Probing Nanoparticle-Cell Interaction Using Micro-Raman Spectroscopy: Silver and Gold Nanoparticle-Induced Stress Effects on Optically Trapped Live Red Blood Cells

Integrative investigation of hematotoxic effects induced by low doses of lead, cadmium, mercury and arsenic mixture: In vivo and in silico approach

The effect of the lead (Pb), cadmium (Cd), mercury (Hg) and arsenic (As) mixture (MIX) on hematotoxicity development was investigated trough combined approach. In vivo subacute study (28 days) was performed on rats (5 per group): a control group and five groups orally exposed to increasing metal(loid) mixture doses, MIX 1- MIX 5 (mg/kg bw./day) (Pb: 0.003, 0.01, 0.1, 0.3, 1; Cd: 0.01, 0.03, 0.3, 0.9, 3; Hg: 0.0002, 0.0006, 0.006, 0.018, 0.06; As: 0.002, 0.006, 0.06, 0.18, 0.6). Blood was taken for analysis of hematological parameters and serum iron (Fe) analysis. MIX treatment increased thrombocyte/platelet count and MCHC and decreased Hb, HCT, MCV and MCH values compared to control, indicating the development of anemia and thrombocytosis. BMDIs with the narrowest width were identified for MCH [pg] (6.030E-03 - 1.287E-01 mg Pb/kg bw./day; 2.010E-02 - 4.290E-01 mg Cd/kg bw./day; 4.020E-04 - 8.580E-03 mg Hg/kg bw./day; 4.020E-03 - 8.580E-02 mg As/kg bw./day). In silico analysis showed target genes connected with MIX and the development of: anemia - ACHE, GSR, PARP1, TNF; thrombocytosis - JAK2, CALR, MPL, THPO; hematological diseases - FAS and ALAD. The main extracted pathways for anemia were related to apoptosis and oxidative stress; for thrombocytosis were signaling pathways of Jak-STAT and TPO. Changes in miRNAs and transcription factors enabled the mode of action (MoA) development based on the obtained results, contributing to mechanistic understanding and hematological risk related to MIX exposure.

Exploring the cellular antioxidant mechanism against cytotoxic silver nanoparticles: a Raman spectroscopic analysis

Silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) hold great promise for several different applications, from colorimetric sensors to antimicrobial agents. Despite their widespread incorporation in consumer products, limited understanding of the detrimental effects and cellular antioxidant responses associated with AgNPs at sublethal concentrations persists, raising concerns for human and ecological well-being. To address this gap, we synthesized AgNPs of varying sizes and evaluated their cytotoxicity against human dermal fibroblasts (HDF). Our study revealed that toxicity of AgNPs is a time- and size-dependent process, even at low exposure levels. AgNPs exhibited low short-term cytotoxicity but high long-term impact, particularly for the smallest NPs tested. Raman microspectroscopy was employed for in-time investigations of intracellular molecular variations during the first 24 h of exposure to AgNPs of 35 nm. Subtle protein and lipid degradations were detected, but no discernible damage to the DNA was observed. Signals associated with antioxidant proteins, such as superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT) and metallothioneins (MTs), increased over time, reflecting the heightened production of these defense agents. Fluorescence microscopy further confirmed the efficacy of overexpressed antioxidant proteins in mitigating ROS formation during short-term exposure to AgNPs. This work provides valuable insights into the molecular changes and remedial strategies within the cellular environment, utilizing Raman microspectroscopy as an advanced analytical technique. These findings offer a novel perspective on the cytotoxicity mechanism of AgNPs, contributing to the development of safer materials and advice on regulatory guidelines for their biomedical applications.

Investigation of in vitro antimicrobial and cytotoxic effects of gold nanoparticles capped with meropenem and imipenem

Aim: This study aimed to investigate the in vitro antimicrobial effect of gold nanoparticles capped with meropenem and imipenem against various strains and to evaluate the cytotoxic effect of gold nanoparticles on healthy human colon epithelial cells. Materials & methods: Gold nanoparticles were synthesized via the Turkevich method and tested for antimicrobial effects using broth microdilution. Cell culture studies were performed using a cytotoxicity assay with alamarBlue™. Results & conclusion: Nanoparticles (10-20 nm) with antibiotic coating were more effective against Escherichia coli, Proteus spp. and Serratia marcescens than pure antibiotics. They had a cytotoxic effect on cells at high concentrations but were safe at low concentrations.

