Delivery of MicroRNAs by Chitosan Nanoparticles to Functionally Alter Macrophage Cholesterol Efflux in Vitro and in Vivo

Rational design of diblock copolymer enables efficient cytosolic protein delivery

Polymer-mediated cytosolic protein delivery demonstrates a promising strategy for the development of protein therapeutics. Here, we propose a new designed diblock copolymer which realizes efficient cytosolic protein delivery both in vitro and in vivo. The polymer contains one protein-binding block composed of phenylboronic acid (PBA) and N-(3-dimethylaminopropyl) (DMAP) pendant units for protein binding and endosomal escape, respectively, followed by the response to ATP enriched in the cytosol which triggers the protein release. The other block is PEG designed to improve particle size control and circulation in vivo. By optimizing the block composition, sequence and length of the copolymer, the optimal one (BP20) was identified with the binding block containing 20 units of both PBA and DMAP, randomly distributed along the chain. When mixed with proteins, the BP20 forms stable nanoparticles and mediates efficient cytosolic delivery of a wide range of proteins including enzymes, toxic proteins and CRISPR/Cas9 ribonucleoproteins (RNP), to various cell lines. The PEG block, especially when further modified with folic acid (FA), enables tumor-targeted delivery of Saporin in vivo, which significantly suppresses the tumor growth. Our results shall inspire the design of novel polymeric vehicles with robust capability for cytosolic protein delivery, which holds great potential for both biological research and therapeutic applications.

Recent Review on Biological Barriers and Host-Material Interfaces in Precision Drug Delivery: Advancement in Biomaterial Engineering for Better Treatment Therapies

Preclinical and clinical studies have demonstrated that precision therapy has a broad variety of treatment applications, making it an interesting research topic with exciting potential in numerous sectors. However, major obstacles, such as inefficient and unsafe delivery systems and severe side effects, have impeded the widespread use of precision medicine. The purpose of drug delivery systems (DDSs) is to regulate the time and place of drug release and action. They aid in enhancing the equilibrium between medicinal efficacy on target and hazardous side effects off target. One promising approach is biomaterial-assisted biotherapy, which takes advantage of biomaterials' special capabilities, such as high biocompatibility and bioactive characteristics. When administered via different routes, drug molecules deal with biological barriers; DDSs help them overcome these hurdles. With their adaptable features and ample packing capacity, biomaterial-based delivery systems allow for the targeted, localised, and prolonged release of medications. Additionally, they are being investigated more and more for the purpose of controlling the interface between the host tissue and implanted biomedical materials. This review discusses innovative nanoparticle designs for precision and non-personalised applications to improve precision therapies. We prioritised nanoparticle design trends that address heterogeneous delivery barriers, because we believe intelligent nanoparticle design can improve patient outcomes by enabling precision designs and improving general delivery efficacy. We additionally reviewed the most recent literature on biomaterials used in biotherapy and vaccine development, covering drug delivery, stem cell therapy, gene therapy, and other similar fields; we have also addressed the difficulties and future potential of biomaterial-assisted biotherapies.

MicroRNA delivery based on nanoparticles of cardiovascular diseases

Cardiovascular disease, especially myocardial infarction, is a serious threat to human health. Many drugs currently used cannot achieve the desired therapeutic effect due to the lack of selectivity. With the in-depth understanding of the role of microRNA (miRNA) in cardiovascular disease and the wide application of nanotechnology, loading drugs into nanoparticles with the help of nano-delivery system may have a better effect in the treatment of cardiomyopathy. In this review, we highlight the latest research on miRNAs in the treatment of cardiovascular disease in recent years and discuss the possibilities and challenges of using miRNA to treat cardiomyopathy. Secondly, we discuss the delivery of miRNA through different nano-carriers, especially inorganic, polymer and liposome nano-carriers. The preparation of miRNA nano-drugs by encapsulating miRNA in these nano-materials will provide a new treatment option. In addition, the research status of miRNA in the treatment of cardiomyopathy based on nano-carriers is summarized. The use of this delivery tool cannot only realize therapeutic potential, but also greatly improve drug targeting and reduce side effects.

A Review of Nanotechnology in microRNA Detection and Drug Delivery

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are small, non-coding RNAs that play a crucial role in regulating gene expression. Dysfunction in miRNAs can lead to various diseases, including cancers, neurological disorders, and cardiovascular conditions. To date, approximately 2000 miRNAs have been identified in humans. These small molecules have shown promise as disease biomarkers and potential therapeutic targets. Therefore, identifying miRNA biomarkers for diseases and developing effective miRNA drug delivery systems are essential. Nanotechnology offers promising new approaches to addressing scientific and medical challenges. Traditional miRNA detection methods include next-generation sequencing, microarrays, Northern blotting, and reverse transcription-quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR). Nanotechnology can serve as an effective alternative to Northern blotting and RT-qPCR for miRNA detection. Moreover, nanomaterials exhibit unique properties that differ from larger counterparts, enabling miRNA therapeutics to more effectively enter target cells, reduce degradation in the bloodstream, and be released in specific tissues or cells. This paper reviews the application of nanotechnology in miRNA detection and drug delivery systems. Given that miRNA therapeutics are still in the developing stages, nanotechnology holds great promise for accelerating miRNA therapeutics development.

Nanoplatform-Based In Vivo Gene Delivery Systems for Cancer Therapy

Gene therapy uses modern molecular biology methods to repair disease-causing genes. As a burgeoning therapeutic, it has been widely applied for cancer therapy. Since 1989, there have been numerous clinical gene therapy cases worldwide. However, a few are successful. The main challenge of clinical gene therapy is the lack of efficient and safe vectors. Although viral vectors show high transfection efficiency, their application is still limited by immune rejection and packaging capacity. Therefore, the development of non-viral vectors is overwhelming. Nanoplatform-based non-viral vectors become a hotspot in gene therapy. The reasons are mainly as follows. 1) Non-viral vectors can be engineered to be uptaken by specific types of cells or tissues, providing effective targeting capability. 2) Non-viral vectors can protect goods that need to be delivered from degradation. 3) Nanoparticles can transport large-sized cargo such as CRISPR/Cas9 plasmids and nucleoprotein complexes. 4) Nanoparticles are highly biosafe, and they are not mutagenic in themselves compared to viral vectors. 5) Nanoparticles are easy to scale preparation, which is conducive to clinical conversion and application. Here, an overview of the categories of nanoplatform-based non-viral gene vectors, the limitations on their development, and their applications in cancer therapy.

Recent progress of iron-based nanomaterials in gene delivery and tumor gene therapy

Gene therapy aims to modify or manipulate gene expression and change the biological characteristics of living cells to achieve the purpose of treating diseases. The safe, efficient, and stable expression of exogenous genes in cells is crucial for the success of gene therapy, which is closely related to the vectors used in gene therapy. Currently, gene therapy vectors are mainly divided into two categories: viral vectors and non-viral vectors. Viral vectors are widely used due to the advantages of persistent and stable expression, high transfection efficiency, but they also have certain issues such as infectivity, high immunological rejection, randomness of insertion mutation, carcinogenicity, and limited vector capacity. Non-viral vectors have the advantages of non-infectivity, controllable chemical structure, and unlimited vector capacity, but the transfection efficiency is low. With the rapid development of nanotechnology, the unique physicochemical properties of nanomaterials have attracted increasing attention in the field of drug and gene delivery. Among many nanomaterials, iron-based nanomaterials have attracted much attention due to their superior physicochemical properties, such as Fenton reaction, magnetic resonance imaging, magnetothermal therapy, photothermal therapy, gene delivery, magnetically-assisted drug delivery, cell and tissue targeting, and so on. In this paper, the research progress of iron-based nanomaterials in gene delivery and tumor gene therapy is reviewed, and the future application direction of iron-based nanomaterials is further prospected.

