., biopolymers) and help to yield hydroplasticity-based processing strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zi-Xuan Liang
- School of Materials Science & Engineering, Zhejiang Sci-Tech University, Hangzhou 310018, P. R. China
| | - Hao-Dong Chen
- School of Materials Science & Engineering, Zhejiang Sci-Tech University, Hangzhou 310018, P. R. China
| | - Chun-Kui Hu
- School of Materials Science & Engineering, Zhejiang Sci-Tech University, Hangzhou 310018, P. R. China
| | - Yi-Xuan Fang
- School of Materials Science & Engineering, Zhejiang Sci-Tech University, Hangzhou 310018, P. R. China
| | - You-Peng Fang
- School of Materials Science & Engineering, Zhejiang Sci-Tech University, Hangzhou 310018, P. R. China
| | - Chun-Xin Lu
- College of Biological, Chemical Sciences and Engineering, Jiaxing University, Jiaxing 314001, P. R. China
| | - Jing Wang
- Department of Polymer Science and Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310027, P. R. China
| | - Li Mi
- College of Biotechnology and Pharmaceutical Engineering, Nanjing Tech University, Nanjing 211816, P. R. China
| | - Xia-Chao Chen
- School of Materials Science & Engineering, Zhejiang Sci-Tech University, Hangzhou 310018, P. R. China
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2
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Digby ZA, Chen Y, Akkaoui K, Schlenoff JB. Bulk Biopolyelectrolyte Complexes from Homopolypeptides: Solid "Salt Bridges". Biomacromolecules 2023; 24:1453-1462. [PMID: 36753621 DOI: 10.1021/acs.biomac.2c01456] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/10/2023]
Abstract
Salt bridges, pairings between oppositely charged amino acids, are dispersed throughout proteins to assist folding and interactions. Biopolyelectrolyte complexes (BioPECs) were made between the homopolypeptides poly-l-arginine (PLR) and poly-l-lysine (PLK) with sodium triphosphate (STPP), as well as from polypeptide-only combinations. Viscoelastic measurements on these high salt bridge density materials showed many were solid, even glassy, in nature. Although the polypeptide-phosphate complexes had similar moduli at room temperature, the PLR-STPP complex displayed an unusual melting event above 70 °C not seen in PLK-STPP. This event was supported with differential scanning calorimetry. Infrared spectroscopy showed the PLK-STPP system contained β-sheets, while PLR-STPP did not. Stoichiometric, macroscopic BioPECs of PLR and PLK with poly-l-aspartic acid (PLD) and poly-l-glutamic acid (PLE) were made. PLR-PLD was found to undergo a melting event similar to that in PLR-STPP. ATR-FTIR studies showed that BioPECs made with PLD do not contain β-sheets, while those composed of PLE do. This work illustrates an expanded palette of unique properties from these biomaterials, such as strong viscoelastic differences between PECs containing PLE and PLD, even though they differ by only one carbon on the side chain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zachary A Digby
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry The Florida State University, Tallahassee, Florida 32306-4390, United States
| | - Yuhui Chen
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry The Florida State University, Tallahassee, Florida 32306-4390, United States
| | - Khalil Akkaoui
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry The Florida State University, Tallahassee, Florida 32306-4390, United States
| | - Joseph B Schlenoff
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry The Florida State University, Tallahassee, Florida 32306-4390, United States
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3
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Vahdati M, Hourdet D, Creton C. Soft Underwater Adhesives based on Weak Molecular Interactions. Prog Polym Sci 2023. [DOI: 10.1016/j.progpolymsci.2023.101649] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
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4
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Haque Mizan MM, Rastgar M, Aktij SA, Asad A, Karami P, Rahimpour A, Sadrzadeh M. Organic solvent-free polyelectrolyte complex membrane preparation: Effect of monomer mixing ratio and casting solution temperature. J Memb Sci 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.memsci.2022.121197] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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5
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Wang H, Zhou X, Wang J, Zhang X, Zhu M, Wang H. Fabrication of channeled scaffolds through polyelectrolyte complex (PEC) printed sacrificial templates for tissue formation. Bioact Mater 2022; 17:261-275. [PMID: 35386455 PMCID: PMC8965085 DOI: 10.1016/j.bioactmat.2022.01.030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2021] [Revised: 01/15/2022] [Accepted: 01/18/2022] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