A Review of the Use of Metallic Nanoparticles as a Novel Approach for Overcoming the Stability Challenges of Blood Products: A Narrative Review from 2011-2021

PURPOSE

To obtain safe and qualified blood products (e.g., platelets, plasma, and red blood cells), various limitations such as limited shelf life (especially for platelets) and stability must be addressed. In this review study, the most commonly used metal nanomaterials (e.g., gold, silver, iron, and magnetic) reported in the literature from 2011 to 2021 were discussed owing to their unique properties, which provide exciting approaches to overcome these limitations and improve the stability, safety, and quality of blood products. Novelty: This study reviews for the first time the results of studies (from 2011 to 2021) that consider the effects of various metallic nanoparticles on the different blood products.

RESULTS

The results of this review study showed that some metallic nanoparticles are effective in improving the stability of plasma proteins. For this purpose, modified Fe₃O₄ magnetic nanoparticles and citrate-AuNPs protect albumin products against stressful situations. Also, SiO₂ microspheres and silicacoated magnetite nanoparticles are highly capable of improving IgG stability. ZnO nanoparticles also reduced thrombin production, and protein-coated GMNP nanoparticles prevented unwanted leakage of factor VIII through blood vessels. Furthermore, the stability and longevity of erythrocytes can be improved by AuNP nanoparticles and Zr-based organic nanoparticles. In addition, platelet storage time can be improved using PEGylated Au and functionalized iron oxide nanoparticles.

SUGGESTION

According to the results of this study, it is suggested that further research should be conducted on metal nanoparticles as the most promising candidates to prepare metal nanoparticles with improved properties to increase the stability of various blood products.

Triphenylphosphonium conjugated gold nanotriangles impact Pi3K/AKT pathway in breast cancer cells: a photodynamic therapy approach

Although gold nanoparticles based photodynamic therapy (PDT) were reported to improve efficacy and specificity, the impact of surface charge in targeting cancer is still a challenge. Herein, we report gold nanotriangles (AuNTs) tuned with anionic and cationic surface charge conjugating triphenylphosphonium (TPP) targeting breast cancer cells with 5-aminoleuvinic acid (5-ALA) based PDT, in vitro. Optimized surface charge of AuNTs with and without TPP kill breast cancer cells. By combining, 5-ALA and PDT, the surface charge augmented AuNTs deliver improved cellular toxicity as revealed by MTT, fluorescent probes and flow cytometry. Further, the 5-ALA and PDT treatment in the presence of AuNTs impairs cell survival Pi3K/AKT signaling pathway causing mitochondrial dependent apoptosis. The cumulative findings demonstrate that, cationic AuNTs with TPP excel selective targeting of breast cancer cells in the presence of 5-ALA and PDT.

Selenium Nanoparticles Can Influence the Immune Response Due to Interactions with Antibodies and Modulation of the Physiological State of Granulocytes

Currently, selenium nanoparticles (SeNPs) are considered potential immunomodulatory agents and as targets for activity modulation are granulocytes, which have the most abundant population of immune blood cells. The present study aims to evaluate the cytotoxic effect and its effect on the functional responses of granulocytes. In addition to the intrinsic activity of SeNPs, we studied the activity of the combination of SeNPs and IgG antibodies. Using laser ablation and fragmentation, we obtained nanoparticles with an average size of 100 nm and a rather narrow size evolution. The resulting nanoparticles do not show acute toxicity to primary cultures of fibroblasts and hepatocytes, epithelial-like cell line L-929 and granulocyte-like culture of HL-60 at a concentration of 10⁹ NPs/mL. SeNPs at a concentration of 10¹⁰ NPs/mL reduced the viability of HL-60 cells by no more than 10% and did not affect the viability of the primary culture of mouse granulocytes, and did not have a genotoxic effect on progenitor cells. The addition of SeNPs can affect the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) by mouse bone marrow granulocytes, modulate the proportion of granulocytes with calcium spikes and enhance fMLF-induced granulocytes degranulation. SeNPs can modulate the effect of IgG on the physiological responses of granulocytes. We studied the expression level of genes associated with inflammation and cell stress. SeNPs increase the expression of catalase, NF-κB, Xrcc5 and some others; antibodies enhance the effect of SeNPs, but IgG without SeNPs decreases the expression level of these genes. This fact can be explained by the interaction between SeNPs and IgG. It has been established that antibodies interact with SeNPs. We showed that antibodies bind to the surface of selenium nanoparticles and are present in aqueous solutions in a bound form from DLS methods, ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy, vibrational-rotational spectrometry, fluorescence spectrometry, and refractometry. At the same time, in a significant part of the antibodies, a partial change in the tertiary and secondary structure is observed. The data obtained will allow a better understanding of the principles of the interaction of immune cells with antibodies and SeNPs and, in the future, may serve to create a new generation of immunomodulators.

