Computational Assessment of Different Structural Models for Claudin-5 Complexes in Blood-Brain Barrier Tight Junctions

Ion and water permeation through claudin-10b and claudin-15 paracellular channels

The structural scaffold of epithelial and endothelial tight junctions (TJs) comprises multimeric strands of claudin (Cldn) proteins that anchor adjacent cells and control the paracellular flux of water and solutes. Based on the permeability properties they confer to the TJs, Cldns are classified as channel- or barrier-forming. For instance, Cldn10b, expressed in kidneys, lungs, and other tissues, displays high permeability for cations and low permeability for water. Along with its high sequence similarity to the cation- and water-permeable TJ protein Cldn15, this makes Cldn10b a valuable test case for investigating the molecular determinants of paracellular transport. In lack of high-resolution experimental information on TJ architectures, here we use molecular dynamics simulations to determine whether atomistic models recapitulate the differences in ion and water transport between of Cldn10b and Cldn15. Our data, based on extensive standard simulations and free energy calculations, reveal that Cldn10b models form cation-permeable pores narrower than Cldn15, which, together with the stable coordination of Na+ ions to acidic pore-lining residues (E153, D36, D56), limit the passage of water molecules. By providing a mechanism driving a peculiar case of paracellular transport, these results provide a structural basis for the specific permeability properties of Cldn subtypes that define their physiological role.

Biophysics of claudin proteins in tight junction architecture: Three decades of progress

Tight junctions are cell-cell adhesion complexes that act as gatekeepers of the paracellular space. Formed by several transmembrane proteins, the claudin family performs the primary gate-keeping function. The claudin proteins form charge and size-selective diffusion barriers to maintain homeostasis across endothelial and epithelial tissue. Of the 27 known claudins in mammals, some are known to seal the paracellular space, while others provide selective permeability. The differences in permeability arise due to the varying expression levels of claudins in each tissue. The tight junctions are observed as strands in freeze-fracture electron monographs; however, at the molecular level, tight junction strands form when multiple claudin proteins assemble laterally (cis assembly) within a cell and head-on (trans assembly) with claudins of the adjacent cell in a zipper-like architecture, closing the gap between the neighboring cells. The disruption of tight junctions caused by changing claudin expression levels or mutations can lead to diseases. Therefore, knowledge of the molecular architecture of the tight junctions and how that is tied to tissue-specific function is critical for fighting diseases. Here, we review the current understanding of the tight junctions accrued over the last three decades from experimental and computational biophysics perspectives.

Claudin-23 reshapes epithelial tight junction architecture to regulate barrier function

Claudin family tight junction proteins form charge- and size-selective paracellular channels that regulate epithelial barrier function. In the gastrointestinal tract, barrier heterogeneity is attributed to differential claudin expression. Here, we show that claudin-23 (CLDN23) is enriched in luminal intestinal epithelial cells where it strengthens the epithelial barrier. Complementary approaches reveal that CLDN23 regulates paracellular ion and macromolecule permeability by associating with CLDN3 and CLDN4 and regulating their distribution in tight junctions. Computational modeling suggests that CLDN23 forms heteromeric and heterotypic complexes with CLDN3 and CLDN4 that have unique pore architecture and overall net charge. These computational simulation analyses further suggest that pore properties are interaction-dependent, since differently organized complexes with the same claudin stoichiometry form pores with unique architecture. Our findings provide insight into tight junction organization and propose a model whereby different claudins combine to form multiple distinct complexes that modify epithelial barrier function by altering tight junction structure.