Engineering Nanoplatforms for Theranostics of Atherosclerotic Plaques

Atherosclerotic plaque formation is considered the primary pathological mechanism underlying atherosclerotic cardiovascular diseases, leading to severe cardiovascular events such as stroke, acute coronary syndromes, and even sudden cardiac death. Early detection and timely intervention of plaques are challenging due to the lack of typical symptoms in the initial stages. Therefore, precise early detection and intervention play a crucial role in risk stratification of atherosclerotic plaques and achieving favorable post-interventional outcomes. The continuously advancing nanoplatforms have demonstrated numerous advantages including high signal-to-noise ratio, enhanced bioavailability, and specific targeting capabilities for imaging agents and therapeutic drugs, enabling effective visualization and management of atherosclerotic plaques. Motivated by these superior properties, various noninvasive imaging modalities for early recognition of plaques in the preliminary stage of atherosclerosis are comprehensively summarized. Additionally, several therapeutic strategies are proposed to enhance the efficacy of treating atherosclerotic plaques. Finally, existing challenges and promising prospects for accelerating clinical translation of nanoplatform-based molecular imaging and therapy for atherosclerotic plaques are discussed. In conclusion, this review provides an insightful perspective on the diagnosis and therapy of atherosclerotic plaques.

Biomimetic MicroRNAs-Selenium-Nanocomposites for Targeted and Combined Hyperlipidemia Therapy

Hyperlipidemia is considered as a high-risk factor for leading to coronary heart disease. MicroRNA-148a-3p (miR-148a-3p) inhibitor is a potential therapeutic target to bind low-density lipoprotein cholesterol receptors (LDLR) for decreasing the levels of low-density lipoprotein cholesterol in plasma. However, the therapeutic effects are not ideal in the clinical translation of nucleic acids treatment, owing to the short circulation time in vivo. Therefore, a platelet membrane (PM) cloaks Se nanoparticles (SeNPs) delivery system with chitosan (CS) modifies and miR-148a-3p inhibitors encapsulated is designed (PM/CS-SeNPs/miR). The PM/CS-SeNPs/miR shows a uniform shell-core structure with a particle size of ≈90 nm. Co-delivering miR-148a-3p inhibitors and Se effectively alleviate hyperlipidemia via LDLR pathway and Toll-Like Receptor 4 (TLR-4)/NF-κB signaling pathway, respectively. Furthermore, coated by PM, PM/CS-SeNPs/miR successfully prolong circulation time to 48 h in vivo and quickly target to liver with no toxicity. This dual combination therapy with miRNAs and Se based on nanoparticles targeted delivery presents a high-performance strategy for precise hyperlipidemia treatment.

Advances in Atherosclerosis Theranostics Harnessing Iron Oxide-Based Nanoparticles

Atherosclerosis, a multifaceted chronic inflammatory disease, has a profound impact on cardiovascular health. However, the critical limitations of atherosclerosis management include the delayed detection of advanced stages, the intricate assessment of plaque stability, and the absence of efficacious therapeutic strategies. Nanotheranostic based on nanotechnology offers a novel paradigm for addressing these challenges by amalgamating advanced imaging capabilities with targeted therapeutic interventions. Meanwhile, iron oxide nanoparticles have emerged as compelling candidates for theranostic applications in atherosclerosis due to their magnetic resonance imaging capability and biosafety. This review delineates the current state and prospects of iron oxide nanoparticle-based nanotheranostics in the realm of atherosclerosis, including pivotal aspects of atherosclerosis development, the pertinent targeting strategies involved in disease pathogenesis, and the diagnostic and therapeutic roles of iron oxide nanoparticles. Furthermore, this review provides a comprehensive overview of theranostic nanomedicine approaches employing iron oxide nanoparticles, encompassing chemical therapy, physical stimulation therapy, and biological therapy. Finally, this review proposes and discusses the challenges and prospects associated with translating these innovative strategies into clinically viable anti-atherosclerosis interventions. In conclusion, this review offers new insights into the future of atherosclerosis theranostic, showcasing the remarkable potential of iron oxide-based nanoparticles as versatile tools in the battle against atherosclerosis.

Monocytic microRNAs-Novel targets in atherosclerosis therapy

Atherosclerosis is a chronic proinflammatory disease of the vascular wall resulting in narrowing of arteries due to plaque formation, thereby causing reduced blood supply that is the leading cause for diverse end-organ damage with high mortality rates. Monocytes/macrophages, activated by elevated circulating lipoproteins, are significantly involved in the formation and development of atherosclerotic plaques. The imbalance between proinflammatory and anti-inflammatory macrophages, arising from dysregulated macrophage polarization, appears to be a driving force in this process. Proatherosclerotic processes acting on monocytes/macrophages include accumulation of cholesterol in macrophages leading to foam cell formation, as well as dysfunctional efferocytosis, all of which contribute to the formation of unstable plaques. In recent years, microRNAs (miRs) were identified as factors that could modulate monocyte/macrophage function and may therefore interfere with the atherosclerotic process. In this review, we present effects of monocyte/macrophage-derived miRs on atherosclerotic processes in order to reveal new treatment options using miRmimics or antagomiRs.

Harnessing anti-inflammatory pathways and macrophage nano delivery to treat inflammatory and fibrotic disorders

Targeting specific organs and cell types using nanotechnology and sophisticated delivery methods has been at the forefront of applicative biomedical sciences lately. Macrophages are an appealing target for immunomodulation by nanodelivery as they are heavily involved in various aspects of many diseases and are highly plastic in their nature. Their continuum of functional "polarization" states has been a research focus for many years yielding a profound understanding of various aspects of these cells. The ability of monocyte-derived macrophages to metamorphose from pro-inflammatory to reparative and consequently to pro-resolving effectors has raised significant interest in its therapeutic potential. Here, we briefly survey macrophages' ontogeny and various polarization phenotypes, highlighting their function in the inflammation-resolution shift. We review their inducing mediators, signaling pathways, and biological programs with emphasis on the nucleic acid sensing-IFN-I axis. We also portray the polarization spectrum of macrophages and the characteristics of their transition between different subtypes. Finally, we highlighted different current drug delivery methods for targeting macrophages with emphasis on nanotargeting that might lead to breakthroughs in the treatment of wound healing, bone regeneration, autoimmune, and fibrotic diseases.