Hemolytic Activity of Nanoparticles as a Marker of Their Hemocompatibility

The potential use of nanomaterials in medicine offers opportunities for novel therapeutic approaches to treating complex disorders. For that reason, a new branch of science, named nanotoxicology, which aims to study the dangerous effects of nanomaterials on human health and on the environment, has recently emerged. However, the toxicity and risk associated with nanomaterials are unclear or not completely understood. The development of an adequate experimental strategy for assessing the toxicity of nanomaterials may include a rapid/express method that will reliably, quickly, and cheaply make an initial assessment. One possibility is the characterization of the hemocompatibility of nanomaterials, which includes their hemolytic activity as a marker. In this review, we consider various factors affecting the hemolytic activity of nanomaterials and draw the reader's attention to the fact that the formation of a protein corona around a nanoparticle can significantly change its interaction with the red cell. This leads us to suggest that the nanomaterial hemolytic activity in the buffer does not reflect the situation in the blood plasma. As a recommendation, we propose studying the hemocompatibility of nanomaterials under more physiologically relevant conditions, in the presence of plasma proteins in the medium and under mechanical stress.

A micro-Raman spectroscopy study of inflammatory condition of human cervix: Probing of Tissues and blood plasma samples

The present study explores the application of the micro-Raman spectroscopy technique to discriminate normal and cervicitis condition from cervical malignancy by analyzing the Raman signatures of tissues and plasma samples of the same subjects. The Raman peaks from tissue samples at 1026 cm^-1,1298 cm^-1 and 1243 cm^-1 are attributed to glycogen, fatty acids and collagen and are found to be reliable signatures capable of identifying cervicitis and normal condition from cervical cancer. The Raman signatures from plasma samples belonging to carbohydrates (578 cm^-1), lipids (1059 cm^-1) and nucleic acids (1077 cm^-1,1341 cm^-1 and 1357 cm^-1) are quite useful to classify various stages of cervix at par with tissue based diagnosis. The PCA-SVM based classification of the spectral data indicates the potential of Raman spectroscopy based liquid biopsy to rule out false diagnosis of cervicitis as cervical malignancy.

Recent advances in the protective role of metallic nanoparticles in red blood cells

The interaction of nanoparticles with the biological system has increased with the increasing popularity of nanomedicines. Red blood cells (RBCs) are very sensitive, and abundant cells in the blood. They are highly prone to oxidative damage due to constant interaction with oxygen itself, foreign particles in the blood, and the lack of repair mechanism. The cell membrane of RBCs undergoes lipid peroxidation, protein oxidation, and heme degradation which results in altered membrane permeability, changes in the morphology, and functioning of RBCs. The nanoparticles induce oxidative stress, hemolysis, morphological changes, membrane deformability, and alterations in hemoglobin structure in RBCs. In this review, the effects of metallic nanoparticles and their modifications on the physiology, and life span of RBCs are discussed. The detailed analysis of the antioxidant enzymes-like activity of metal nanoparticles is expected to highlight the beneficial use of these metal nanoparticles in RBCs against oxidative stress and the development of new biosafe nanodrugs.

An Overview of the Beneficial Role of Antioxidants in the Treatment of Nanoparticle-Induced Toxicities

Nanoparticles (NPs) are used in many products and materials for humans such as electronics, in medicine for drug delivery, as biosensors, in biotechnology, and in agriculture, as ingredients in cosmetics and food supplements. Besides that, NPs may display potentially hazardous properties on human health and the environment as a consequence of their abundant use in life nowadays. Hence, there is increased interest of researchers to provide possible therapeutic agents or dietary supplements for the amelioration of NP-induced toxicity. This review summarizes the new findings in the research of the use of antioxidants as supplements for the prevention and alleviation of harmful effects caused by exposure of organisms to NPs. Also, mechanisms involved in the formation of NP-induced oxidative stress and protective mechanisms using different antioxidant substances have also been elaborated. This review also highlights the potential of naturally occurring antioxidants for the enhancement of the antioxidant defense systems in the prevention and mitigation of organism damage caused by NP-induced oxidative stress. Based on the presented results of the most recent studies, it may be concluded that the role of antioxidants in the prevention and treatment of nanoparticle-induced toxicity is unimpeachable. This is particularly important in terms of oxidative stress suppression.

