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Al Adem K, Ferreira JC, Villanueva AJ, Fadl S, El-Sadaany F, Masmoudi I, Gidiya Y, Gurudza T, Cardoso THS, Saksena NK, Rabeh WM. 3-chymotrypsin-like protease in SARS-CoV-2. Biosci Rep 2024; 44:BSR20231395. [PMID: 39036877 DOI: 10.1042/bsr20231395] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2024] [Revised: 07/16/2024] [Accepted: 07/19/2024] [Indexed: 07/23/2024] Open
Abstract
Coronaviruses constitute a significant threat to the human population. Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2, SARS-CoV-2, is a highly pathogenic human coronavirus that has caused the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic. It has led to a global viral outbreak with an exceptional spread and a high death toll, highlighting the need for effective antiviral strategies. 3-Chymotrypsin-like protease (3CLpro), the main protease in SARS-CoV-2, plays an indispensable role in the SARS-CoV-2 viral life cycle by cleaving the viral polyprotein to produce 11 individual non-structural proteins necessary for viral replication. 3CLpro is one of two proteases that function to produce new viral particles. It is a highly conserved cysteine protease with identical structural folds in all known human coronaviruses. Inhibitors binding with high affinity to 3CLpro will prevent the cleavage of viral polyproteins, thus impeding viral replication. Multiple strategies have been implemented to screen for inhibitors against 3CLpro, including peptide-like and small molecule inhibitors that covalently and non-covalently bind the active site, respectively. In addition, allosteric sites of 3CLpro have been identified to screen for small molecules that could make non-competitive inhibitors of 3CLpro. In essence, this review serves as a comprehensive guide to understanding the structural intricacies and functional dynamics of 3CLpro, emphasizing key findings that elucidate its role as the main protease of SARS-CoV-2. Notably, the review is a critical resource in recognizing the advancements in identifying and developing 3CLpro inhibitors as effective antiviral strategies against COVID-19, some of which are already approved for clinical use in COVID-19 patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kenana Al Adem
- Science Division, New York University Abu Dhabi, PO Box 129188, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates
| | - Juliana C Ferreira
- Science Division, New York University Abu Dhabi, PO Box 129188, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates
| | - Adrian J Villanueva
- Science Division, New York University Abu Dhabi, PO Box 129188, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates
| | - Samar Fadl
- Science Division, New York University Abu Dhabi, PO Box 129188, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates
| | - Farah El-Sadaany
- Science Division, New York University Abu Dhabi, PO Box 129188, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates
| | - Imen Masmoudi
- Science Division, New York University Abu Dhabi, PO Box 129188, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates
| | - Yugmee Gidiya
- Science Division, New York University Abu Dhabi, PO Box 129188, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates
| | - Tariro Gurudza
- Science Division, New York University Abu Dhabi, PO Box 129188, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates
| | - Thyago H S Cardoso
- OMICS Centre of Excellence, G42 Healthcare, Masdar City, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates
| | - Nitin K Saksena
- Victoria University, Footscray Campus, Melbourne, VIC. Australia
| | - Wael M Rabeh
- Science Division, New York University Abu Dhabi, PO Box 129188, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates
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2
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Shawky AM, Almalki FA, Alzahrani HA, Abdalla AN, Youssif BGM, Ibrahim NA, Gamal M, El-Sherief HAM, Abdel-Fattah MM, Hefny AA, Abdelazeem AH, Gouda AM. Covalent small-molecule inhibitors of SARS-CoV-2 Mpro: Insights into their design, classification, biological activity, and binding interactions. Eur J Med Chem 2024; 277:116704. [PMID: 39121741 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2024.116704] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2024] [Revised: 07/10/2024] [Accepted: 07/19/2024] [Indexed: 08/12/2024]
