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Ma B, Argikar U, Cheruzel L, Cho S, Hauri S, Johnson K, Liu J, Schadt S, Wang S, Khojasteh SC. Metabolism of New Drug Modalities Research Advances - 2023 year in review. Drug Metab Rev 2024:1-46. [PMID: 38895934 DOI: 10.1080/03602532.2024.2370331] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2024] [Accepted: 06/14/2024] [Indexed: 06/21/2024]
Abstract
With contributions from colleagues across academia and industry, we have put together the annual reviews of research advances on drug biotransformation and bioactivation since 2016 led by Cyrus Khojasteh. While traditional small molecules and biologics are still predominant in drug discovery, we start to notice a paradigm shift toward new drug modalities (NDMs) including but not limited to peptide and oligonucleotide therapeutics, protein degraders (heterobifunctional degraders and molecule glues), conjugated drugs and covalent inhibitors. The readers can learn more on each new drug modality from several recent comprehensive reviews (Blanco et al., 2022; Hillebrand et al., 2024; Phuna et al., 2024). Based on this trend, we put together this stand-alone review branched from our previous efforts (Baillie et al., 2016; Khojasteh et al., 2023) with a focus on the metabolism of NDMs. We collected 11 articles which exemplify recent discoveries and perspectives in this field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bin Ma
- Department of Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, Genentech, Inc., 1 DNA Way, MS412a, South San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - UpendraA Argikar
- Non-clinical Development, Bill and Melinda Gates Medical Research Institute, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Lionel Cheruzel
- Department of Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, Genentech, Inc., 1 DNA Way, MS412a, South San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Sungjoon Cho
- Department of Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, Genentech, Inc., 1 DNA Way, MS412a, South San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Simon Hauri
- Roche Pharma Research and Early Development, Pharmaceutical Sciences, Roche Innovation Center Basel, F. Hoffmann-La Roche, Basel, Switzerland
| | - KevinM Johnson
- Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, Inotiv, Maryland Heights, MO, USA
| | - Joyce Liu
- Department of Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, Genentech, Inc., 1 DNA Way, MS412a, South San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Simone Schadt
- Roche Pharma Research and Early Development, Pharmaceutical Sciences, Roche Innovation Center Basel, F. Hoffmann-La Roche, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Shuai Wang
- Department of Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, Genentech, Inc., 1 DNA Way, MS412a, South San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - S Cyrus Khojasteh
- Department of Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, Genentech, Inc., 1 DNA Way, MS412a, South San Francisco, CA, USA
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2
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Darlami O, Pun R, Ahn SH, Kim SH, Shin D. Macrocyclization strategy for improving candidate profiles in medicinal chemistry. Eur J Med Chem 2024; 272:116501. [PMID: 38754142 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2024.116501] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2024] [Revised: 05/12/2024] [Accepted: 05/12/2024] [Indexed: 05/18/2024]
Abstract
Macrocycles are defined as cyclic compounds with 12 or more members. In medicinal chemistry, they are categorized based on their core chemistry into cyclic peptides and macrocycles. Macrocycles are advantageous because of their structural diversity and ability to achieve high affinity and selectivity towards challenging targets that are often not addressable by conventional small molecules. The potential of macrocyclization to optimize drug-like properties while maintaining adequate bioavailability and permeability has been emphasized as a key innovation in medicinal chemistry. This review provides a detailed case study of the application of macrocyclization over the past 5 years, starting from the initial analysis of acyclic active compounds to optimization of the resulting macrocycles for improved efficacy and drug-like properties. Additionally, it illustrates the strategic value of macrocyclization in contemporary drug discovery efforts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Om Darlami
- College of Pharmacy, Gachon University, Hambakmoe-ro 191, Yeunsu-gu, Incheon, 21935, Republic of Korea
| | - Rabin Pun
- College of Pharmacy, Gachon University, Hambakmoe-ro 191, Yeunsu-gu, Incheon, 21935, Republic of Korea
| | - Sung-Hoon Ahn
- College of Pharmacy, Kangwon National University, Gangwondaehak-gil 1, Chuncheon, Gangwon-do, 24341, Republic of Korea
| | - Seok-Ho Kim
- College of Pharmacy, Kangwon National University, Gangwondaehak-gil 1, Chuncheon, Gangwon-do, 24341, Republic of Korea.
| | - Dongyun Shin
- College of Pharmacy, Gachon University, Hambakmoe-ro 191, Yeunsu-gu, Incheon, 21935, Republic of Korea.