An Overview of the Beneficial Role of Antioxidants in the Treatment of Nanoparticle-Induced Toxicities

Nanoparticles (NPs) are used in many products and materials for humans such as electronics, in medicine for drug delivery, as biosensors, in biotechnology, and in agriculture, as ingredients in cosmetics and food supplements. Besides that, NPs may display potentially hazardous properties on human health and the environment as a consequence of their abundant use in life nowadays. Hence, there is increased interest of researchers to provide possible therapeutic agents or dietary supplements for the amelioration of NP-induced toxicity. This review summarizes the new findings in the research of the use of antioxidants as supplements for the prevention and alleviation of harmful effects caused by exposure of organisms to NPs. Also, mechanisms involved in the formation of NP-induced oxidative stress and protective mechanisms using different antioxidant substances have also been elaborated. This review also highlights the potential of naturally occurring antioxidants for the enhancement of the antioxidant defense systems in the prevention and mitigation of organism damage caused by NP-induced oxidative stress. Based on the presented results of the most recent studies, it may be concluded that the role of antioxidants in the prevention and treatment of nanoparticle-induced toxicity is unimpeachable. This is particularly important in terms of oxidative stress suppression.

Raman Spectroscopic Study of TiO2 Nanoparticles' Effects on the Hemoglobin State in Individual Red Blood Cells

Titanium dioxide (TiO₂) is considered to be a nontoxic material and is widely used in a number of everyday products, such as sunscreen. TiO₂ nanoparticles (NP) are also considered as prospective agents for photodynamic therapy and drug delivery. These applications require an understanding of the potential effects of TiO₂ on the blood system and its components upon administration. In the presented work, we analyze the interaction of TiO₂ nanoparticles of different crystal phases (anatase and rutile) with individual rat Red Blood Cells (RBC) and the TiO₂ influence on the oxygenation state and functionality of RBC, estimated via analysis of Raman spectra of Hemoglobin (Hb) and their distribution along individual RBC. Raman spectral signals also allow localization of the TiO₂ NP on the RBC. No penetration of the NP inside RBC was observed; however, both kinds of TiO₂ NP adsorbed on the RBC membrane can affect the Hb state. Mechanisms involving the NP–membrane–Hb interaction, resulting in partial deoxygenation of Hb and TiO₂ photothermal effect on Hb under Raman laser excitation, are suggested. The possible influence on the safety of TiO₂ use in advanced medical application, especially on the safety and efficiency of photothermal therapy, is discussed.

Current Knowledge of Silver and Gold Nanoparticles in Laboratory Research-Application, Toxicity, Cellular Uptake

Silver and gold nanoparticles can be found in a range of household products related to almost every area of life, including patches, bandages, paints, sportswear, personal care products, food storage equipment, cosmetics, disinfectants, etc. Their confirmed ability to enter the organism through respiratory and digestive systems, skin, and crossing the blood-brain barrier raises questions of their potential effect on cell function. Therefore, this manuscript aimed to summarize recent reports concerning the influence of variables such as size, shape, concentration, type of coating, or incubation time, on effects of gold and silver nanoparticles on cultured cell lines. Due to the increasingly common use of AgNP and AuNP in multiple branches of the industry, further studies on the effects of nanoparticles on different types of cells and the general natural environment are needed to enable their long-term use. However, some environmentally friendly solutions to chemically synthesized nanoparticles are also investigated, such as plant-based synthesis methods.