One of the pivotal factors that limit the clinical translation of tissue engineering is the inability to create large volume and complex three-dimensional (3D) tissues, mainly due to the lack of long-range mass transport with many current scaffolds. Here we present a simple yet robust sacrificial strategy to create hierarchical and perfusable microchannel networks within versatile scaffolds via the combination of embedded 3D printing (EB3DP), tunable polyelectrolyte complexes (PEC), and casting methods. The sacrificial templates of PEC filaments (diameter from 120 to 500 μm) with arbitrary 3D configurations were fabricated by EB3DP and then incorporated into various castable matrices (e.g., hydrogels, organic solutions, meltable polymers, etc.). Rapid dissolution of PEC templates within a 2.00 M potassium bromide aqueous solution led to the high fidelity formation of interconnected channels for free mass exchange. The efficacy of such channeled scaffolds for in vitro tissue formation was demonstrated with mouse fibroblasts, showing continuous cell proliferation and ECM deposition. Subcutaneous implantation of channeled silk fibroin (SF) scaffolds with a porosity of 76% could lead to tissue ingrowth as high as 53% in contrast to 5% for those non-channeled controls after 4 weeks. Both histological and immunofluorescence analyses demonstrated that such channeled scaffolds promoted cellularization, vascularization, and host integration along with immunoregulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haoyu Wang
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Stevens Institute of Technology, Hoboken, NJ, 07030, United States
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Stevens Institute of Technology, Hoboken, NJ, 07030, United States
| | - Xiaqing Zhou
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Stevens Institute of Technology, Hoboken, NJ, 07030, United States
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Stevens Institute of Technology, Hoboken, NJ, 07030, United States
| | - Juan Wang
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Stevens Institute of Technology, Hoboken, NJ, 07030, United States
| | - Xinping Zhang
- School of Medicine and Dentistry, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, NY, 14642, United States
| | - Meifeng Zhu
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Stevens Institute of Technology, Hoboken, NJ, 07030, United States
- College of Life Science, Key Laboratory of Bioactive Materials, State Key Laboratory of Medicinal Chemical Biology, Xu Rongxiang Regeneration Life Science Center, Nankai University, 300071, Tianjin, PR China
| | - Hongjun Wang
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Stevens Institute of Technology, Hoboken, NJ, 07030, United States
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Stevens Institute of Technology, Hoboken, NJ, 07030, United States
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6
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Abdellaoui M, Cherif E. Electrostatic polyelectrolyte complexes: thermodynamic assembly properties. JOURNAL OF MACROMOLECULAR SCIENCE PART A-PURE AND APPLIED CHEMISTRY 2022. [DOI: 10.1080/10601325.2022.2098141] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Mouna Abdellaoui
- Faculté des Sciences de Tunis, LR99ES16 Physique de la Matière Molle et Modélisation Electromagnétique, Université de Tunis El Manar, Tunis, Tunisie
| | - Emna Cherif
- Faculté des Sciences de Tunis, LR99ES16 Physique de la Matière Molle et Modélisation Electromagnétique, Université de Tunis El Manar, Tunis, Tunisie
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7
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Microtube Array Membrane Encapsulated Cell Therapy: A Novel Platform Technology Solution for Treatment of Alzheimer's Disease. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms23126855. [PMID: 35743295 PMCID: PMC9224941 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23126855] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2022] [Revised: 06/14/2022] [Accepted: 06/14/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer’s disease is the most frequent form of dementia in aging population and is presently the world’s sixth largest cause of mortality. With the advancement of therapies, several solutions have been developed such as passive immunotherapy against these misfolded proteins, thereby resulting in the clearance. Within this segment, encapsulated cell therapy (ECT) solutions that utilize antibody releasing cells have been proposed with a multitude of techniques under development. Hence, in this study, we utilized our novel and patented Microtube Array Membranes (MTAMs) as an encapsulating platform system with anti-pTau antibody-secreting hybridoma cells to study the impact of it on Alzheimer’s disease. In vivo results revealed that in the water maze, the mice implanted with hybridoma cell MTAMs intracranially (IN) and subcutaneously (SC) showed improvement in the time spent the goal quadrant and escape latency. In passive avoidance, hybridoma cell loaded MTAMs (IN and SC) performed significantly well in step-through latency. At the end of treatment, animals with hybridoma cell loaded MTAMs had lower phosphorylated tau (pTau) expression than empty MTAMs had. Combining both experimental results unveiled that the clearance of phosphorylated tau might rescue the cognitive impairment associated with AD.