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Subbaiah MAM, Rautio J, Meanwell NA. Prodrugs as empowering tools in drug discovery and development: recent strategic applications of drug delivery solutions to mitigate challenges associated with lead compounds and drug candidates. Chem Soc Rev 2024; 53:2099-2210. [PMID: 38226865 DOI: 10.1039/d2cs00957a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/17/2024]
Abstract
The delivery of a drug to a specific organ or tissue at an efficacious concentration is the pharmacokinetic (PK) hallmark of promoting effective pharmacological action at a target site with an acceptable safety profile. Sub-optimal pharmaceutical or ADME profiles of drug candidates, which can often be a function of inherently poor physicochemical properties, pose significant challenges to drug discovery and development teams and may contribute to high compound attrition rates. Medicinal chemists have exploited prodrugs as an informed strategy to productively enhance the profiles of new chemical entities by optimizing the physicochemical, biopharmaceutical, and pharmacokinetic properties as well as selectively delivering a molecule to the site of action as a means of addressing a range of limitations. While discovery scientists have traditionally employed prodrugs to improve solubility and membrane permeability, the growing sophistication of prodrug technologies has enabled a significant expansion of their scope and applications as an empowering tool to mitigate a broad range of drug delivery challenges. Prodrugs have emerged as successful solutions to resolve non-linear exposure, inadequate exposure to support toxicological studies, pH-dependent absorption, high pill burden, formulation challenges, lack of feasibility of developing solid and liquid dosage forms, first-pass metabolism, high dosing frequency translating to reduced patient compliance and poor site-specific drug delivery. During the period 2012-2022, the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved 50 prodrugs, which amounts to 13% of approved small molecule drugs, reflecting both the importance and success of implementing prodrug approaches in the pursuit of developing safe and effective drugs to address unmet medical needs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Murugaiah A M Subbaiah
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Biocon Bristol Myers Squibb R&D Centre, Biocon Park, Bommasandra Phase IV, Bangalore, PIN 560099, India.
| | - Jarkko Rautio
- School of Pharmacy, University of Eastern Finland, Kuopio, Finland
| | - Nicholas A Meanwell
- The Baruch S. Blumberg Institute, Doylestown, PA 18902, USA
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, The College of Pharmacy, The University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
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4
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Pennington LD. Total Synthesis as Training for Medicinal Chemistry. ACS Med Chem Lett 2024; 15:156-158. [PMID: 38352841 PMCID: PMC10860184 DOI: 10.1021/acsmedchemlett.3c00556] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2023] [Accepted: 12/18/2023] [Indexed: 02/16/2024] Open
Abstract
There is an ongoing debate about the best types of training in academia for practicing modern medicinal chemistry in the pharmaceutical and biotechnology industries of today. A case is made in this Viewpoint for the ongoing, and perhaps increasing, value of total synthesis as training for medicinal chemistry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lewis D. Pennington
- Mystic River Medicinal Chemistry,
LLC, Arlington, Massachusetts 02476, United States
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5
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Rossetti P, Apprato G, Caron G, Ermondi G, Rossi Sebastiano M. DegraderTCM: A Computationally Sparing Approach for Predicting Ternary Degradation Complexes. ACS Med Chem Lett 2024; 15:45-53. [PMID: 38229751 PMCID: PMC10788944 DOI: 10.1021/acsmedchemlett.3c00362] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2023] [Revised: 11/30/2023] [Accepted: 11/30/2023] [Indexed: 01/18/2024] Open
Abstract
Proteolysis targeting chimeras (PROTACs or degraders) represent a novel therapeutic modality that has raised interest thanks to promising results and currently undergoing clinical testing. PROTACs induce the selective proteasomal degradation of undesired proteins by the formation of ternary complexes (TCs). Having knowledge of the 3D structure of TCs is crucial for the design of PROTAC drugs. Here, we describe DegraderTCM, a new computational method for modeling PROTAC-mediated TCs that requires low computational power and provides sound results in a short time span. We validated DegraderTCM against a selected set of experimentally determined structures and defined a method to predict the PROTAC degradation activity based on the computed TC structure. Finally, we modeled TCs of known degraders holding significance for defining the method's applicability domain. A retrospective analysis of structure-activity relationships unveiled possibilities for utilizing DegraderTCM in the initial stages of designing novel PROTAC drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paolo Rossetti
