1
|
Hicks D, Giresh K, Wrischnik LA, Weiser DC. The PPP1R15 Family of eIF2-alpha Phosphatase Targeting Subunits (GADD34 and CReP). Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:17321. [PMID: 38139150 PMCID: PMC10743859 DOI: 10.3390/ijms242417321] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2023] [Revised: 12/01/2023] [Accepted: 12/08/2023] [Indexed: 12/24/2023] Open
Abstract
The vertebrate PPP1R15 family consists of the proteins GADD34 (growth arrest and DNA damage-inducible protein 34, the product of the PPP1R15A gene) and CReP (constitutive repressor of eIF2α phosphorylation, the product of the PPP1R15B gene), both of which function as targeting/regulatory subunits for protein phosphatase 1 (PP1) by regulating subcellular localization, modulating substrate specificity and assembling complexes with target proteins. The primary cellular function of these proteins is to facilitate the dephosphorylation of eukaryotic initiation factor 2-alpha (eIF2α) by PP1 during cell stress. In this review, we will provide a comprehensive overview of the cellular function, biochemistry and pharmacology of GADD34 and CReP, starting with a brief introduction of eIF2α phosphorylation via the integrated protein response (ISR). We discuss the roles GADD34 and CReP play as feedback inhibitors of the unfolded protein response (UPR) and highlight the critical function they serve as inhibitors of the PERK-dependent branch, which is particularly important since it can mediate cell survival or cell death, depending on how long the stressful stimuli lasts, and GADD34 and CReP play key roles in fine-tuning this cellular decision. We briefly discuss the roles of GADD34 and CReP homologs in model systems and then focus on what we have learned about their function from knockout mice and human patients, followed by a brief review of several diseases in which GADD34 and CReP have been implicated, including cancer, diabetes and especially neurodegenerative disease. Because of the potential importance of GADD34 and CReP in aspects of human health and disease, we will discuss several pharmacological inhibitors of GADD34 and/or CReP that show promise as treatments and the controversies as to their mechanism of action. This review will finish with a discussion of the biochemical properties of GADD34 and CReP, their regulation and the additional interacting partners that may provide insight into the roles these proteins may play in other cellular pathways. We will conclude with a brief outline of critical areas for future study.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Danielle Hicks
- Department of Science, Mathematics and Engineering, Modesto Junior College, Modesto, CA 95350, USA
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of the Pacific, Stockton, CA 95211, USA
| | - Krithika Giresh
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of the Pacific, Stockton, CA 95211, USA
| | - Lisa A. Wrischnik
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of the Pacific, Stockton, CA 95211, USA
| | - Douglas C. Weiser
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of the Pacific, Stockton, CA 95211, USA
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Almeida LM, Oliveira Â, Oliveira JMA, Pinho BR. Stress response mechanisms in protein misfolding diseases: Profiling a cellular model of Huntington's disease. Arch Biochem Biophys 2023; 745:109711. [PMID: 37541563 DOI: 10.1016/j.abb.2023.109711] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2023] [Revised: 07/14/2023] [Accepted: 08/01/2023] [Indexed: 08/06/2023]
Abstract
Stress response pathways like the integrated stress response (ISR), the mitochondrial unfolded protein response (UPRmt) and the heat shock response (HSR) have emerged as part of the pathophysiology of neurodegenerative diseases, including Huntington's disease (HD) - a currently incurable disease caused by the production of mutant huntingtin (mut-Htt). Previous data from HD patients suggest that ISR is activated while UPRmt and HSR are impaired in HD. The study of these stress response pathways as potential therapeutic targets in HD requires cellular models that mimic the activation status found in HD patients of such pathways. PC12 cells with inducible expression of the N-terminal fragment of mut-Htt are among the most used cell lines to model HD, however the activation of stress responses remains unclear in this model. The goal of this study is to characterize the activation of ISR, UPRmt and HSR in this HD cell model and evaluate if it mimics the activation status found in HD patients. We show that PC12 HD cell model presents reduced levels of Hsp90 and mitochondrial chaperones, suggesting an impaired activation or function of HSR and UPRmt. This HD model also presents increased levels of phosphorylated eIF2α, the master regulator of the ISR, but overall similar levels of ATF4 and decreased levels of CHOP - transcription factors downstream to eIF2α - in comparison to control, suggesting an initial activation of ISR. These results show that this model mimics the ISR activation and the impaired UPRmt and HSR found in HD patients. This work suggests that the PC12 N-terminal HD model is suitable for studying the role of stress response pathways in the pathophysiology of HD and for exploratory studies investigating the therapeutic potential of drugs targeting stress responses.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Liliana M Almeida
- UCIBIO-REQUIMTE - Applied Molecular Biosciences Unit, Mitochondria and Neurobiology Lab, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal; Associate Laboratory i4HB - Institute for Health and Bioeconomy, Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Drug Sciences, Pharmacology Lab, University of Porto, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal
| | - Ângela Oliveira
- UCIBIO-REQUIMTE - Applied Molecular Biosciences Unit, Mitochondria and Neurobiology Lab, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal; Associate Laboratory i4HB - Institute for Health and Bioeconomy, Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Drug Sciences, Pharmacology Lab, University of Porto, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal
| | - Jorge M A Oliveira
- UCIBIO-REQUIMTE - Applied Molecular Biosciences Unit, Mitochondria and Neurobiology Lab, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal; Associate Laboratory i4HB - Institute for Health and Bioeconomy, Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Drug Sciences, Pharmacology Lab, University of Porto, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal.