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8
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Tang S, Gong J, Shi Y, Wen S, Zhao Q. Spontaneous water-on-water spreading of polyelectrolyte membranes inspired by skin formation. Nat Commun 2022; 13:3227. [PMID: 35680913 PMCID: PMC9184545 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-022-30973-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2022] [Accepted: 05/26/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Stable interfaces between immiscible solvents are crucial for chemical synthesis and assembly, but interfaces between miscible solvents have been less explored. Here the authors report the spontaneous water-on-water spreading and self-assembly of polyelectrolyte membranes. An aqueous mixture solution containing poly(ethyleneimine) and poly(sodium 4-styrenesulfonate) spreads efficiently on acidic water, leading to the formation of hierarchically porous membranes. The reduced surface tension of the polyelectrolyte mixture solution drives the surface spreading, while the interfacial polyelectrolytes complexation triggered by the low pH of water mitigates water-in-water mixing. The synergy of surface tension and pH-dependent complexation represents a generic mechanism governing interfaces between miscible solvents for materials engineering, without the need for surfactants or sophisticated equipment. As a proof-of-concept, porous polyelectrolyte hybrid membranes are prepared by surface spreading, exhibiting exceptional solar thermal evaporation performance (2.8 kg/m2h) under 1-sun irradiation. Stable interfaces between immiscible solvents are crucial for chemical synthesis and assembly, but interfaces between miscible solvents have been less explored. Here the authors report the spontaneous water-on-water spreading and self-assembly of polyelectrolytes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sihan Tang
- Key Laboratory of Material Chemistry for Energy Conversion and Storage (Ministry of Education), School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430074, P. R. China.,State Key Laboratory of Materials Processing and Die & Mould Technology, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Luoyu Road No. 1037, 430074, Wuhan, China
| | - Jiang Gong
- Key Laboratory of Material Chemistry for Energy Conversion and Storage (Ministry of Education), School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430074, P. R. China
| | - Yunsong Shi
- Department of Orthopaedics, Union Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, 430022, Wuhan, China
| | - Shifeng Wen
- State Key Laboratory of Materials Processing and Die & Mould Technology, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Luoyu Road No. 1037, 430074, Wuhan, China
| | - Qiang Zhao
- Key Laboratory of Material Chemistry for Energy Conversion and Storage (Ministry of Education), School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430074, P. R. China.
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9
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van Lente JJ, Baig MI, de Vos WM, Lindhoud S. Biocatalytic membranes through aqueous phase separation. J Colloid Interface Sci 2022; 616:903-910. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jcis.2022.02.094] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2021] [Revised: 01/26/2022] [Accepted: 02/20/2022] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
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10
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Ghasemi M, Larson RG. Future Directions in Physiochemical Modeling of the Thermodynamics of Polyelectrolyte Coacervates (
PECs
). AIChE J 2022. [DOI: 10.1002/aic.17646] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Mohsen Ghasemi
- Department of Chemical Engineering University of Michigan Ann Arbor Michigan USA
| | - Ronald G. Larson
- Department of Chemical Engineering University of Michigan Ann Arbor Michigan USA
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11
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Emonds S, Kamp J, Viermann R, Kalde A, Roth H, Wessling M. Open and dense hollow fiber nanofiltration membranes through a streamlined polyelectrolyte-based spinning process. J Memb Sci 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.memsci.2021.120100] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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12
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Ma Y, Ali S, Prabhu VM. Enhanced Concentration Fluctuations in Model Polyelectrolyte Coacervate Mixtures along a Salt Isopleth Phase Diagram. Macromolecules 2021. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.macromol.1c02001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Yuanchi Ma
- Materials Science and Engineering Division, Material Measurement Laboratory, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, Maryland 20899, United States
| | - Samim Ali
- Materials Science and Engineering Division, Material Measurement Laboratory, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, Maryland 20899, United States
| | - Vivek M. Prabhu
- Materials Science and Engineering Division, Material Measurement Laboratory, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, Maryland 20899, United States
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13
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Influence of divalent ions on composition and viscoelasticity of polyelectrolyte complexes. JOURNAL OF POLYMER SCIENCE 2021. [DOI: 10.1002/pol.20210668] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
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14
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Solvent and pH Stability of Poly(styrene-alt-maleic acid) (PSaMA) Membranes Prepared by Aqueous Phase Separation (APS). MEMBRANES 2021; 11:membranes11110835. [PMID: 34832064 PMCID: PMC8624750 DOI: 10.3390/membranes11110835] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2021] [Revised: 10/25/2021] [Accepted: 10/25/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