Chitosan nanocarriers for non-coding RNA therapeutics: A review

Non-coding RNA (ncRNA)-based therapies entail delivering ncRNAs to cells to regulate gene expression and produce proteins that combat infections, cancer, neurological diseases, and bone abnormalities. Nevertheless, the therapeutic potential of these ncRNAs has been limited due to the difficulties in delivering them to specific cellular targets within the body. Chitosan (CS), a biocompatible cationic polymer, interacts with negatively charged RNA molecules to form stable complexes. It is a promising biomaterial to develop nanocarriers for ncRNA delivery, overcoming several disadvantages of traditional delivery systems. CS-based nanocarriers can protect ncRNAs from degradation and target-specific delivery by surface modifications and intracellular release profiles over an extended period. This review briefly summarizes the recent developments in CS nanocarriers' synthesis and design considerations and their applications in ncRNA therapeutics for treating various diseases. We also discuss the challenges and limitations of CS-based nanocarriers for ncRNA therapeutics and potential strategies for overcoming these challenges.

Unleashing the Potential of Oral Deliverable Nanomedicine in the Treatment of Inflammatory Bowel Disease

Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), marked by chronic gastrointestinal tract inflammation, poses a significant global medical challenge. Current treatments for IBD, including corticosteroids, immunomodulators, and biologics, often require frequent systemic administration through parenteral delivery, leading to nonspecific drug distribution, suboptimal therapeutic outcomes, and adverse effects. There is a pressing need for a targeted drug delivery system to enhance drug efficacy and minimize its systemic impact. Nanotechnology emerges as a transformative solution, enabling precise oral drug delivery to inflamed intestinal tissues, reducing off-target effects, and enhancing therapeutic efficiency. The advantages include heightened bioavailability, sustained drug release, and improved cellular uptake. Additionally, the nano-based approach allows for the integration of theranostic elements, enabling simultaneous diagnosis and treatment. Recent preclinical advances in oral IBD treatments, particularly with nanoformulations such as functionalized polymeric and lipid nanoparticles, demonstrate remarkable cell-targeting ability and biosafety, promising to overcome the limitations of conventional therapies. These developments signify a paradigm shift toward personalized and effective oral IBD management. This review explores the potential of oral nanomedicine to enhance IBD treatment significantly, focusing specifically on cell-targeting oral drug delivery system for potential use in IBD management. We also examine emerging technologies such as theranostic nanoparticles and artificial intelligence, identifying avenues for the practical translation of nanomedicines into clinical applications.

Exploring modified chitosan-based gene delivery technologies for therapeutic advancements

One of the critical steps in gene therapy is the successful delivery of the genes. Immunogenicity and toxicity are major issues for viral gene delivery systems. Thus, non-viral vectors are explored. A cationic polysaccharide like chitosan could be used as a nonviral gene delivery vector owing to its significant interaction with negatively charged nucleic acid and biomembrane, providing effective cellular uptake. However, the native chitosan has issues of targetability, unpacking ability, and solubility along with poor buffer capability, hence requiring modifications for effective use in gene delivery. Modified chitosan has shown that the "proton sponge effect" involved in buffering the endosomal pH results in osmotic swelling owing to the accumulation of a greater amount of proton and chloride along with water. The major challenges include limited exploration of chitosan as a gene carrier, the availability of high-purity chitosan for toxicity reduction, and its immunogenicity. The genetic drugs are in their infancy phase and require further exploration for effective delivery of nucleic acid molecules as FDA-approved marketed formulations soon.

Nanotechnology-based non-viral vectors for gene delivery in cardiovascular diseases

Gene therapy is a technique that rectifies defective or abnormal genes by introducing exogenous genes into target cells to cure the disease. Although gene therapy has gained some accomplishment for the diagnosis and therapy of inherited or acquired cardiovascular diseases, how to efficiently and specifically deliver targeted genes to the lesion sites without being cleared by the blood system remains challenging. Based on nanotechnology development, the non-viral vectors provide a promising strategy for overcoming the difficulties in gene therapy. At present, according to the physicochemical properties, nanotechnology-based non-viral vectors include polymers, liposomes, lipid nanoparticles, and inorganic nanoparticles. Non-viral vectors have an advantage in safety, efficiency, and easy production, possessing potential clinical application value when compared with viral vectors. Therefore, we summarized recent research progress of gene therapy for cardiovascular diseases based on commonly used non-viral vectors, hopefully providing guidance and orientation for future relevant research.

Smart chitosan-based microgels for enhanced photothermal-assisted antibacterial activity

During recent years, antibiotic-resistant bacteria have rapidly emerged owing to the irrational use of antibiotics, rendering a global problem. Currently, few studies introduce customized antibacterial nanoplatforms to overcome antibiotic-resistance according to specific characteristic of bacteria, rather than abuse of antibiotic. Herein, with regard to personalized antibacterial nanoplatform, we design a novel antibiotic delivery nanocarrier composed of polyaniline-grafted-chitosan, presenting pH-responsive, conductive, photothermal, and biodegradable properties. After treatment with divalent anion (SO42-), the negatively charged nanocarriers are obtained for improving the loading efficacy of cationic vancomycin. Meanwhile, the controlled vancomycin release is achieved by lysozyme-triggered degradation of the nanocarrier. With the assistance of photothermal effect, the photothermal-assisted antibacterial effect of the nanocarriers have been effectively enhanced rather than that of a single antibacterial effect of vancomycin. Owing to the low heat resistance of Escherichia coli, photothermal effect can break the antibiotic-resistant bacteria membrane to render the convenient antibiotic entry, leading to the improved antibacterial efficacy. Therefore, the customization of a photothermal-assisted antibacterial on account of the characteristic of specific bacteria can definitely expand our arsenal for enhancing the antibacterial effect against antibiotic-resistant bacteria.

Marine biomaterials in biomedical nano/micro-systems

Marine resources in unique marine environments provide abundant, cost-effective natural biomaterials with distinct structures, compositions, and biological activities compared to terrestrial species. These marine-derived raw materials, including polysaccharides, natural protein components, fatty acids, and marine minerals, etc., have shown great potential in preparing, stabilizing, or modifying multifunctional nano-/micro-systems and are widely applied in drug delivery, theragnostic, tissue engineering, etc. This review provides a comprehensive summary of the most current marine biomaterial-based nano-/micro-systems developed over the past three years, primarily focusing on therapeutic delivery studies and highlighting their potential to cure a variety of diseases. Specifically, we first provided a detailed introduction to the physicochemical characteristics and biological activities of natural marine biocomponents in their raw state. Furthermore, the assembly processes, potential functionalities of each building block, and a thorough evaluation of the pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of advanced marine biomaterial-based systems and their effects on molecular pathophysiological processes were fully elucidated. Finally, a list of unresolved issues and pivotal challenges of marine-derived biomaterials applications, such as standardized distinction of raw materials, long-term biosafety in vivo, the feasibility of scale-up, etc., was presented. This review is expected to serve as a roadmap for fundamental research and facilitate the rational design of marine biomaterials for diverse emerging applications.