Ozanimod differentially preserves human cerebrovascular endothelial barrier proteins and attenuates matrix metalloproteinase-9 activity following in vitro acute ischemic injury

Endothelial integrity is critical in mitigating a vicious cascade of secondary injuries following acute ischemic stroke (AIS). Matrix metalloproteinase-9 (MMP-9), a contributor to endothelial integrity loss, is elevated during stroke and is associated with worsened stroke outcome. We investigated the FDA-approved selective sphingosine-1-phosphate receptor 1 (S1PR1) ligand, ozanimod, on the regulation/activity of MMP-9 as well as endothelial barrier components [platelet endothelial cell adhesion molecule 1 (PECAM-1), claudin-5, and zonula occludens 1 (ZO-1)] in human brain microvascular endothelial cells (HBMECs) following hypoxia plus glucose deprivation (HGD). We previously reported that S1PR1 activation improves HBMEC integrity; however, mechanisms underlying S1PR1 involvement in endothelial cell barrier integrity have not been clearly elucidated. We hypothesized that ozanimod would attenuate an HGD-induced increase in MMP-9 activity that would concomitantly attenuate the loss of integral barrier components. Male HBMECs were treated with ozanimod or vehicle and exposed to 3 h of normoxia (21% O2) or HGD (1% O2). Immunoblotting, zymography, qRT-PCR, and immunocytochemical labeling techniques assessed processes related to MMP-9 and barrier markers. We observed that HGD acutely increased MMP-9 activity and reduced claudin-5 and PECAM-1 levels, and ozanimod attenuated these responses. In situ analysis, via PROSPER, suggested that attenuation of MMP-9 activity may be a primary factor in maintaining these integral barrier proteins. We also observed that HGD increased intracellular mechanisms associated with augmented MMP-9 activation; however, ozanimod had no effect on these select factors. Thus, we conclude that ozanimod has the potential to attenuate HGD-mediated decreases in HBMEC integrity in part by decreasing MMP-9 activity as well as preserving barrier properties.NEW & NOTEWORTHY We have identified a potential novel mechanism by which ozanimod, a selective sphingosine-1-phosphate receptor 1 (S1PR1) agonist, attenuates hypoxia plus glucose deprivation (HGD)-induced matrix metalloproteinase-9 (MMP-9) activity and disruptions in integral human brain endothelial cell barrier proteins. Our results suggest that ischemic-like injury elicits increased MMP-9 activity and alterations of barrier integrity proteins in human brain microvascular endothelial cells (HBMECs) and that ozanimod via S1PR1 attenuates these HGD-induced responses, adding to its therapeutic potential in cerebrovascular protection during the acute phase of ischemic stroke.

CHARMM-GUI Membrane Builder: Past, Current, and Future Developments and Applications

Molecular dynamics simulations of membranes and membrane proteins serve as computational microscopes, revealing coordinated events at the membrane interface. As G protein-coupled receptors, ion channels, transporters, and membrane-bound enzymes are important drug targets, understanding their drug binding and action mechanisms in a realistic membrane becomes critical. Advances in materials science and physical chemistry further demand an atomistic understanding of lipid domains and interactions between materials and membranes. Despite a wide range of membrane simulation studies, generating a complex membrane assembly remains challenging. Here, we review the capability of CHARMM-GUI Membrane Builder in the context of emerging research demands, as well as the application examples from the CHARMM-GUI user community, including membrane biophysics, membrane protein drug-binding and dynamics, protein-lipid interactions, and nano-bio interface. We also provide our perspective on future Membrane Builder development.