In the single-polyelectrolyte aqueous phase separation (APS) approach, membranes are prepared by precipitating a weak polyelectrolyte from a concentrated aqueous solution using a pH switch. This has proven to be a versatile and more sustainable method compared to conventional approaches as it significantly reduces the use of organic solvents. Poly(styrene-alt-maleic acid) (PSaMA) is a polymer that has been extensively investigated for APS and has been the basis for both open and dense membranes with good performances. These membranes are chemically crosslinked and, in this work, we further investigated ultrafiltration (UF) and nanofiltration (NF) membranes prepared with PSaMA for their stability in various organic solvents and under different pH conditions. It was shown that these membranes had stable performances in both isopropanol (IPA) and toluene, and a slightly reduced performance in N-methyl-2-pyrollidone (NMP). However, PSaMA did not perform well as a selective layer in these solvents, indicating that the real opportunity would be to use the UF-type PSaMA membranes as solvent-stable support membranes. Additionally, the membranes proved to be stable in an acidic-to-neutral pH regime (pH 2–7); and, due to the pH-responsive nature of PSaMA, for the NF membranes, a pH-dependent retention of Mg2+ and SO42− ions was observed and, for the UF membranes, a strong responsive behavior was observed, where the pH can be used to control the membrane permeability. However, long-term exposure to elevated pH conditions (pH 8–10) resulted in severe swelling of the NF membranes, resulting in defect formation, and compaction of the UF membranes. For the UF membranes, this compaction did prove to be reversible for some but not all of the membrane samples measured. These results showed that in aqueous systems, membranes prepared with PSaMA had interesting responsive behaviors but performed best at neutral and acidic pH values. Moreover, the membranes exhibited excellent stability in the organic solvents IPA and toluene
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15
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Durmaz EN, Willott JD, Mizan MMH, de Vos WM. Tuning the charge of polyelectrolyte complex membranes prepared via aqueous phase separation. SOFT MATTER 2021; 17:9420-9427. [PMID: 34609392 PMCID: PMC8549507 DOI: 10.1039/d1sm01199e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2021] [Accepted: 09/29/2021] [Indexed: 05/19/2023]
Abstract
In this work, polyelectrolyte mixing ratio is studied as a tuning parameter to control the charge, and thus the separation properties of polyelectrolyte complex (PEC) membranes prepared via Aqueous Phase Separation (APS). In this approach, various ratios of poly(sodium 4-styrenesulfonate) (PSS) and poly(diallyldimethylammonium chloride) (PDADMAC) are mixed at high salinity and the PEC-based membranes are then precipitated using low salinity coagulation baths. The monomeric ratio of PSS to PDADMAC is varied from 1.0 : 0.8 through to 1.0 : 1.2. Obtained membranes have an asymmetric structure and function as nanofiltration membranes with on average 1 L m-2 h-1 bar-1 pure water permeance and <400 Da molecular weight cut-off (MWCO); except for the 1.0 : 1.2 membrane, where the water permeance was much higher (>20 L m-2 h-1 bar-1) with a similarly low MWCO. For the first time, we report the formation of both negatively and positively charged PSS-PDADMAC based APS membranes, as determined by both streaming potential and salt retention measurements. We hypothesize that the salt type used in the APS process plays a key role in the observed change in membrane charge. The point where the membrane charge transitions from negative to positive is found to be between the 1.0 : 0.9 and 1.0 : 1.0 PSS : PDADMAC ratios. The polyelectrolyte ratio not only affects membrane charge, but also their mechanical properties. The 1.0 : 0.9 and 1.0 : 1.0 membranes perform the best amongst the membranes prepared in this study since they have high salt retentions (up to 90% Na2SO4 and 75% MgCl2, respectively) and better mechanical stability. The higher permeance of the more charged, and thus more swollen, 1.0 : 0.8 and 1.0 : 1.2 membranes provide a relevant new direction for the development of APS-based PEC membranes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elif Nur Durmaz
- Membrane Science and Technology, MESA+ Institute for Nanotechnology, University of Twente, Faculty of Science and Technology, P.O. Box 217, 7500 AE Enschede, The Netherlands.
| | - Joshua D Willott
- Membrane Science and Technology, MESA+ Institute for Nanotechnology, University of Twente, Faculty of Science and Technology, P.O. Box 217, 7500 AE Enschede, The Netherlands.
| | - Md Mizanul Haque Mizan
- Membrane Science and Technology, MESA+ Institute for Nanotechnology, University of Twente, Faculty of Science and Technology, P.O. Box 217, 7500 AE Enschede, The Netherlands.
| | - Wiebe M de Vos
- Membrane Science and Technology, MESA+ Institute for Nanotechnology, University of Twente, Faculty of Science and Technology, P.O. Box 217, 7500 AE Enschede, The Netherlands.
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16
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Chen Y, Shull KR. Processing Polyelectrolyte Complexes with Deep Eutectic Solvents. ACS Macro Lett 2021; 10:1243-1247. [PMID: 35549044 DOI: 10.1021/acsmacrolett.1c00494] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Polyelectrolyte complexes (PECs) formed from mixtures of polycations and polyanions are useful in a variety of applications and can be processed by the addition of salt. Salt mediates the ionic interactions within the polyelectrolyte complexes, with appropriately chosen salts enabling complete dissolution of solid PEC in aqueous media. Substantial complications arise from the crystallization of the salt during subsequent processing steps. Here we show that appropriately chosen noncrystallizing deep eutectic solvents can be used to process solid PECs. Mixtures of ethylene glycol and guanidine thiocyanate are used for a particularly effective deep eutectic solvent. The phase behaviors of this deep eutectic system and of its mixtures with a model polyelectrolyte complex were quantified.