- University of Torino, Department of Molecular Biotechnology and Health Sciences,
CASSMedChem, Piazza Nizza
44, 10126 Torino, Italy
| | - Giulia Apprato
- University of Torino, Department of Molecular Biotechnology and Health Sciences,
CASSMedChem, Piazza Nizza
44, 10126 Torino, Italy
| | - Giulia Caron
- University of Torino, Department of Molecular Biotechnology and Health Sciences,
CASSMedChem, Piazza Nizza
44, 10126 Torino, Italy
| | - Giuseppe Ermondi
- University of Torino, Department of Molecular Biotechnology and Health Sciences,
CASSMedChem, Piazza Nizza
44, 10126 Torino, Italy
| | - Matteo Rossi Sebastiano
- University of Torino, Department of Molecular Biotechnology and Health Sciences,
CASSMedChem, Piazza Nizza
44, 10126 Torino, Italy
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Asano D, Takakusa H, Nakai D. Oral Absorption of Middle-to-Large Molecules and Its Improvement, with a Focus on New Modality Drugs. Pharmaceutics 2023; 16:47. [PMID: 38258058 PMCID: PMC10820198 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics16010047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2023] [Revised: 12/11/2023] [Accepted: 12/26/2023] [Indexed: 01/24/2024] Open
Abstract
To meet unmet medical needs, middle-to-large molecules, including peptides and oligonucleotides, have emerged as new therapeutic modalities. Owing to their middle-to-large molecular sizes, middle-to-large molecules are not suitable for oral absorption, but there are high expectations around orally bioavailable macromolecular drugs, since oral administration is the most convenient dosing route. Therefore, extensive efforts have been made to create bioavailable middle-to-large molecules or develop absorption enhancement technology, from which some successes have recently been reported. For example, Rybelsus® tablets and Mycapssa® capsules, both of which contain absorption enhancers, were approved as oral medications for type 2 diabetes and acromegaly, respectively. The oral administration of Rybelsus and Mycapssa exposes their pharmacologically active peptides with molecular weights greater than 1000, namely, semaglutide and octreotide, respectively, into systemic circulation. Although these two medications represent major achievements in the development of orally absorbable peptide formulations, the oral bioavailability of peptides after taking Rybelsus and Mycapssa is still only around 1%. In this article, we review the approaches and recent advances of orally bioavailable middle-to-large molecules and discuss challenges for improving their oral absorption.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daigo Asano
- Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics Research Laboratories, Daiichi Sankyo Co., Ltd., 1-2-58, Hiromachi, Shinagawa-ku, Tokyo 140-8710, Japan; (H.T.); (D.N.)
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Ota K, Nagao K, Hata D, Sugiyama H, Segawa Y, Tokunoh R, Seki T, Miyamoto N, Sasaki Y, Ohmiya H. Synthesis of tertiary alkylphosphonate oligonucleotides through light-driven radical-polar crossover reactions. Nat Commun 2023; 14:6856. [PMID: 37907473 PMCID: PMC10618202 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-023-42639-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2023] [Accepted: 10/17/2023] [Indexed: 11/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Chemical modification of nucleotides can improve the metabolic stability and target specificity of oligonucleotide therapeutics, and alkylphosphonates have been employed as charge-neutral replacements for naturally-occurring phosphodiester backbones in these compounds. However, at present, the alkyl moieties that can be attached to phosphorus atoms in these compounds are limited to methyl groups or primary/secondary alkyls, and such alkylphosphonate moieties can degrade during oligonucleotide synthesis. The present work demonstrates the tertiary alkylation of the phosphorus atoms of phosphites bearing two 2'-deoxynuclosides. This process utilizes a carbocation generated via a light-driven radical-polar crossover mechanism. This protocol provides tertiary alkylphosphonate structures that are difficult to synthesize using existing methods. The conversion of these species to oligonucleotides having charge-neutral alkylphosphonate linkages through a phosphoramidite-based approach was also confirmed in this study.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kenji Ota
- Institute for Chemical Research, Kyoto University, Uji, Kyoto, Japan
| | - Kazunori Nagao
- Institute for Chemical Research, Kyoto University, Uji, Kyoto, Japan.