Nanotechnology in coronary heart disease

Coronary heart disease (CHD) is one of the major causes of death and disability worldwide, especially in low- and middle-income countries and among older populations. Conventional diagnostic and therapeutic approaches have limitations such as low sensitivity, high cost and side effects. Nanotechnology offers promising alternative strategies for the diagnosis and treatment of CHD by exploiting the unique properties of nanomaterials. In this review, we use bibliometric analysis to identify research hotspots in the application of nanotechnology in CHD and provide a comprehensive overview of the current state of the art. Nanomaterials with enhanced imaging and biosensing capabilities can improve the early detection of CHD through advanced contrast agents and high-resolution imaging techniques. Moreover, nanomaterials can facilitate targeted drug delivery, tissue engineering and modulation of inflammation and oxidative stress, thus addressing multiple aspects of CHD pathophysiology. We discuss the application of nanotechnology in CHD diagnosis (imaging and sensors) and treatment (regulation of macrophages, cardiac repair, anti-oxidative stress), and provide insights into future research directions and clinical translation. This review serves as a valuable resource for researchers and clinicians seeking to harness the potential of nanotechnology in the management of CHD. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: Coronary heart disease (CHD) is the one of leading cause of death and disability worldwide. Nanotechnology offers new strategies for diagnosing and treating CHD by exploiting the unique properties of nanomaterials. This review uses bibliometric analysis to uncover research trends in the use of nanotechnology for CHD. We discuss the potential of nanomaterials for early CHD detection through advanced imaging and biosensing, targeted drug delivery, tissue engineering, and modulation of inflammation and oxidative stress. We also offer insights into future research directions and potential clinical applications. This work aims to guide researchers and clinicians in leveraging nanotechnology to improve CHD patient outcomes and quality of life.

Regulation of cholesterol homeostasis in osteoporosis mechanisms and therapeutics

Osteoporosis is a metabolic bone disease that affects hundreds of millions of people worldwide and is characterized by excessive loss of bone protein and mineral content. The incidence and mortality of osteoporosis increase with age, creating a significant medical and economic burden globally. The importance of cholesterol levels has been reported in the development of diseases including osteoporosis. It is important to note that key enzymes and molecules involved in cholesterol homeostasis are closely related to bone formation. Excessive cholesterol may cause osteoporosis, cholesterol and its metabolites affect bone homeostasis by regulating the proliferation and stimulation of osteoblasts and osteoclasts. Therefore, antagonism of elevated cholesterol levels may be a potential strategy to prevent osteoporosis. There is sufficient evidence to support the use of bisphosphonates and statin drugs for osteoporosis in the clinic. Therefore, in view of the aggravation of the aging problem, we summarize the intracellular mechanism of cholesterol homeostasis and its relationship with osteoporosis (including cholesterol and cholesterol oxidation products (COPs) in osteoporosis). Furthermore, the current clinical cholesterol-lowering drugs for osteoporosis were also summarized, as are new and promising therapies (cell-based therapies (e.g., stem cells) and biomaterial-delivered target drug therapies for osteoporosis as well).

Chitosan Derivative-Based Microspheres Loaded with Fibroblast Growth Factor for the Treatment of Diabetes

Diabetes mellitus type 2 (T2DM) is a disease caused by genetic and environmental factors, and the main clinical manifestation is hyperglycemia. Currently, insulin injections are still the first-line treatment for diabetes. However, repeated injections may cause insulin resistance, hypoglycemia, and other serious side effects. Thus, it is imperative to develop new diabetes treatments. Protein-based diabetes drugs, such as fibroblast growth factor-21 (FGF-21), have a longer-lasting glycemic modulating effect with high biosafety. However, the instability of these protein drugs limits their applications. In this study, we extract protein hypoglycemic drugs with oral and injectable functions. The FGF-21 analog (NA-FGF) was loaded into the chitosan derivative-based nanomaterials, N-2-Hydroxypropyl trimethyl ammonium chloride chitosan/carboxymethyl chitosan (N-2-HACC/CMCS), to prepare NA-FGF-loaded N-2-HACC/CMCS microspheres (NA-FGF-N-2-HACC/CMCS MPs). It was well demonstrated that NA-FGF-N-2-HACC/CMCS MPs have great biocompatibility, biostability, and durable drug-release ability. In addition to injectable drug delivery, our prepared microspheres were highly advantageous for oral administration. The in vitro and in vivo experimental results suggested that NA-FGF-N-2-HACC/CMCS MPs could be used as a promising candidate and universal nano-delivery system for both oral and injectable hypoglycemic regulation.

Chitosan-Based Nanoparticles for Nucleic Acid Delivery: Technological Aspects, Applications, and Future Perspectives

Chitosan is a naturally occurring polymer derived from the deacetylation of chitin, which is an abundant carbohydrate found mainly in the shells of various marine and terrestrial (micro)organisms. Chitosan has been extensively used to construct nanoparticles (NPs), which are biocompatible, biodegradable, non-toxic, easy to prepare, and can function as effective drug delivery systems. Moreover, chitosan NPs have been employed in gene and vaccine delivery, as well as advanced cancer therapy, and they can also serve as new therapeutic tools against viral infections. In this review, we summarize the most recent developments in the field of chitosan-based NPs intended as nucleic acid delivery vehicles and gene therapy vectors. Special attention is given to the technological aspects of chitosan complexes for nucleic acid delivery.

Effects of miR-33 Deficiency on Metabolic and Cardiovascular Diseases: Implications for Therapeutic Intervention

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are small noncoding RNAs that post-transcriptionally inhibit gene expression. These small molecules are involved in several biological conditions such as inflammation, cell growth and proliferation, and regulation of energy metabolism. In the context of metabolic and cardiovascular diseases, miR-33 is of particular interest as it has been implicated in the regulation of lipid and glucose metabolism. This miRNA is located in introns harboured in the genes encoding sterol regulatory element-binding protein (SREBP)-1 and SREBP-2, which are key transcription factors involved in lipid biosynthesis and cholesterol efflux. This review outlines the role of miR-33 in a range of metabolic and cardiovascular pathologies, such as dyslipidaemia, nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), obesity, diabetes, atherosclerosis, and abdominal aortic aneurysm (AAA), and it provides discussion about the effectiveness of miR-33 deficiency as a possible therapeutic strategy to prevent the development of these diseases.

Optimization and characterization of miRNA-129-5p-encapsulated poly (lactic-co-glycolic acid) nanoparticles to reprogram activated microglia

Microglia have become a therapeutic target of many inflammation-mediated diseases in the central nervous system (CNS). Recently, microRNA (miRNA) has been proposed as an important regulator of immune responses. Specifically, miRNA-129-5p has been shown to play critical roles in the regulation of microglia activation. We have demonstrated that biodegradable poly (lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA)-based nanoparticles (NPs) modulated innate immune cells and limited neuroinflammation after injury to the CNS. In this study, we optimized and characterized PLGA-based NPs for miRNA-129-5p delivery to utilize their synergistic immunomodulatory features for activated microglia modulation. A series of nanoformulations employing multiple excipients including epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG), spermidine (Sp), or polyethyleneimine (PEI) for miRNA-129-5p complexation and miRNA-129-5p conjugation to PLGA (PLGA-miR) were utilized. We characterized a total of six nanoformulations through physicochemical, biochemical, and molecular biological methods. In addition, we investigated the immunomodulatory effects of multiple nanoformulations. The data indicated that the immunomodulatory effects of nanoformulation, PLGA-miR with the excipient Sp (PLGA-miR+Sp) and PEI (PLGA-miR+PEI) were significant compared to other nanoformulations including naked PLGA-based NP. These nanoformulations promoted a sustained release of miRNA-129-5p and polarization of activated microglia into a more pro-regenerative phenotype. Moreover, they enhanced the expression of multiple regeneration-associated factors, while alleviating the expression of pro-inflammatory factors. Collectively, the proposed nanoformulations in this study highlight the promising therapeutic tools for synergistic immunomodulatory effects between PLGA-based NPs and miRNA-129-5p to modulate activated microglia which will have numerous applications for inflammation-derived diseases.