| | - Brígida R Pinho
- UCIBIO-REQUIMTE - Applied Molecular Biosciences Unit, Mitochondria and Neurobiology Lab, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal; Associate Laboratory i4HB - Institute for Health and Bioeconomy, Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Drug Sciences, Pharmacology Lab, University of Porto, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal.
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Márton M, Bánhegyi G, Gyöngyösi N, Kálmán EÉ, Pettkó‐Szandtner A, Káldi K, Kapuy O. A systems biological analysis of the ATF4-GADD34-CHOP regulatory triangle upon endoplasmic reticulum stress. FEBS Open Bio 2022; 12:2065-2082. [PMID: 36097827 PMCID: PMC9623533 DOI: 10.1002/2211-5463.13484] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2022] [Revised: 08/24/2022] [Accepted: 09/10/2022] [Indexed: 01/25/2023] Open
Abstract
Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress-dependent accumulation of incorrectly folded proteins leads to activation of the unfolded protein response. The role of the unfolded protein response (UPR) is to avoid cell damage and restore the homeostatic state by autophagy; however, excessive ER stress results in apoptosis. Here we investigated the ER stress-dependent feedback loops inside one of the UPR branches by focusing on PERK-induced ATF4 and its two targets, called CHOP and GADD34. Our goal was to qualitatively describe the dynamic behavior of the system by exploring the key regulatory motifs using both molecular and theoretical biological techniques. Using the HEK293T cell line as a model system, we confirmed that the life-or-death decision is strictly regulated. We investigated the dynamic characteristics of the crucial elements of the PERK pathway at both the RNA and protein level upon tolerable and excessive levels of ER stress. Of particular note, inhibition of GADD34 or CHOP resulted in various phenotypes upon high levels of ER stress. Our computer simulations suggest the existence of two new feedback loops inside the UPR. First, GADD34 seems to have a positive effect on ATF4 activity, while CHOP inhibits it. We claim that these newly described feedback loops ensure the fine-tuning of the ATF4-dependent stress response mechanism of the cell.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Margita Márton
- Department of Molecular Biology at the Institute of Biochemistry and Molecular BiologySemmelweis UniversityBudapestHungary
| | - Gábor Bánhegyi
- Department of Molecular Biology at the Institute of Biochemistry and Molecular BiologySemmelweis UniversityBudapestHungary
| | - Norbert Gyöngyösi
- Department of Molecular Biology at the Institute of Biochemistry and Molecular BiologySemmelweis UniversityBudapestHungary
| | - Eszter Éva Kálmán
- Department of Molecular Biology at the Institute of Biochemistry and Molecular BiologySemmelweis UniversityBudapestHungary
| | | | - Krisztina Káldi
- Department of PhysiologySemmelweis UniversityBudapestHungary
| | - Orsolya Kapuy
- Department of Molecular Biology at the Institute of Biochemistry and Molecular BiologySemmelweis UniversityBudapestHungary
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Witkamp D, Oudejans E, Hu-A-Ng GV, Hoogterp L, Krzywańska AM, Žnidaršič M, Marinus K, de Veij Mestdagh CF, Bartelink I, Bugiani M, van der Knaap MS, Abbink TEM. Guanabenz ameliorates disease in vanishing white matter mice in contrast to sephin1. Ann Clin Transl Neurol 2022; 9:1147-1162. [PMID: 35778832 PMCID: PMC9380178 DOI: 10.1002/acn3.51611] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2022] [Revised: 06/02/2022] [Accepted: 06/03/2022] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Vanishing white matter (VWM) is a leukodystrophy, characterized by stress-sensitive neurological deterioration and premature death. It is currently without curative treatment. It is caused by bi-allelic pathogenic variants in the genes encoding eukaryotic initiation factor 2B (eIF2B). eIF2B is essential for the