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Affiliation(s)
- YuLing Chen
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 60208, United States
| | - Kenneth R Shull
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 60208, United States
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17
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Durmaz EN, Sahin S, Virga E, de Beer S, de Smet LCPM, de Vos WM. Polyelectrolytes as Building Blocks for Next-Generation Membranes with Advanced Functionalities. ACS APPLIED POLYMER MATERIALS 2021; 3:4347-4374. [PMID: 34541543 PMCID: PMC8438666 DOI: 10.1021/acsapm.1c00654] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2021] [Accepted: 08/10/2021] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
Abstract
The global society is in a transition, where dealing with climate change and water scarcity are important challenges. More efficient separations of chemical species are essential to reduce energy consumption and to provide more reliable access to clean water. Here, membranes with advanced functionalities that go beyond standard separation properties can play a key role. This includes relevant functionalities, such as stimuli-responsiveness, fouling control, stability, specific selectivity, sustainability, and antimicrobial activity. Polyelectrolytes and their complexes are an especially promising system to provide advanced membrane functionalities. Here, we have reviewed recent work where advanced membrane properties stem directly from the material properties provided by polyelectrolytes. This work highlights the versatility of polyelectrolyte-based membrane modifications, where polyelectrolytes are not only applied as single layers, including brushes, but also as more complex polyelectrolyte multilayers on both porous membrane supports and dense membranes. Moreover, free-standing membranes can also be produced completely from aqueous polyelectrolyte solutions allowing much more sustainable approaches to membrane fabrication. The Review demonstrates the promise that polyelectrolytes and their complexes hold for next-generation membranes with advanced properties, while it also provides a clear outlook on the future of this promising field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elif Nur Durmaz
- Membrane
Science and Technology, MESA+ Institute for Nanotechnology, Faculty
of Science and Technology, University of
Twente, Enschede 7500 AE, The Netherlands
| | - Sevil Sahin
- Laboratory
of Organic Chemistry, Wageningen University, 6708 WE Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Ettore Virga
- Membrane
Science and Technology, MESA+ Institute for Nanotechnology, Faculty
of Science and Technology, University of
Twente, Enschede 7500 AE, The Netherlands
- Wetsus, European
Centre of Excellence for Sustainable Water
Technology, Oostergoweg
9, 8911 MA Leeuwarden, The Netherlands
| | - Sissi de Beer
- Sustainable
Polymer Chemistry Group, Department of Molecules and Materials MESA+
Institute for Nanotechnology, University
of Twente, P.O. Box 217, 7500 AE Enschede, The Netherlands
| | - Louis C. P. M. de Smet
- Laboratory
of Organic Chemistry, Wageningen University, 6708 WE Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Wiebe M. de Vos
- Membrane
Science and Technology, MESA+ Institute for Nanotechnology, Faculty
of Science and Technology, University of
Twente, Enschede 7500 AE, The Netherlands
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18
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Baig M, Willott JD, de Vos WM. Enhancing the Separation Performance of Aqueous Phase Separation-Based Membranes through Polyelectrolyte Multilayer Coatings and Interfacial Polymerization. ACS APPLIED POLYMER MATERIALS 2021; 3:3560-3568. [PMID: 34278307 PMCID: PMC8276274 DOI: 10.1021/acsapm.1c00457] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2021] [Accepted: 06/14/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
The aqueous phase separation (APS) technique allows membrane fabrication without use of unsustainable organic solvents, while at the same time, it provides extensive control over membrane pore size and morphology. Herein, we investigate if polyelectrolyte complexation-induced APS ultrafiltration membranes can be the basis for different types of nanofiltration membranes. We demonstrate that APS membranes can be used as support membranes for functional surface coatings like thin polyelectrolyte multilayer (PEMs) and interfacial polymerization (IP) coatings. Three different PEMs were fabricated on poly(sodium 4-styrene sulfonate) (PSS) poly(allylamine hydrochloride) (PAH) APS ultrafiltration membranes, and only 4.5 bilayers were needed to create nanofiltration membranes with molecular weight cut-off (MWCO) values of 210-390 Da while maintaining a roughly constant water permeability (∼1.7 L·m-2·h-1·bar-1). The PEM-coated membranes showed excellent MgCl2 (∼98%), NaCl (∼70%), and organic micropollutant retention values (>90%). Similarly, fabricating thin polyamide layers on the ultrafiltration PSS-PAH APS membranes by IP resulted in nanofiltration membranes with MWCO values of ∼200 Da. This work shows for the first time that APS membranes can indeed be utilized as excellent support membranes for the application of functional coatings without requiring any form of pretreatment.