Layered Double Hydroxide-Loaded miR-30a for the Treatment of Breast Cancer In Vitro and In Vivo

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) play an essential role in cancer therapy, but the disadvantages of its poor inherent stability, rapid clearance, and low delivery efficiency affect the therapeutic efficiency. Loading miRNAs by nanoformulations can improve their bioavailability and enhance therapeutic efficiency, which is an effective miRNA delivery strategy. In this study, we synthesized layered double hydroxides (LDH), which are widely used as carriers of drugs or genes due to the characteristics of good biocompatibility, high loading capacity, and pH sensitivity. We loaded the suppressor oncogene miR-30a on LDH nanomaterials (LDH@miR-30a) and determined the mass ratio of miRNA binding to LDH by agarose gel electrophoresis. LDH@miR-30a was able to escape the lysosomal pathway and was successfully phagocytosed by breast cancer SKBR3 cells and remained detectable in the cells after 24 h of co-incubation. In vitro experiments showed that LDH@miR-30a-treated SKBR3 cells showed decreased proliferation and cell cycle arrest in the G0/G1 phase and LDH@miR-30a was able to regulate the epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) process and inhibit cell migration and invasion by targeting SNAI1. Meanwhile, in vivo experiments showed that nude mice treated with LDH@miR-30a showed a significant reduction in their solid tumors and no significant impairment of vital organs was observed. In conclusion, LDH@miR-30a is an effective drug delivery system for the treatment of breast cancer.

In Situ Sustained Macrophage-Targeted Nanomicelle-Hydrogel Microspheres for Inhibiting Osteoarthritis

There are still challenges in applying drug nanocarriers for in situ sustained macrophage targeting and regulation, due to the rapid clearance of nanocarriers and burst drug release in vivo. Herein, a nanomicelle-hydrogel microsphere, characterized by its macrophage-targeted nanosized secondary structure that allows it to accurately bind to M1 macrophages through active endocytosis, is employed for in situ sustained macrophage targeting and regulation, and addresses the insufficient osteoarthritis therapeutic efficacy caused by rapid clearance of drug nanocarriers. The 3-dimensional structure of a microsphere can prevent the rapid escape and clearance of a nanomicelle, thus keeping it in joints, while the ligand-guided secondary structure can carry drugs to accurately target and enter M1 macrophages, and release drugs via the transition from hydrophobicity to hydrophilicity of nanomicelles under inflammatory stimulation inside the macrophages. The experiments show that the nanomicelle-hydrogel microsphere can in situ sustainably target and regulate M1 macrophages for more than 14 days in joints, and attenuate local "cytokine storm" by continuous M1 macrophage apoptosis promotion and polarization inhibition. This micro/nano-hydrogel system shows excellent ability to sustainably target and regulate macrophage, realizes the improvement of drug utilization and efficacy inside the macrophage, and thereby can be a potential platform for treating macrophage-related diseases.

Polymeric nanomaterial strategies to encapsulate and deliver biological drugs: points to consider between methods

Biological drugs (BDs) play an increasingly irreplaceable role in treating various diseases such as cancer, and cardiovascular and neurodegenerative diseases. The market share of BDs is increasingly promising. However, the effectiveness of BDs is currently limited due to challenges in efficient administration and delivery, and issues with stability and degradation. Thus, the field is using nanotechnology to overcome these limitations. Specifically, polymeric nanomaterials are common BD carriers due to their biocompatibility and ease of synthesis. Different strategies are available for BD transportation, but the use of core-shell encapsulation is preferable for BDs. This review discusses recent articles on manufacturing methods for encapsulating BDs in polymeric materials, including emulsification, nanoprecipitation, self-encapsulation and coaxial electrospraying. The advantages and disadvantages of each method are analysed and discussed. We also explore the impact of critical synthesis parameters on BD activity, such as sonication in emulsifications. Lastly, we provide a vision of future challenges and perspectives for scale-up production and clinical translation.

Biodegradable Polymeric Nanoparticles Loaded with Flavonoids: A Promising Therapy for Inflammatory Bowel Disease

Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is a group of disorders that cause chronic non-specific inflammation in the gastrointestinal (GI) tract, primarily affecting the ileum and colon. The incidence of IBD has risen sharply in recent years. Despite continuous research efforts over the past decades, the aetiology of IBD is still not fully understood and only a limited number of drugs are available for its treatment. Flavonoids, a ubiquitous class of natural chemicals found in plants, have been widely used in the prevention and treatment of IBD. However, their therapeutic efficacy is unsatisfactory due to poor solubility, instability, rapid metabolism, and rapid systemic elimination. With the development of nanomedicine, nanocarriers can efficiently encapsulate various flavonoids and subsequently form nanoparticles (NPs), which greatly improves the stability and bioavailability of flavonoids. Recently, progress has also been made in the methodology of biodegradable polymers that can be used to fabricate NPs. As a result, NPs can significantly enhance the preventive or therapeutic effects of flavonoids on IBD. In this review, we aim to evaluate the therapeutic effect of flavonoid NPs on IBD. Furthermore, we discuss possible challenges and future perspectives.

Vaccine Formulation Strategies and Challenges Involved in RNA Delivery for Modulating Biomarkers of Cardiovascular Diseases: A Race from Laboratory to Market

It has been demonstrated that noncoding RNAs have significant physiological and pathological roles. Modulation of noncoding RNAs may offer therapeutic approaches as per recent findings. Small RNAs, mostly long noncoding RNAs, siRNA, and microRNAs make up noncoding RNAs. Inhibiting or promoting protein breakdown by binding to 3' untranslated regions of target mRNA, microRNAs post-transcriptionally control the pattern of gene expression. Contrarily, long non-coding RNAs perform a wider range of tasks, including serving as molecular scaffolding, decoys, and epigenetic regulators. This article provides instances of long noncoding RNAs and microRNAs that may be a biomarker of CVD (cardiovascular disease). In this paper we highlight various RNA-based vaccine formulation strategies designed to target these biomarkers-that are either currently in the research pipeline or are in the global pharmaceutical market-along with the physiological hurdles that need to be overcome.

Recent advances on nanoparticle-based therapies for cardiovascular diseases

Nanoparticles are exclusively suitable for studying and developing potential therapies against cardiovascular diseases (CVD) because of their size, fine-tunable properties, and ability to incorporate therapeutic and imaging modalities. Recent advancements in nanomaterials open new avenues for treating CVD. In cardiology, the use of nanoparticles and nanocarriers has gathered significant consideration owing to characteristic features such as active and passive targeting to the cardiac tissues, greater target specificity, and sensitivity. It has been reported that through the use of nanotechnology, more than 50% of CVDs can be treated efficiently. Heart-targeted nano carrier-based drug delivery is an effective and efficient approach for treating cardiac-related disorders such as atherosclerosis, hypertension, and myocardial infarction. In this review, the authors focus on nanoparticle-based therapies used in CVD and provide an outline of essential knowledge and critical concerns on polymer-based nanomaterials in treating CVD.