regulation of the integrated stress response (ISR), a physiological response to cellular stress. Preclinical studies on VWM mouse models revealed that deregulated ISR is key in the pathophysiology of VWM and an effective treatment target. Guanabenz, an α2-adrenergic agonist, attenuates the ISR and has beneficial effects on VWM neuropathology. The current study aimed at elucidating guanabenz's disease-modifying potential and mechanism of action in VWM mice. Sephin1, an ISR-modulating guanabenz analog without α2-adrenergic agonistic properties, was included to separate effects on the ISR from α2-adrenergic effects. METHODS Wild-type and VWM mice were subjected to placebo, guanabenz or sephin1 treatments. Effects on clinical signs, neuropathology, and ISR deregulation were determined. Guanabenz's and sephin1's ISR-modifying effects were tested in cultured cells that expressed or lacked the α2-adrenergic receptor. RESULTS Guanabenz improved clinical signs, neuropathological hallmarks, and ISR regulation in VWM mice, but sephin1 did not. Guanabenz's effects on the ISR in VWM mice were not replicated in cell cultures and the contribution of α2-adrenergic effects on the deregulated ISR could therefore not be assessed. INTERPRETATION Guanabenz proved itself as a viable treatment option for VWM. The exact mechanism through which guanabenz exerts its ameliorating impact on VWM requires further studies. Sephin1 is not simply a guanabenz replacement without α2-adrenergic effects.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Diede Witkamp
- Child Neurology, Emma Children's Hospital, Amsterdam Leukodystrophy Center, Amsterdam University Medical Centers, Vrije Universiteit and Amsterdam Neuroscience, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.,Department of Integrative Neurophysiology, Center for Neurogenomics and Cognitive Research, VU University, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Ellen Oudejans
- Child Neurology, Emma Children's Hospital, Amsterdam Leukodystrophy Center, Amsterdam University Medical Centers, Vrije Universiteit and Amsterdam Neuroscience, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.,Department of Integrative Neurophysiology, Center for Neurogenomics and Cognitive Research, VU University, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Gino V Hu-A-Ng
- Child Neurology, Emma Children's Hospital, Amsterdam Leukodystrophy Center, Amsterdam University Medical Centers, Vrije Universiteit and Amsterdam Neuroscience, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.,Department of Integrative Neurophysiology, Center for Neurogenomics and Cognitive Research, VU University, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Leoni Hoogterp
- Child Neurology, Emma Children's Hospital, Amsterdam Leukodystrophy Center, Amsterdam University Medical Centers, Vrije Universiteit and Amsterdam Neuroscience, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.,Department of Integrative Neurophysiology, Center for Neurogenomics and Cognitive Research, VU University, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Aleksandra M Krzywańska
- Child Neurology, Emma Children's Hospital, Amsterdam Leukodystrophy Center, Amsterdam University Medical Centers, Vrije Universiteit and Amsterdam Neuroscience, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.,Department of Integrative Neurophysiology, Center for Neurogenomics and Cognitive Research, VU University, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Milo Žnidaršič
- Child Neurology, Emma Children's Hospital, Amsterdam Leukodystrophy Center, Amsterdam University Medical Centers, Vrije Universiteit and Amsterdam Neuroscience, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.,Department of Integrative Neurophysiology, Center for Neurogenomics and Cognitive Research, VU University, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Kevin Marinus