| | - Dai Hata
- Research, Takeda Pharmaceutical Company Limited, Fujisawa, Kanagawa, Japan.
| | - Haruki Sugiyama
- Institute for Molecular Science Myodaiji, Okazaki, Japan
- Comprehensive Research Organization for Science and Society Neutron Industrial Application Promotion Center, Tokai, Ibaraki, Japan
- Graduate Institute for Advanced Studies, SOKENDAI, Myodaiji, Okazaki, Japan
| | - Yasutomo Segawa
- Institute for Molecular Science Myodaiji, Okazaki, Japan
- Graduate Institute for Advanced Studies, SOKENDAI, Myodaiji, Okazaki, Japan
| | - Ryosuke Tokunoh
- Research, Takeda Pharmaceutical Company Limited, Fujisawa, Kanagawa, Japan
| | - Tomohiro Seki
- Research, Takeda Pharmaceutical Company Limited, Fujisawa, Kanagawa, Japan
| | - Naoya Miyamoto
- Research, Takeda Pharmaceutical Company Limited, Fujisawa, Kanagawa, Japan
| | - Yusuke Sasaki
- Research, Takeda Pharmaceutical Company Limited, Fujisawa, Kanagawa, Japan
| | - Hirohisa Ohmiya
- Institute for Chemical Research, Kyoto University, Uji, Kyoto, Japan.
- JST, PRESTO, 4-1-8 Honcho, Kawaguchi, Saitama, Japan.
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8
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Teng M, Gray NS. The rise of degrader drugs. Cell Chem Biol 2023; 30:864-878. [PMID: 37494935 DOI: 10.1016/j.chembiol.2023.06.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2023] [Revised: 05/30/2023] [Accepted: 06/21/2023] [Indexed: 07/28/2023]
Abstract
The cancer genomics revolution has served up a plethora of promising and challenging targets for the drug discovery community. The field of targeted protein degradation (TPD) uses small molecules to reprogram the protein homeostasis system to destroy desired target proteins. In the last decade, remarkable progress has enabled the rational development of degraders for a large number of target proteins, with over 20 molecules targeting more than 12 proteins entering clinical development. While TPD has been fully credentialed by the prior development of immunomodulatory drug (IMiD) class for the treatment of multiple myeloma, the field is poised for a "Gleevec moment" in which robust clinical efficacy of a rationally developed novel degrader against a preselected target is firmly established. Here, we endeavor to provide a high-level evaluation of exciting developments in the field and comment on steps that may realize the full potential of this new therapeutic modality.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mingxing Teng
- Center for Drug Discovery, Department of Pathology & Immunology, and Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030, USA.
| | - Nathanael S Gray
- Department of Chemical and Systems Biology, ChEM-H, Stanford Cancer Institute, School of Medicine, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA.
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Hickey J, Sindhikara D, Zultanski SL, Schultz DM. Beyond 20 in the 21st Century: Prospects and Challenges of Non-canonical Amino Acids in Peptide Drug Discovery. ACS Med Chem Lett 2023; 14:557-565. [PMID: 37197469 PMCID: PMC10184154 DOI: 10.1021/acsmedchemlett.3c00037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2023] [Accepted: 03/29/2023] [Indexed: 05/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Life is constructed primarily using a toolbox of 20 canonical amino acids-relying upon these building blocks for the assembly of proteins and peptides that regulate nearly every cellular task, including cell structure, function, and maintenance. While Nature continues to be a source of inspiration for drug discovery, medicinal chemists are not beholden to only 20 canonical amino acids and have begun to explore non-canonical amino acids (ncAAs) for the construction of designer peptides with improved drug-like properties. However, as our toolbox of ncAAs expands, drug hunters are encountering new challenges in approaching the iterative peptide design-make-test-analyze cycle with a seemingly boundless set of building blocks. This Microperspective focuses on new technologies that are accelerating ncAA interrogation in peptide drug discovery (including HELM notation, late-stage functionalization, and biocatalysis) while shedding light on areas where further investment could not only accelerate the discovery of new medicines but also improve downstream development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer
L. Hickey
- Department
of Medicinal Chemistry, Merck & Co.,
Inc., Kenilworth, New Jersey 07033, United States
| | - Dan Sindhikara
- Department
of Modeling and Informatics, Merck &
Co., Inc., Kenilworth, New Jersey 07033, United States
| | - Susan L. Zultanski
- Department
of Process Research & Development, Merck
& Co., Inc., Rahway, New Jersey 07065, United States
| | - Danielle M. Schultz
- Department
of Process Research & Development, Merck
& Co., Inc., Rahway, New Jersey 07065, United States
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Caballero I, Lundgren S. A Shift in Thinking: Cellular Thermal Shift Assay-Enabled Drug Discovery. ACS Med Chem Lett 2023; 14:369-375. [PMID: 37077396 PMCID: PMC10108388 DOI: 10.1021/acsmedchemlett.2c00545] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2023] [Accepted: 03/06/2023] [Indexed: 03/19/2023] Open
Abstract
A decade has passed since the cellular thermal shift assay (CETSA) was introduced to the drug discovery community. Over the years, the method has guided numerous projects by providing insights about, for example, target engagement, lead generation, target identification, lead optimization, and preclinical profiling. With this Microperspective, we intend to highlight recently published applications of CETSA and how the data generated can enable efficient decision-making and prioritization throughout the drug discovery and development value chain.