The CLDN5 gene at the blood-brain barrier in health and disease

The CLDN5 gene encodes claudin-5 (CLDN-5) that is expressed in endothelial cells and forms tight junctions which limit the passive diffusions of ions and solutes. The blood-brain barrier (BBB), composed of brain microvascular endothelial cells and associated pericytes and end-feet of astrocytes, is a physical and biological barrier to maintain the brain microenvironment. The expression of CLDN-5 is tightly regulated in the BBB by other junctional proteins in endothelial cells and by supports from pericytes and astrocytes. The most recent literature clearly shows a compromised BBB with a decline in CLDN-5 expression increasing the risks of developing neuropsychiatric disorders, epilepsy, brain calcification and dementia. The purpose of this review is to summarize the known diseases associated with CLDN-5 expression and function. In the first part of this review, we highlight the recent understanding of how other junctional proteins as well as pericytes and astrocytes maintain CLDN-5 expression in brain endothelial cells. We detail some drugs that can enhance these supports and are being developed or currently in use to treat diseases associated with CLDN-5 decline. We then summarise mutagenesis-based studies which have facilitated a better understanding of the physiological role of the CLDN-5 protein at the BBB and have demonstrated the functional consequences of a recently identified pathogenic CLDN-5 missense mutation from patients with alternating hemiplegia of childhood. This mutation is the first gain-of-function mutation identified in the CLDN gene family with all others representing loss-of-function mutations resulting in mis-localization of CLDN protein and/or attenuated barrier function. Finally, we summarize recent reports about the dosage-dependent effect of CLDN-5 expression on the development of neurological diseases in mice and discuss what cellular supports for CLDN-5 regulation are compromised in the BBB in human diseases.

The impact of pathogenic and artificial mutations on Claudin-5 selectivity from molecular dynamics simulations

Tight-junctions (TJs) are multi-protein complexes between adjacent endothelial or epithelial cells. In the blood-brain-barrier (BBB), they seal the paracellular space and the Claudin-5 (Cldn5) protein forms their backbone. Despite the fundamental role in brain homeostasis, little is known on Cldn5-based TJ assemblies. Different structural models were suggested, with Cldn5 protomers generating paracellular pores that restrict the passage of ions and small molecules. Recently, the first Cldn5 pathogenic mutation, G60R, was identified and shown to induce Cl^--selective channels and Na⁺ barriers in BBB TJs, providing an excellent opportunity to validate the structural models. Here, we used molecular dynamics to study the permeation of ions and water through two distinct G60R-Cldn5 paracellular architectures. Only the so-called Pore I reproduces the functional modification observed in experiments, displaying a free energy (FE) minimum for Cl^- and a barrier for Na⁺ consistent with anionic selectivity. We also studied the artificial Q57D and Q63D mutations in the constriction region, Q57 being conserved in Cldns except for cation permeable homologs. In both cases, we obtain FE profiles consistent with facilitated passage of cations. Our calculations provide the first in-silico description of a Cldn5 pathogenic mutation, further assessing the TJ Pore I model and yielding new insight on BBB's paracellular selectivity.

Claudin-10b cation channels in tight junction strands: Octameric-interlocked pore barrels constitute paracellular channels with low water permeability

Claudin proteins constitute the backbone of tight junctions (TJs) regulating paracellular permeability for solutes and water. The molecular mechanism of claudin polymerization and paracellular channel formation is unclear. However, a joined double-rows architecture of claudin strands has been supported by experimental and modeling data. Here, we compared two variants of this architectural model for the related but functionally distinct cation channel-forming claudin-10b and claudin-15: tetrameric-locked-barrel vs octameric-interlocked-barrels model. Homology modeling and molecular dynamics simulations of double-membrane embedded dodecamers indicate that claudin-10b and claudin-15 share the same joined double-rows architecture of TJ-strands. For both, the results indicate octameric-interlocked-barrels: Sidewise unsealed tetrameric pore scaffolds interlocked with adjacent pores via the β1β2 loop of the extracellular segment (ECS) 1. This loop mediates hydrophobic clustering and, together with ECS2, cis- and trans-interaction between claudins of the adjacent tetrameric pore scaffolds. In addition, the β1β2 loop contributes to lining of the ion conduction pathway. The charge-distribution along the pore differs between claudin-10b and claudin-15 and is suggested to be a key determinant for the cation- and water permeabilities that differ between the two claudins. In the claudin-10b simulations, similar as for claudin-15, the conserved D56 in the pore center is the main cation interaction site. In contrast to claudin-15 channels, the claudin-10b-specific D36, K64 and E153 are suggested to cause jamming of cations that prevents efficient water passage. In sum, we provide novel mechanistic information about polymerization of classic claudins, formation of embedded channels and thus regulation of paracellular transport across epithelia.