- Child Neurology, Emma Children's Hospital, Amsterdam Leukodystrophy Center, Amsterdam University Medical Centers, Vrije Universiteit and Amsterdam Neuroscience, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.,Department of Integrative Neurophysiology, Center for Neurogenomics and Cognitive Research, VU University, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Christina F de Veij Mestdagh
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Neurobiology, Center for Neurogenomics and Cognitive Research, VU University, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Imke Bartelink
- Department of Pharmacy and Clinical Pharmacology, Amsterdam UMC, Location VUmc, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Marianna Bugiani
- Department of Pathology, Amsterdam University Medical Centers, Vrije Universiteit and Amsterdam Neuroscience, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Marjo S van der Knaap
- Child Neurology, Emma Children's Hospital, Amsterdam Leukodystrophy Center, Amsterdam University Medical Centers, Vrije Universiteit and Amsterdam Neuroscience, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.,Department of Integrative Neurophysiology, Center for Neurogenomics and Cognitive Research, VU University, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Truus E M Abbink
- Child Neurology, Emma Children's Hospital, Amsterdam Leukodystrophy Center, Amsterdam University Medical Centers, Vrije Universiteit and Amsterdam Neuroscience, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.,Department of Integrative Neurophysiology, Center for Neurogenomics and Cognitive Research, VU University, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Kim C, Yousefian-Jazi A, Choi SH, Chang I, Lee J, Ryu H. Non-Cell Autonomous and Epigenetic Mechanisms of Huntington's Disease. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:12499. [PMID: 34830381 PMCID: PMC8617801 DOI: 10.3390/ijms222212499] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2021] [Revised: 11/10/2021] [Accepted: 11/15/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Huntington's disease (HD) is a rare neurodegenerative disorder caused by an expansion of CAG trinucleotide repeat located in the exon 1 of Huntingtin (HTT) gene in human chromosome 4. The HTT protein is ubiquitously expressed in the brain. Specifically, mutant HTT (mHTT) protein-mediated toxicity leads to a dramatic degeneration of the striatum among many regions of the brain. HD symptoms exhibit a major involuntary movement followed by cognitive and psychiatric dysfunctions. In this review, we address the conventional role of wild type HTT (wtHTT) and how mHTT protein disrupts the function of medium spiny neurons (MSNs). We also discuss how mHTT modulates epigenetic modifications and transcriptional pathways in MSNs. In addition, we define how non-cell autonomous pathways lead to damage and death of MSNs under HD pathological conditions. Lastly, we overview therapeutic approaches for HD. Together, understanding of precise neuropathological mechanisms of HD may improve therapeutic approaches to treat the onset and progression of HD.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Chaebin Kim
- Brain Science Institute, Korea Institute of Science and Technology, Seoul 02792, Korea; (C.K.); (A.Y.-J.); (S.-H.C.)
| | - Ali Yousefian-Jazi
- Brain Science Institute, Korea Institute of Science and Technology, Seoul 02792, Korea; (C.K.); (A.Y.-J.); (S.-H.C.)
| | - Seung-Hye Choi
- Brain Science Institute, Korea Institute of Science and Technology, Seoul 02792, Korea; (C.K.); (A.Y.-J.); (S.-H.C.)
| | - Inyoung Chang
- Department of Biology, Boston University, Boston, MA 02215, USA;
| | - Junghee Lee
- Boston University Alzheimer’s Disease Research Center, Boston University, Boston, MA 02118, USA
- Department of Neurology, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, MA 02118, USA
- VA Boston Healthcare System, Boston, MA 02130, USA
| | - Hoon Ryu
- Brain Science Institute, Korea Institute of Science and Technology, Seoul 02792, Korea; (C.K.); (A.Y.-J.); (S.-H.C.)