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Buskes M, Coffin A, Troast DM, Stein R, Blanco MJ. Accelerating Drug Discovery: Synthesis of Complex Chemotypes via Multicomponent Reactions. ACS Med Chem Lett 2023; 14:376-385. [PMID: 37077380 PMCID: PMC10107905 DOI: 10.1021/acsmedchemlett.3c00012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2023] [Accepted: 02/20/2023] [Indexed: 04/21/2023] Open
Abstract
The generation of multiple bonds in one reaction step has attracted massive interest in drug discovery and development. Multicomponent reactions (MCRs) offer the advantage of combining three or more reagents in a one-pot fashion to effectively yield a synthetic product. This approach significantly accelerates the synthesis of relevant compounds for biological testing. However, there is a perception that this methodology will only produce simple chemical scaffolds with limited use in medicinal chemistry. In this Microperspective, we want to highlight the value of MCRs toward the synthesis of complex molecules characterized by the presence of quaternary and chiral centers. This paper will cover specific examples showing the impact of this technology toward the discovery of clinical compounds and recent breakthroughs to expand the scope of the reactions toward topologically rich molecular chemotypes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melissa
J. Buskes
- Atavistik Bio 75 Sidney Street, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
| | - Aaron Coffin
- Atavistik Bio 75 Sidney Street, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
| | - Dawn M. Troast
- Atavistik Bio 75 Sidney Street, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
| | - Rachel Stein
- Atavistik Bio 75 Sidney Street, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
| | - Maria-Jesus Blanco
- Atavistik Bio 75 Sidney Street, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
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Yashiro K, Lim Y, Sengoku S, Kodama K. Recent trends in interorganizational deal networks in pharmaceutical and biotechnology industries. Drug Discov Today 2023; 28:103483. [PMID: 36584874 DOI: 10.1016/j.drudis.2022.103483] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2022] [Revised: 12/09/2022] [Accepted: 12/22/2022] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
While there have been trends in drug discovery from small molecules to new chemical modalities since the large mergers and acquisitions (M&A) of pharmaceutical companies in the late 2000s, trends in interorganizational deal networks have not been well addressed. We investigated the changing trends in interorganizational deals in the pharmaceutical and biotechnology industries. The results demonstrated that there have been changing trends, including a growing number of spinouts from academia and M&A in the United States and Europe. These findings indicates that the traditional network in which large pharmaceutical companies drove drug discovery output has changed, and interorganizational deals among diverse players have become more active.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kentaro Yashiro
- Graduate School of Technology Management, Ritsumeikan University, Osaka 567-8570, Japan
| | - Yeongjoo Lim
- Faculty of Business Administration, Ritsumeikan University, Osaka 567-8570, Japan
| | - Shintaro Sengoku
- School of Environment and Society, Tokyo Institute of Technology, Tokyo 152-8550, Japan
| | - Kota Kodama
- Graduate School of Technology Management, Ritsumeikan University, Osaka 567-8570, Japan; Center for Research and Education on Drug Discovery, The Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences in Hokkaido University, Sapporo 060-0812, Japan.
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