Strategies and challenges for non-viral delivery of non-coding RNAs to the heart

Non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs), such as miRNAs and long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) have been reported as regulators of cardiovascular pathophysiology. Their transient effect and diversified mechanisms of action offer a plethora of therapeutic opportunities for cardiovascular diseases (CVDs). However, physicochemical RNA features such as charge, stability, and structural organization hinder efficient on-target cellular delivery. Here, we highlight recent preclinical advances in ncRNA delivery for the cardiovascular system using non-viral approaches. We identify the unmet needs and advance possible solutions towards clinical translation. Finding the optimal delivery vehicle and administration route is vital to improve therapeutic efficacy and safety; however, given the different types of ncRNAs, this may ultimately not be frameable within a one-size-fits-all approach.

microRNAs Associated with Carotid Plaque Development and Vulnerability: The Clinician's Perspective

Ischemic stroke (IS) related to atherosclerosis of large arteries is one of the leading causes of mortality and disability in developed countries. Atherosclerotic internal carotid artery stenosis (ICAS) contributes to 20% of all cerebral ischemia cases. Nowadays, atherosclerosis prevention and treatment measures aim at controlling the atherosclerosis risk factors, or at the interventional (surgical or endovascular) management of mature occlusive lesions. There is a definite lack of the established circulating biomarkers which, once modulated, could prevent development of atherosclerosis, and consequently prevent the carotid-artery-related IS. Recent studies emphasize that microRNA (miRNA) are the emerging particles that could potentially play a pivotal role in this approach. There are some research studies on the association between the expression of small non-coding microRNAs with a carotid plaque development and vulnerability. However, the data remain inconsistent. In addition, all major studies on carotid atherosclerotic plaque were conducted on cell culture or animal models; very few were conducted on humans, whereas the accumulating evidence demonstrates that it cannot be automatically extrapolated to processes in humans. Therefore, this paper aims to review the current knowledge on how miRNA participate in the process of carotid plaque formation and rupture, as well as stroke occurrence. We discuss potential target miRNA that could be used as a prognostic or therapeutic tool.

mRNA therapy for myocardial infarction: A review of targets and delivery vehicles

Cardiovascular diseases are the leading cause of death in the world. This is partly due to the low regenerative capacity of adult hearts. mRNA therapy is a promising approach under development for cardiac diseases. In mRNA therapy, expression of the target protein is modulated by delivering synthetic mRNA. mRNA therapy benefits cardiac regeneration by increasing cardiomyocyte proliferation, reducing fibrosis, and promoting angiogenesis. Because mRNA is translated in the cytoplasm, the delivery efficiency of mRNA into the cytoplasm and nucleus significantly affects its therapeutic efficacy. To improve delivery efficiency, non-viral vehicles such as lipid nanoparticles have been developed. Non-viral vehicles can protect mRNA from enzymatic degradation and facilitate the cellular internalization of mRNA. In addition to non-viral vehicles, viral vectors have been designed to deliver mRNA templates into cardiac cells. This article reviews lipid nanoparticles, polymer nanoparticles, and viral vectors that have been utilized to deliver mRNA into the heart. Because of the growing interest in lipid nanoparticles, recent advances in lipid nanoparticles designed for cardiac mRNA delivery are discussed. Besides, potential targets of mRNA therapy for myocardial infarction are discussed. Gene therapies that have been investigated in patients with cardiac diseases are analyzed. Reviewing mRNA therapy from a clinically relevant perspective can reveal needs for future investigations.

Liposome-mediated small RNA delivery to convert the macrophage polarity: A novel therapeutic approach to treat inflammatory uterine disease

Macrophages are present in all tissues for maintaining tissue homeostasis, and macrophage polarization plays a vital role in alleviating inflammation. Therefore, specific delivery of polarization modulators to macrophages in situ is critical for treating inflammatory diseases. We demonstrate that a size-controlled miRNA-encapsulated macrophage-targeting liposomes (miR/MT-Lip) specifically targets macrophages to promote M1-to-M2 polarization conversion, alleviating inflammation without cytotoxicity. miR/MT-Lip, approximately 1.2 μm, showed excellent internalization through phagocytosis and/or macropinocytosis in macrophages. miR-10a/MT-Lip, but not scramble miR-Fluorescein amidite (FAM)/MT-Lip as control, effectively converted the polarization of lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced M1 macrophages to M2 in vitro. When miR-10a/MT-Lip was intravenously delivered to mice insulted with LPS for inflammation, the proportion of M2 macrophages was significantly increased without disturbing the population of other immune cells. Furthermore, scramble miR-FAM/MT-Lip was mainly detected in macrophages, but not other immune cells. When our miR/MT-Lip was administered to mice with Asherman's syndrome that suffer from infertility because of sterile uterine inflammation, macrophage-specific targeting of miR-10a/MT-Lip facilitated M1-to-M2 conversion for angiogenesis in the impaired uterus, resulting in restoration of healthy uterine conditions. The results indicate that our MT-Lip encapsulating small RNAs has excellent potential to treat various inflammatory disorders by fine-tuning macrophage polarization in vivo without any side effects.

Biomaterial-assisted biotherapy: A brief review of biomaterials used in drug delivery, vaccine development, gene therapy, and stem cell therapy

Biotherapy has recently become a hotspot research topic with encouraging prospects in various fields due to a wide range of treatments applications, as demonstrated in preclinical and clinical studies. However, the broad applications of biotherapy have been limited by critical challenges, including the lack of safe and efficient delivery systems and serious side effects. Due to the unique potentials of biomaterials, such as good biocompatibility and bioactive properties, biomaterial-assisted biotherapy has been demonstrated to be an attractive strategy. The biomaterial-based delivery systems possess sufficient packaging capacity and versatile functions, enabling a sustained and localized release of drugs at the target sites. Furthermore, the biomaterials can provide a niche with specific extracellular conditions for the proliferation, differentiation, attachment, and migration of stem cells, leading to tissue regeneration. In this review, the state-of-the-art studies on the applications of biomaterials in biotherapy, including drug delivery, vaccine development, gene therapy, and stem cell therapy, have been summarized. The challenges and an outlook of biomaterial-assisted biotherapies have also been discussed.

Broadening the Horizons of RNA Delivery Strategies in Cancer Therapy

RNA-based therapy is a promising and innovative strategy for cancer treatment. However, poor stability, immunogenicity, low cellular uptake rate, and difficulty in endosomal escape are considered the major obstacles in the cancer therapy process, severely limiting the development of clinical translation and application. For efficient and safe transport of RNA into cancer cells, it usually needs to be packaged in appropriate carriers so that it can be taken up by the target cells and then be released to the specific location to perform its function. In this review, we will focus on up-to-date insights of the RNA-based delivery carrier and comprehensively describe its application in cancer therapy. We briefly discuss delivery obstacles in RNA-mediated cancer therapy and summarize the advantages and disadvantages of different carriers (cationic polymers, inorganic nanoparticles, lipids, etc.). In addition, we further summarize and discuss the current RNA therapeutic strategies approved for clinical use. A comprehensive overview of various carriers and emerging delivery strategies for RNA delivery, as well as the current status of clinical applications and practice of RNA medicines are classified and integrated to inspire fresh ideas and breakthroughs.