Preparation of serum capped silver nanoparticles for selective killing of microbial cells sparing host cells

Following access into the cell, colloidal silver nanoparticles exhibit generalized cytotoxic properties, thus appear as omnipotent microbicidal, but not suitable for systemic use unless are free of toxic effects on host cells. The AgNP-Serum-18 when prepared from silver nitrate, using dextrose as reducing and group-matched homologous serum as a stabilizing agent, selective endocytosis, and oxidative stress-dependent bio-functional damages to the host are mostly eliminated. For their bio-mimicking outer coat, there is the least possibility of internalization into host cells or liberation of excess oxidants in circulation following interaction with erythrocytes or vascular endothelial cells. The presence of infection-specific antibodies in the serum can make such nano-conjugates more selective. A potent antimicrobial action and a wide margin of safety for mammalian cells in comparison with very similar PVA-capped silver nanoparticles have been demonstrated by the in-vitro challenge of such nanoparticles on different microbes, human liver cell-line, and in-vivo study on mice model. This may open up wide-range therapeutic prospects of colloidal nanoparticles.

Applications of Optically Controlled Gold Nanostructures in Biomedical Engineering

Since their inception, optical tweezers have proven to be a useful tool for improving human understanding of the microscopic world with wide-ranging applications across science. In recent years, they have found many particularly appealing applications in the field of biomedical engineering which harnesses the knowledge and skills in engineering to tackle problems in biology and medicine. Notably, metallic nanostructures like gold nanoparticles have proven to be an excellent tool for OT-based micromanipulation due to their large polarizability and relatively low cytotoxicity. In this article, we review the progress made in the application of optically trapped gold nanomaterials to problems in bioengineering. After an introduction to the basic methods of optical trapping, we give an overview of potential applications to bioengineering specifically: nano/biomaterials, microfluidics, drug delivery, biosensing, biophotonics and imaging, and mechanobiology/single-molecule biophysics. We highlight the recent research progress, discuss challenges, and provide possible future directions in this field.

Improved photothermal therapy of brain cancer cells and photogeneration of reactive oxygen species by biotin conjugated gold photoactive nanoparticles

Herein, we report on the design and development of functionalized acrylic polymeric nanoparticles with Spiropyrans (SPs) and imidazole moieties via superficial polymerizations. Then, Au³⁺ ions were immobilized and reduced on their surface to obtain photoresponsive gold-decorated polymer nanoparticles(Au-NPs). The synthesized Au-NPs were surface adapted with biotin as specific targeting tumor penetration cells and enhance the intercellular uptake through the endocytosis. FT-IR (Fourier-transform Infrared Spectroscopy), UV-Vis (Ultra Violet-Visible Spectrophotometer), EDS (Energy Dispersive X-Ray Spectroscopy), SEM (Scanning Electron Microscope) and HR-TEM (High-resolution transmission electron microscopy) descriptions were engaged to illustrate their spectral analysis and morphological examinations of Bt@Au-NPs. Fluorescence microscopy images of cellular uptake descriptions and ICP-MS (Inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry) investigation established the cell lines labeling ability and enhanced targetting efficacy of biotin-conjugated Au-NPs (Bt@Au-NPs) toward C6 glioma cells (brain cancer cells) with 72.5% cellular uptake relative to 30.2% for non-conjugated lone. These were further established through intracellular ROS examinations and in vitro cytotoxicity investigation on the C6 glioma cell line. The solid surface plasmon absorptions of the Au-NPs and Bt@Au-NPs providing raised photothermal therapy under UV irradiation. The synthesized multifunctional Bt@Au-NPs with an inclusive combination of potential resources presented encouraging nanoprobe with targeting capability, improved photodynamic and photothermal cancer therapy.

Direct Observations of Silver Nanowire-Induced Frustrated Phagocytosis among NR8383 Lung Alveolar Macrophages

The interaction of long nanowires and living cells is directly related to nanowires' nanotoxicity and health impacts. Interactions of silver nanowires (AgNWs) and macrophage cell lines (NR8383) were investigated using laser scanning confocal microscopy and single cell compression (SCC). With high-resolution imaging and mechanics measurement of individual cells, AgNW-induced frustrated phagocytosis was clearly captured in conjunction with structural and property changes of cells. While frustrated phagocytosis is known for long microwires and long carbon nanotubes, this work reports first direct observations of frustrated phagocytosis of AgNWs among living cells in situ. In the case of partial penetration of AgNWs into NR8383 cells, confocal imaging revealed actin participation at the entry sites, whose behavior differs from microwire-induced frustrated phagocytosis. The impacts of frustrated phagocytosis on the cellular membrane and cytoskeleton were also quantified by measuring the mechanical properties using SCC. Taken collectively, this study reveals the structural and property characteristics of nanowire-induced frustrated phagocytosis, which deepens our understanding of nanowire-cell interactions and nanocytotoxicity.