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Krishna B A, Lindhoud S, de Vos WM. Hot-pressed polyelectrolyte complexes as novel alkaline stable monovalent-ion selective anion exchange membranes. J Colloid Interface Sci 2021; 593:11-20. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jcis.2021.02.077] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2021] [Revised: 02/12/2021] [Accepted: 02/16/2021] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
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20
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Nielen WM, Willott JD, Galicia JAR, de Vos WM. Effect of Solution Viscosity on the Precipitation of PSaMA in Aqueous Phase Separation-Based Membrane Formation. Polymers (Basel) 2021; 13:polym13111775. [PMID: 34071412 PMCID: PMC8198088 DOI: 10.3390/polym13111775] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2021] [Revised: 05/21/2021] [Accepted: 05/25/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Aqueous phase separation (APS) is a recently developed sustainable alternative to the conventional organic solvent based nonsolvent-induced phase separation (NIPS) method to prepare polymeric membranes. In APS, polyelectrolytes are precipitated from aqueous solutions through pH or salinity switches. Although APS differs from NIPS in the polymer and solvents, they share many tuning parameters. In this work, we investigate the APS-based preparation of membranes from poly(styrene-alt-maleic acid) (PSaMA) with a focus on acid concentration in the coagulation bath, and polymer and additive concentration in the casting solution. Nanofiltration membranes are prepared using significantly lower concentrations of acid: 0.3 M HCl compared to the 2 M of either acetic or phosphoric acid used in previous works. It is shown that higher polymer concentrations can be used to prevent defect formation in the top layer. In addition, acetic acid concentration also strongly affects casting solution viscosity and thus can be used to control membrane structure, where lower acetic acid concentrations can prevent the formation of macrovoids in the support structure. The prepared nanofiltration membranes exhibit a very low molecular weight cutoff (210 ± 40 dalton), making these sustainable membranes very relevant for the removal of contaminants of emerging concern. Understanding how the parameters described here affect membrane preparation and performance is essential to optimizing membranes prepared with APS towards this important application.
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21
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Baig MI, Sari PPI, Li J, Willott JD, de Vos WM. Sustainable Aqueous Phase Separation membranes prepared through mild pH shift induced polyelectrolyte complexation of PSS and PEI. J Memb Sci 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.memsci.2021.119114] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
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22
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuhui Chen
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, The Florida State University, Tallahassee, Florida 32306, United States
| | - Mo Yang
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, The Florida State University, Tallahassee, Florida 32306, United States
| | - Joseph B. Schlenoff
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, The Florida State University, Tallahassee, Florida 32306, United States
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23
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Lim K, Lee YS, Simoska O, Dong F, Sima M, Stewart RJ, Minteer SD. Rapid Entrapment of Phenazine Ethosulfate within a Polyelectrolyte Complex on Electrodes for Efficient NAD + Regeneration in Mediated NAD +-Dependent Bioelectrocatalysis. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2021; 13:10942-10951. [PMID: 33646753 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.0c22302] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Over the past two decades, the designs of redox polymers have become critical to the field of mediated bioelectrocatalysis and are used in commercial glucose biosensors, as well as other bioelectrochemical applications (e.g., energy harvesting). These polymers are specifically used to immobilize redox mediators on electrode surfaces, allowing for self-exchange-based conduction of electrons from enzymes far from the electrode to the electrode surface. However, the synthesis of redox polymers is challenging and results in large batch-to-batch variability. Herein, we report a rapid entrapment of mediators for NAD+-dependent bioelectrocatalysis within reverse ionically condensed polyelectrolytes. A high ionic strength aqueous solution of oppositely charged polyelectrolytes, composed of cationic polyguanidinium (PG) chloride and anionic sodium hexametaphosphate (P6), undergoes phase inversion into a solid microporous polyelectrolyte complex (PEC) when introduced into a low ionic strength aqueous solution. The ionic strength-triggered phase inversion of PGP6 solutions was investigated as a means to entrap mediators on the surface of electrodes for mediated bioelectrocatalysis. Compared to the traditional cross-linked immobilizations using redox polymers, this phase inversion takes place within seconds and requires up to 60 min for complete stabilization. In this work, redox mediator phenazine ethosulfate (PES) was entrapped within PGP6 on electrode surfaces for nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+)-dependent bioelectrocatalysis. In the bulk solution, NAD+-dependent dehydrogenase enzymes catalyze the oxidation of the substrate while reducing NAD to reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NADH). The resulting NADH is reoxidized to NAD+ by the entrapped PES that gets reduced on the electrode, completing the NAD+-regeneration-based bioelectrocatalysis. To show the use of these new materials in an application, biofuel cells were evaluated using four different anodic enzyme systems (alcohol dehydrogenase, lactate hydrogenase, glycerol dehydrogenase, and glucose dehydrogenase).