Recent advances in targeted delivery of non-coding RNA-based therapeutics for atherosclerosis

Cardiovascular disease (CVD) has overtaken infectious illnesses as the leading cause of mortality and disability worldwide. The pathology that underpins CVD is atherosclerosis, characterized by chronic inflammation caused by the accumulation of plaques in the arteries. As our knowledge about the microenvironment of blood vessel walls deepens, there is an opportunity to fine-tune treatments to target the mechanisms driving atherosclerosis more directly. The application of non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs) as biomarkers or intervention targets is increasing. Although these ncRNAs play an important role in driving atherosclerosis and vascular dysfunction, the cellular and extracellular environments pose a challenge for targeted transmission and therapeutic regulation of ncRNAs. Specificity, delivery, and tolerance have hampered the clinical translation of ncRNA-based therapeutics. Nanomedicine is an emerging field that uses nanotechnology for targeted drug delivery and advanced imaging. Recently, nanoscale carriers have shown promising results and have introduced new possibilities for nucleic acid targeted drug delivery, particularly for atherosclerosis. In this review, we discuss the latest developments in nanoparticles to aid ncRNA-based drug development, particularly miRNA, and we analyze the current challenges in ncRNA targeted delivery. In particular, we highlight the emergence of various kinds of nanotherapeutic approaches based on ncRNAs, which can improve treatment options for atherosclerosis.

Macrophage-targeted nanomedicine for the diagnosis and management of atherosclerosis

Atherosclerosis is the primary cause of cardiovascular diseases, such as myocardial infarction and stroke, which account for the highest death toll worldwide. Macrophage is the major contributor to atherosclerosis progression, and therefore, macrophage-associated pathological process is considered an extremely important target for the diagnosis and treatment of atherosclerosis. However, the existing clinical strategies still have many bottlenecks and challenges in atherosclerosis’s early detection and management. Nanomedicine, using various nanoparticles/nanocarriers for medical purposes, can effectively load therapeutic agents, significantly improve their stability and accurately deliver them to the atherosclerotic plaques. In this review, we summarized the latest progress of the macrophage-targeted nanomedicine in the diagnosis and treatment of atherosclerosis, and their potential applications and clinical benefits are also discussed.

Chitosan Based MicroRNA Nanocarriers

Vectorization of microRNAs has shown to be a smart approach for their potential delivery to treat many diseases (i.e., cancer, osteopathy, vascular, and infectious diseases). However, there are barriers to genetic in vivo delivery regarding stability, targeting, specificity, and internalization. Polymeric nanoparticles can be very promising candidates to overcome these challenges. One of the most suitable polymers for this purpose is chitosan. Chitosan (CS), a biodegradable biocompatible natural polysaccharide, has always been of interest for drug and gene delivery. Being cationic, chitosan can easily form particles with anionic polymers to encapsulate microRNA or even complex readily forming polyplexes. However, fine tuning of chitosan characteristics is necessary for a successful formulation. In this review, we cover all chitosan miRNA formulations investigated in the last 10 years, to the best of our knowledge, so that we can distinguish their differences in terms of materials, formulation processes, and intended applications. The factors that make some optimized systems superior to their predecessors are also discussed to reach the highest potential of chitosan microRNA nanocarriers.

Synthesis, Chemical and Biomedical Aspects of the Use of Sulfated Chitosan

This work is devoted to the chemical synthesis of sulfated chitosan and its experimental verification in an animal model of early atherosclerosis. The method of chitosan quaternization with sulfate-containing ingredients resulted in a product with a high content of sulfate groups. Implantation of this product into the fascial-muscular sheath of the main limb artery along the leg and thigh in rabbits led to the extraction of cholesterol from the subintimal region. Simplified methods for the chemical synthesis of quaternized sulfated chitosan and the use of these products in a model of experimental atherosclerosis made it possible to perform a comparative morphological analysis of the vascular walls of the experimental and control limbs under conditions of a long-term high-cholesterol diet. The sulfated chitosan samples after implantation were shown to change the morphological pattern of the intimal and middle membranes of the experimental limb artery. The implantation led to the degradation of soft plaques within 30 days after surgical intervention, which significantly increased collateral blood flow. The implantation of sulfated chitosan into the local area of the atherosclerotic lesions in the artery can regulate the cholesterol content in the vascular wall and destroy soft plaques in the subintimal region.

Nanoparticles in the diagnosis and treatment of vascular aging and related diseases

Aging-induced alternations of vasculature structures, phenotypes, and functions are key in the occurrence and development of vascular aging-related diseases. Multiple molecular and cellular events, such as oxidative stress, mitochondrial dysfunction, vascular inflammation, cellular senescence, and epigenetic alterations are highly associated with vascular aging physiopathology. Advances in nanoparticles and nanotechnology, which can realize sensitive diagnostic modalities, efficient medical treatment, and better prognosis as well as less adverse effects on non-target tissues, provide an amazing window in the field of vascular aging and related diseases. Throughout this review, we presented current knowledge on classification of nanoparticles and the relationship between vascular aging and related diseases. Importantly, we comprehensively summarized the potential of nanoparticles-based diagnostic and therapeutic techniques in vascular aging and related diseases, including cardiovascular diseases, cerebrovascular diseases, as well as chronic kidney diseases, and discussed the advantages and limitations of their clinical applications.

Targeting the Microenvironment of Vulnerable Atherosclerotic Plaques: An Emerging Diagnosis and Therapy Strategy for Atherosclerosis

Atherosclerosis is considered one of the primary causes of cardiovascular diseases (CVDs). Unpredictable rupture of the vulnerable atherosclerotic plaques triggers adverse cardiovascular events such as acute myocardial syndrome and even sudden cardiac death. Therefore, assessing the vulnerability of atherosclerotic plaques and early intervention are of significance in reducing CVD mortality. Nanomedicine possesses tremendous advantages in achieving the integration of the diagnosis and therapy of atherosclerotic plaques because of its magnetic, optical, thermal, and catalytic properties. Based on the pathological characteristics of vulnerable plaques, stimuli-responsive nanoplatforms and surface-functionalized nanoagents are designed and have drawn great attention for accomplishing the precise imaging and treatment of vulnerable atherosclerotic plaques due to their superior properties, such as high bioavailability, lesion-targeting specificity, on-demand cargo release, and low off-target damage. Here, the characteristics of vulnerable plaques are generalized, and some targeted strategies for boosting the accuracy of plaque vulnerability evaluation by imaging and the efficacy of plaque stabilization therapy (including antioxidant therapy, macrophage depletion therapy, regulation of lipid metabolism therapy, anti-inflammation therapy, etc.) are systematically summarized. In addition, existing challenges and prospects in this field are discussed, and it is believed to provide new thinking for the diagnosis and treatment of CVDs in the near future.