Abstract
Since 2020, many compounds have been investigated for their potential use in the treatment of SARS-CoV-2 infection. Among these agents, a huge number of natural products and FDA-approved drugs have been evaluated as potential therapeutics for SARS-CoV-2 using virtual screening and docking studies. However, the identification of the molecular targets involved in viral replication led to the development of rationally designed anti-SARS-CoV-2 agents. Among these targets, the main protease (Mpro) is one of the key enzymes needed in the replication of the virus. The data gleaned from the crystal structures of SARS-CoV-2 Mpro complexes with small-molecule covalent inhibitors has been used in the design and discovery of many highly potent and broad-spectrum Mpro inhibitors. The current review focuses mainly on the covalent type of SARS-CoV-2 Mpro inhibitors. The design, chemistry, and classification of these inhibitors were also in focus. The biological activity of these inhibitors, including their inhibitory activities against Mpro, their antiviral activities, and the SAR studies, were discussed. The review also describes the potential mechanism of the interaction between these inhibitors and the catalytic Cys145 residue in Mpro. Moreover, the binding modes and key binding interactions of these covalent inhibitors were also illustrated. The covalent inhibitors discussed in this review were of diverse chemical nature and origin. Their antiviral activity was mediated mainly by the inhibition of SARS-CoV-2 Mpro, with IC50 values in the micromolar to the nanomolar range. Many of these inhibitors exhibited broad-spectrum inhibitory activity against the Mpro enzymes of other coronaviruses (SARS-CoV-1 and MERS-CoV). The dual inhibition of the Mpro and PLpro enzymes of SARS-CoV-2 could also provide higher therapeutic benefits than Mpro inhibition. Despite the approval of nirmatrelvir by the FDA, many mutations in the Mpro enzyme of SARS-CoV-2 have been reported. Although some of these mutations did not affect the potency of nirmatrelvir, there is an urgent need to develop a second generation of Mpro inhibitors. We hope that the data summarized in this review could help researchers in the design of a new potent generation of SARS-CoV-2 Mpro inhibitors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ahmed M Shawky
- Science and Technology Unit (STU), Umm Al-Qura University, Makkah, 21955, Saudi Arabia
| | - Faisal A Almalki
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, Umm Al-Qura University, Makkah, 21955, Saudi Arabia
| | - Hayat Ali Alzahrani
- Applied Medical Science College, Medical Laboratory Technology Department, Northern Border University, Arar, Saudi Arabia
| | - Ashraf N Abdalla
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Umm Al-Qura University, Makkah, 21955, Saudi Arabia; Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Medicinal And Aromatic Plants Research Institute, National Center for Research, Khartoum, 2404, Sudan
| | - Bahaa G M Youssif
- Pharmaceutical Organic Chemistry Department, Faculty of Pharmacy, Assiut University, Assiut, 71526, Egypt.
| | - Nashwa A Ibrahim
- Medicinal Chemistry Department, Faculty of Pharmacy, Beni-Suef University, Beni-Suef, 62514, Egypt
| | - Mohammed Gamal
- Pharmaceutical Analytical Chemistry Department, Faculty of Pharmacy, Beni-Suef University, Beni-Suef, 62514, Egypt
| | - Hany A M El-Sherief
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Deraya University, Minia, Egypt
| | - Maha M Abdel-Fattah
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Beni-Suef University, Beni-Suef, 62514, Egypt
| | - Ahmed A Hefny
- Medicinal Chemistry Department, Faculty of Pharmacy, Beni-Suef University, Beni-Suef, 62514, Egypt; School of Pharmacy, University of Waterloo, Kitchener, Ontario, N2G 1C5, Canada
| | - Ahmed H Abdelazeem
- Medicinal Chemistry Department, Faculty of Pharmacy, Beni-Suef University, Beni-Suef, 62514, Egypt; Pharmacy Department, College of Pharmacy, Nursing and Medical Sciences, Riyadh Elm University, Riyadh, 11681, Saudi Arabia
| | - Ahmed M Gouda
- Medicinal Chemistry Department, Faculty of Pharmacy, Beni-Suef University, Beni-Suef, 62514, Egypt.