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Shacham T, Patel C, Lederkremer GZ. PERK Pathway and Neurodegenerative Disease: To Inhibit or to Activate? Biomolecules 2021; 11:biom11030354. [PMID: 33652720 PMCID: PMC7996871 DOI: 10.3390/biom11030354] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2021] [Revised: 02/18/2021] [Accepted: 02/23/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
With the extension of life span in recent decades, there is an increasing burden of late-onset neurodegenerative diseases, for which effective treatments are lacking. Neurodegenerative diseases include the widespread Alzheimer’s disease (AD) and Parkinson’s disease (PD), the less frequent Huntington’s disease (HD) and Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS) and also rare early-onset diseases linked to mutations that cause protein aggregation or loss of function in genes that maintain protein homeostasis. The difficulties in applying gene therapy approaches to tackle these diseases is drawing increasing attention to strategies that aim to inhibit cellular toxicity and restore homeostasis by intervening in cellular pathways. These include the unfolded protein response (UPR), activated in response to endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress, a cellular affliction that is shared by these diseases. Special focus is turned to the PKR-like ER kinase (PERK) pathway of the UPR as a target for intervention. However, the complexity of the pathway and its ability to promote cell survival or death, depending on ER stress resolution, has led to some confusion in conflicting studies. Both inhibition and activation of the PERK pathway have been reported to be beneficial in disease models, although there are also some reports where they are counterproductive. Although with the current knowledge a definitive answer cannot be given on whether it is better to activate or to inhibit the pathway, the most encouraging strategies appear to rely on boosting some steps without compromising downstream recovery.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Talya Shacham
- Cell Biology Division, George Wise Faculty of Life Sciences, The Shmunis School of Biomedicine and Cancer Research, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv 69978, Israel; (T.S.); (C.P.)
- Sagol School of Neuroscience, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv 69978, Israel
| | - Chaitanya Patel
- Cell Biology Division, George Wise Faculty of Life Sciences, The Shmunis School of Biomedicine and Cancer Research, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv 69978, Israel; (T.S.); (C.P.)
- Sagol School of Neuroscience, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv 69978, Israel
| | - Gerardo Z. Lederkremer
- Cell Biology Division, George Wise Faculty of Life Sciences, The Shmunis School of Biomedicine and Cancer Research, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv 69978, Israel; (T.S.); (C.P.)
- Sagol School of Neuroscience, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv 69978, Israel
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +972-3-640-9239
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Köhn M. Turn and Face the Strange: A New View on Phosphatases. ACS CENTRAL SCIENCE 2020; 6:467-477. [PMID: 32341996 PMCID: PMC7181316 DOI: 10.1021/acscentsci.9b00909] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2019] [Indexed: 05/08/2023]
Abstract
Phosphorylation as a post-translational modification is critical for cellular homeostasis. Kinases and phosphatases regulate phosphorylation levels by adding or removing, respectively, a phosphate group from proteins or other biomolecules. Imbalances in phosphorylation levels are involved in a multitude of diseases. Phosphatases are often thought of as the black sheep, the strangers, of phosphorylation-mediated signal transduction, particularly when it comes to drug discovery and development. This is due to past difficulties to study them and unsuccessful attempts to target them; however, phosphatases have regained strong attention and are actively pursued now in clinical trials. By giving examples for current hot topics in phosphatase biology and for new approaches to target them, it is illustrated here how and why phosphatases made their comeback, and what is envisioned to come in the future.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Maja Köhn
- Faculty
of Biology, Institute of Biology III, University
of Freiburg, Schänzlestraße 18, 79104, Freiburg, Germany
- Signalling
Research Centres BIOSS and CIBSS, University
of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Luh LM, Bertolotti A. Potential benefit of manipulating protein quality control systems in neurodegenerative diseases. Curr Opin Neurobiol 2020; 61:125-132. [PMID: 32199101 DOI: 10.1016/j.conb.2020.02.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2020] [Revised: 02/17/2020] [Accepted: 02/19/2020] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
The deposition of proteins of abnormal conformation is one of the major hallmarks of the common neurodegenerative diseases including Alzheimer's, Parkinson's, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, frontotemporal dementia, and prion diseases. Protein quality control systems have evolved to protect cells and organisms against the harmful consequences of abnormally folded proteins that are constantly produced in small amounts. Mutations in rare inherited forms of neurodegenerative diseases have provided compelling evidence that failure of protein quality control systems can drive neurodegeneration. With extensive knowledge of these systems, and the notion that protein quality control may decline with age, many laboratories are now focussing on manipulating these evolutionarily optimized defence mechanisms to reduce the protein misfolding burden for therapeutic benefit.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Laura M Luh
- MRC Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Francis Crick Avenue, Cambridge, CB2 0QH, United Kingdom
| | - Anne Bertolotti
- MRC Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Francis Crick Avenue, Cambridge, CB2 0QH, United Kingdom.
| |
Collapse
|