Targeted Suppression of miRNA-33 Using pHLIP Improves Atherosclerosis Regression

BACKGROUND

miRNA therapeutics have gained attention during the past decade. These oligonucleotide treatments can modulate the expression of miRNAs in vivo and could be used to correct the imbalance of gene expression found in human diseases such as obesity, metabolic syndrome, and atherosclerosis. The in vivo efficacy of current anti-miRNA technologies hindered by physiological and cellular barriers to delivery into targeted cells and the nature of miRNAs that allows one to target an entire pathway that may lead to deleterious off-target effects. For these reasons, novel targeted delivery systems to inhibit miRNAs in specific tissues will be important for developing effective therapeutic strategies for numerous diseases including atherosclerosis.

METHODS

We used pH low-insertion peptide (pHLIP) constructs as vehicles to deliver microRNA-33-5p (miR-33) antisense oligonucleotides to atherosclerotic plaques. Immunohistochemistry and histology analysis was performed to assess the efficacy of miR-33 silencing in atherosclerotic lesions. We also assessed how miR-33 inhibition affects gene expression in monocytes/macrophages by single-cell RNA transcriptomics.

RESULTS

The anti-miR-33 conjugated pHLIP constructs are preferentially delivered to atherosclerotic plaque macrophages. The inhibition of miR-33 using pHLIP-directed macrophage targeting improves atherosclerosis regression by increasing collagen content and decreased lipid accumulation within vascular lesions. Single-cell RNA sequencing analysis revealed higher expression of fibrotic genes (Col2a1, Col3a1, Col1a2, Fn1, etc) and tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase 3 (Timp3) and downregulation of Mmp12 in macrophages from atherosclerotic lesions targeted by pHLIP-anti-miR-33.

CONCLUSIONS

This study provides proof of principle for the application of pHLIP for treating advanced atherosclerosis via pharmacological inhibition of miR-33 in macrophages that avoid the deleterious effects in other metabolic tissues. This may open new therapeutic opportunities for atherosclerosis-associated cardiovascular diseases via selective delivery of other protective miRNAs.

miR-223 Exerts Translational Control of Proatherogenic Genes in Macrophages

A significant burden of atherosclerotic disease is driven by inflammation. Recently, microRNAs (miRNAs) have emerged as important factors driving and protecting from atherosclerosis. miR-223 regulates cholesterol metabolism and inflammation via targeting both cholesterol biosynthesis pathway and NF_kB signaling pathways; however, its role in atherosclerosis has not been investigated. We hypothesize that miR-223 globally regulates core inflammatory pathways in macrophages in response to inflammatory and atherogenic stimuli thus limiting the progression of atherosclerosis.

Chitosan Nanoparticles in Atherosclerosis-Development to Preclinical Testing

Chitosan is a natural biopolymer that is present in an abundant supply in sources such as crustacean shells, mushrooms, and insect exoskeletons. It can be used to make a variety of types of drug formulations and is generally safe to use in vivo; plus, it has inherent cholesterol-reducing properties. While an abundance of papers has tested this biopolymer in nanoparticles in cancer and diabetes research, there is a lag of usage, and hence the paucity of information, in the area of cardiovascular research, specifically in atherosclerosis, the topic of this review. This review highlights some of the deficiencies in this niche area of research, examines the range of chitosan nanoparticles that have been researched to date, and proposes several ways forward to advance this field. Nanoparticles used for both diagnostic and therapeutic purposes are reviewed, with a discussion on how these nanoparticles could be better researched in future and what lays ahead as the field potentially moves towards clinical trials in future.

Boosting Cholesterol Efflux from Foam Cells by Sequential Administration of rHDL to Deliver MicroRNA and to Remove Cholesterol in a Triple-Cell 2D Atherosclerosis Model

Cardiovascular disease, the leading cause of mortality worldwide, is primarily caused by atherosclerosis, which is characterized by lipid and inflammatory cell accumulation in blood vessels and carotid intima thickening. Although disease management has improved significantly, new therapeutic strategies focused on accelerating atherosclerosis regression must be developed. Atherosclerosis models mimicking in vivo-like conditions provide essential information for research and new advances toward clinical application. New nanotechnology-based therapeutic opportunities have emerged with apoA-I nanoparticles (recombinant/reconstituted high-density lipoproteins, rHDL) as ideal carriers to deliver molecules and the discovery that microRNAs participate in atherosclerosis establishment and progression. Here, a therapeutic strategy to improve cholesterol efflux is developed based on a two-step administration of rHDL consisting of a first dose of antagomiR-33a-loaded rHDLs to induce adenosine triphosphate-binding cassette transporters A1 overexpression, followed by a second dose of 1,2-dipalmitoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine rHDLs, which efficiently remove cholesterol from foam cells. A triple-cell 2D-atheroma plaque model reflecting the cellular complexity of atherosclerosis is used to improve efficiency of the nanoparticles in promoting cholesterol efflux. The results show that sequential administration of rHDL potentiates cholesterol efflux indicating that this approach may be used in vivo to more efficiently target atherosclerotic lesions and improve prognosis of the disease.

Nanotechnology for cardiovascular diseases

Cardiovascular diseases have become the major killers in today's world, among which coronary artery diseases (CADs) make the greatest contributions to morbidity and mortality. Although state-of-the-art technologies have increased our knowledge of the cardiovascular system, the current diagnosis and treatment modalities for CADs still have limitations. As an emerging cross-disciplinary approach, nanotechnology has shown great potential for clinical use. In this review, recent advances in nanotechnology in the diagnosis of CADs will first be elucidated. Both the sensitivity and specificity of biosensors for biomarker detection and molecular imaging strategies, such as magnetic resonance imaging, optical imaging, nuclear scintigraphy, and multimodal imaging strategies, have been greatly increased with the assistance of nanomaterials. Second, various nanomaterials, such as liposomes, polymers (PLGA), inorganic nanoparticles (AuNPs, MnO2, etc.), natural nanoparticles (HDL, HA), and biomimetic nanoparticles (cell-membrane coating) will be discussed as engineered as drug (chemicals, proteins, peptides, and nucleic acids) carriers targeting pathological sites based on their optimal physicochemical properties and surface modification potential. Finally, some of these nanomaterials themselves are regarded as pharmaceuticals for the treatment of atherosclerosis because of their intrinsic antioxidative/anti-inflammatory and photoelectric/photothermal characteristics in a complex plaque microenvironment. In summary, novel nanotechnology-based research in the process of clinical transformation could continue to expand the horizon of nanoscale technologies in the diagnosis and therapy of CADs in the foreseeable future.

Sequential Delivery of Different MicroRNA Nanocarriers Facilitates the M1-to-M2 Transition of Macrophages

The early-stage repair of bone injuries dominated by the inflammatory phase is significant for successful bone healing, and the phenotypic transition of macrophages in the inflammatory phase plays indispensable roles during the bone healing process. The goal of this paper is to design a microRNA delivery nanocarrier for strictly temporal guidance of the polarization of macrophages by the sequential delivery of different microRNAs. The results showed that microRNA nanocarriers, synthesized through free radical polymerization, could be internalized by macrophages with about a cellular uptake efficiency of 80%, and the sequential delivery of microRNA-155 nanocarriers and microRNA-21 nanocarriers proved, for the first time, that it could promote an efficient and timely switch from the M1 to the M2 phenotype along the time point of bone tissue repair. The strategy proposed in this paper holds potential for controlling sequential M1-to-M2 polarization of macrophages, which provides another perspective for the treatment of bone tissue regeneration.