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Affiliation(s)
- Koun Lim
- Department of Chemistry, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah 84112, United States
| | - Yoo Seok Lee
- Department of Chemistry, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah 84112, United States
| | - Olja Simoska
- Department of Chemistry, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah 84112, United States
| | - Fangyuan Dong
- Department of Chemistry, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah 84112, United States
| | - Monika Sima
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah 84112, United States
| | - Russell J Stewart
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah 84112, United States
| | - Shelley D Minteer
- Department of Chemistry, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah 84112, United States
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24
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On the organic solvent free preparation of ultrafiltration and nanofiltration membranes using polyelectrolyte complexation in an all aqueous phase inversion process. J Memb Sci 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.memsci.2020.118632] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
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25
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Won Y, Sadman K, Stein G, Sabba F, Shull KR, Gray KA. Functionalizing a Polyelectrolyte Complex with Chitosan Derivatives to Tailor Membrane Surface Properties. LANGMUIR : THE ACS JOURNAL OF SURFACES AND COLLOIDS 2020; 36:12784-12794. [PMID: 33095986 DOI: 10.1021/acs.langmuir.0c01032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Polyelectrolyte complex (PEC) materials show promise in the development of tunable membranes for aqueous and organic solvent separations, as well as in the creation of surface layers for fouling control. In this study, we developed a polyelectrolyte complex (PEC) functionalized by negatively charged carboxymethyl chitosan (CMC-) and positively charged quaternized chitosan (QC+) to tailor its surface properties and antibacterial efficacy. CMC- and QC+ were prepared and characterized using FT-IR and 1H NMR, which confirmed the presence of the carboxymethyl group and trimethylammonium group in CMC- and QC+ with 65.6% and 83.9% substitution, respectively. The CMC- functionalized PEC (CMC-/PEC) and QC+ functionalized PEC materials (QC+/PEC) were evaluated for their stability in water, resistance to organic and inorganic adsorption, and antibacterial action against a model microorganism, Pseudomonas putida. The results showed no release of chitosan derivatives after adsorption, and CMC-/PEC and QC+/PEC exhibited charge-based, selective repulsion of model organic and inorganic substances. Moreover, the functionalized PEC surfaces displayed lower bacterial attachment due to their smoother surfaces as compared to the bare ceramic membrane and their antimicrobial properties. Among the PEC samples, CMC-/PEC had the lowest cell attachment, while QC+/PEC showed the highest attachment due to electrostatic attraction. The ceramic and bare PEC surfaces were negligibly bactericidal, while cell viability decreased to 34.4 ± 10.2% and 30.6 ± 8.2% with the CMC-/PEC and QC+/PEC surfaces, respectively. In the filtration experiments, the unmodified PEC and CMC-/PEC showed lower rates of flux decline due to organic fouling than did the bare ceramic or QC+/PEC due to electrostatic repulsion. Furthermore, PECs as protective layers promoted much higher flux recoveries than simply backwashing the uncoated membranes. This surface tunability, then, enhances the potential of PECs either as fouling resistant materials or as a method to create a sacrificial, protective layer on surfaces that once fouled can be dissolved and re-established.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yechan Won
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 60208, United States
| | - Kazi Sadman
- Department of Material Science, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 60208, United States
| | - Gabrielle Stein
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 60208, United States
| | - Fabrizio Sabba
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 60208, United States
| | - Kenneth R Shull
- Department of Material Science, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 60208, United States
| | - Kimberly A Gray
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 60208, United States
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26
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Weak polyanion and strong polycation complex based membranes: Linking aqueous phase separation to traditional membrane fabrication. Eur Polym J 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.eurpolymj.2020.110015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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27
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Delgado DE, King DR, Cui K, Gong JP, Shull KR. High-Fidelity Hydrogel Thin Films Processed from Deep Eutectic Solvents. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2020; 12:43191-43200. [PMID: 32820902 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.0c09618] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Polyampholyte (PA) hydrogels are a fascinating class of soft materials that can exhibit high toughness while retaining self-healing characteristics. This behavior results from the random distribution of oppositely charged monomers along the polymer chains that form transient bonds with a range of bond strengths. PAs can be dissolved in aqueous salt solutions and then recast via immersion precipitation, making them particularly useful as surface coatings in biomedical applications. Moreover, this immersion precipitation technique allows these PA hydrogels to be fabricated into films less than 100 nm. One critical challenge to this aqueous processing method is the recrystallization of the salt upon water evaporation. Such recrystallization can disrupt the hydrogel morphology especially in thin films. In this study, a deep eutectic solvent (DES) formed from urea and choline chloride was used to dissolve PAs made from p-styrenesulfonic acid sodium salt and 3-(methacryloylamino)propyl trimethylammonium chloride. This DES has a freezing point of 12 °C, allowing it to remain stable and liquid-like at room temperatures. Thus, these PAs can be processed in DES solutions, without this issue of recrystallization and with simple methods such as spin coating and dip coating. These methods allow these hydrogels to be used in thin (<100 nm)-film coating applications. Finally, the complete miscibility of DES in water allows a wider range of one-phase compositions and expands the processing window of these polyampholyte materials.
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Affiliation(s)
- David E Delgado
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 60208, United States
| | - Daniel R King
- Faculty of Advanced Life Science, Hokkaido University, Sapporo 001-0021, Japan
- Global Station for Soft Matter, Global Institution for Collaborative Research, Hokkaido University, Sapporo 001-0021, Japan
| | - Kunpeng Cui
- Institute for Chemical Reaction Design and Discovery, Hokkaido University, Sapporo 001-0021, Japan
| | - Jian Ping Gong
- Faculty of Advanced Life Science, Hokkaido University, Sapporo 001-0021, Japan
- Global Station for Soft Matter, Global Institution for Collaborative Research, Hokkaido University, Sapporo 001-0021, Japan
- Institute for Chemical Reaction Design and Discovery, Hokkaido University, Sapporo 001-0021, Japan
| | - Kenneth R Shull
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 60208, United States
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28
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Nielen WM, Willott JD, Esguerra ZM, de Vos WM. Ion specific effects on aqueous phase separation of responsive copolymers for sustainable membranes. J Colloid Interface Sci 2020; 576:186-194. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jcis.2020.04.125] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2020] [Revised: 04/28/2020] [Accepted: 04/29/2020] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
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29
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Prabhu VM, Ali S, Bleuel M, Mao Y, Ma Y. Ultra-small angle neutron scattering to study droplet formation in polyelectrolyte complex coacervates. Methods Enzymol 2020; 646:261-276. [PMID: 33453928 DOI: 10.1016/bs.mie.2020.07.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Associating soft matter such as surfactants, polymers, proteins, and liposomes, may form structures with dimensions not readily accessible by optical methods. Scattering methods can provide detailed information about the mechanism of associative phase separation including nucleation density, size, and shape. Ultra-small angle neutron scattering, a reciprocal space method, provides sensitivity to submicron to micron-scale structures in a non-invasive manner and described in the context of nucleation and growth of dilute droplets formed by a temperature jump into the meta-stable region of polyelectrolyte complex coacervates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vivek M Prabhu
- Materials Science and Engineering Division, Material Measurement Laboratory, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD, United States.
| | - Samim Ali
- Materials Science and Engineering Division, Material Measurement Laboratory, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD, United States
| | - Markus Bleuel
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Maryland, College Park, MD, United States; Center for Neutron Research, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD, United States
| | - Yimin Mao
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Maryland, College Park, MD, United States; Center for Neutron Research, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD, United States
| | - Yuanchi Ma
- Materials Science and Engineering Division, Material Measurement Laboratory, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD, United States
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30
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Durmaz EN, Baig MI, Willott JD, de Vos WM. Polyelectrolyte Complex Membranes via Salinity Change Induced Aqueous Phase Separation. ACS APPLIED POLYMER MATERIALS 2020; 2:2612-2621. [PMID: 32685925 PMCID: PMC7359294 DOI: 10.1021/acsapm.0c00255] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2020] [Accepted: 05/29/2020] [Indexed: 05/19/2023]
Abstract
Polymeric membranes are used on very large scales for drinking water production and kidney dialysis, but they are nearly always prepared by using large quantities of unsustainable and toxic aprotic solvents. In this study, a water-based, sustainable, and simple way of making polymeric membranes is presented without the need for harmful solvents or extreme pH conditions. Membranes were prepared from water-insoluble polyelectrolyte complexes (PECs) via aqueous phase separation (APS). Strong polyelectrolytes (PEs), poly(sodium 4-styrenesulfonate) (PSS), and poly(diallyldimethylammonium chloride) (PDADMAC) were mixed in the presence of excess of salt, thereby preventing complexation. Immersing a thin film of this mixture into a low-salinity bath induces complexation and consequently the precipitation of a solid PEC-based membrane. This approach leads to asymmetric nanofiltration membranes, with thin dense top layers and porous, macrovoid-free support layers. While the PSS molecular weight and the total polymer concentrations of the casting mixture did not significantly affect the membrane structure, they did affect the film formation process, the resulting mechanical stability of the films, and the membrane separation properties. The salt concentration of the coagulation bath has a large effect on membrane structure and allows for control over the thickness of the separation layer. The nanofiltration membranes prepared by APS have a low molecular weight cutoff (<300 Da), a high MgSO4 retention (∼80%), and good stability even at high pressures (10 bar). PE complexation induced APS is a simple and sustainable way to prepare membranes where membrane structure and performance can be tuned with molecular weight, polymer concentration, and ionic strength.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elif Nur Durmaz
- Membrane Science and Technology, MESA+
Institute for Nanotechnology, Faculty of Science and Technology, University of Twente, P.O. Box 217, 7500 AE Enschede, The Netherlands
| | - Muhammad Irshad Baig
- Membrane Science and Technology, MESA+
Institute for Nanotechnology, Faculty of Science and Technology, University of Twente, P.O. Box 217, 7500 AE Enschede, The Netherlands
| | - Joshua D. Willott
- Membrane Science and Technology, MESA+
Institute for Nanotechnology, Faculty of Science and Technology, University of Twente, P.O. Box 217, 7500 AE Enschede, The Netherlands
| | - Wiebe M. de Vos
- Membrane Science and Technology, MESA+
Institute for Nanotechnology, Faculty of Science and Technology, University of Twente, P.O. Box 217, 7500 AE Enschede, The Netherlands
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31
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Yang M, Digby ZA, Schlenoff JB. Precision Doping of Polyelectrolyte Complexes: Insight on the Role of Ions. Macromolecules 2020. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.macromol.0c00965] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Mo Yang
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, The Florida State University, Tallahassee, Florida 32306, United States
| | - Zachary A. Digby
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, The Florida State University, Tallahassee, Florida 32306, United States
| | - Joseph B. Schlenoff
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, The Florida State University, Tallahassee, Florida 32306, United States
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