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3
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Castillo F, Ramírez D, Ramos MC, Martinez-Arribas B, Domingo-Contreras E, Mackenzie TA, Peña-Varas C, Lindemann S, Montero F, Annang F, Vicente F, Genilloud O, González-Pacanowska D, Fernandez-Godino R. Repurposing the Open Global Health Library for the discovery of novel Mpro destabilizers with scope as broad-spectrum antivirals. Front Pharmacol 2024; 15:1390705. [PMID: 39050758 PMCID: PMC11267763 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2024.1390705] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2024] [Accepted: 05/29/2024] [Indexed: 07/27/2024] Open
Abstract
The SARS coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) epidemic remains globally active. The emergence of new variants of interest and variants of concern (VoCs), which are potentially more vaccine-resistant and less sensitive to existing treatments, is evident due to their high prevalence. The prospective spread of such variants and other coronaviruses with epidemic potential demands preparedness that can be met by developing fast-track workflows to find new candidates that target viral proteins with a clear in vitro and in vivo phenotype. Mpro (or 3CLpro) is directly involved in the viral replication cycle and the production and function of viral polyproteins, which makes it an ideal target. The biological relevance of Mpro is highly conserved among betacoronaviruses like HCoV-OC43 and SARS-CoV-2, which makes the identification of new chemical scaffolds targeting them a good starting point for designing broad-spectrum antivirals. We report an optimized methodology based on orthogonal cell-free assays to identify small molecules that inhibit the binding pockets of both SARS-CoV-2-Mpro and HCoV-OC43-Mpro; this blockade correlates with antiviral activities in HCoV-OC43 cellular models. By using such a fast-tracking approach against the Open Global Health Library (Merck KGaA), we have found evidence of the antiviral activity of compound OGHL98. In silico studies dissecting intermolecular interactions between OGHL98 and both proteases and comprising docking and molecular dynamics simulations (MDSs) concluded that the binding mode was primarily governed by conserved H-bonds with their C-terminal amino acids and that the rational design of OGHL98 has potential against VoCs proteases resistant to current therapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - David Ramírez
- Departamento de Farmacología, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad de Concepción, Concepción, Chile
| | | | - Blanca Martinez-Arribas
- Instituto de Parasitología y Biomedicina Lopez-Neyra, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, Granada, Spain
| | | | | | - Carlos Peña-Varas
- Departamento de Farmacología, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad de Concepción, Concepción, Chile
- Doctorado en Biotecnología Molecular, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad de Concepción, Concepción, Chile
| | - Sven Lindemann
- Strategic Innovation, Merck Healthcare KGaA, Darmstadt, Germany
| | - Fernando Montero
- Fundación MEDINA, Granada, Spain
- Department of Physical Chemistry and Institute of Biotechnology, Universidad de Granada, Granada, Spain
| | | | | | | | - Dolores González-Pacanowska
- Instituto de Parasitología y Biomedicina Lopez-Neyra, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, Granada, Spain
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4
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Morán-Serradilla C, Plano D, Sanmartín C, Sharma AK. Selenization of Small Molecule Drugs: A New Player on the Board. J Med Chem 2024; 67:7759-7787. [PMID: 38716896 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.3c02426] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/24/2024]
Abstract
There is an urgent need to develop safer and more effective modalities for the treatment of a wide range of pathologies due to the increasing rates of drug resistance, undesired side effects, poor clinical outcomes, etc. Throughout the years, selenium (Se) has attracted a great deal of attention due to its important role in human health. Besides, a growing body of work has unveiled that the inclusion of Se motifs into a great number of molecules is a promising strategy for obtaining novel therapeutic agents. In the current Perspective, we have gathered the most recent literature related to the incorporation of different Se moieties into the scaffolds of a wide range of known drugs and their feasible pharmaceutical applications. In addition, we highlight different representative examples as well as provide our perspective on Se drugs and the possible future directions, promises, opportunities, and challenges of this ground-breaking area of research.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Daniel Plano
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Navarra, Irunlarrea 1, Pamplona E-31008, Spain
| | - Carmen Sanmartín
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Navarra, Irunlarrea 1, Pamplona E-31008, Spain
| | - Arun K Sharma
- Department of Pharmacology, Penn State College of Medicine, 500 University Drive, Hershey, Pennsylvania 17033, United States
- Penn State Cancer Institute, 400 University Drive,Hershey, Pennsylvania 17033, United States
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5
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Samanta S, Akhter F, Roy A, Chen D, Turner B, Wang Y, Clemente N, Wang C, Swerdlow RH, Battaile KP, Lovell S, Yan SF, Yan SS. New cyclophilin D inhibitor rescues mitochondrial and cognitive function in Alzheimer's disease. Brain 2024; 147:1710-1725. [PMID: 38146639 DOI: 10.1093/brain/awad432] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2022] [Revised: 11/16/2023] [Accepted: 12/05/2023] [Indexed: 12/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Mitochondrial dysfunction is an early pathological feature of Alzheimer disease and plays a crucial role in the development and progression of Alzheimer's disease. Strategies to rescue mitochondrial function and cognition remain to be explored. Cyclophilin D (CypD), the peptidylprolyl isomerase F (PPIase), is a key component in opening the mitochondrial membrane permeability transition pore, leading to mitochondrial dysfunction and cell death. Blocking membrane permeability transition pore opening by inhibiting CypD activity is a promising therapeutic approach for Alzheimer's disease. However, there is currently no effective CypD inhibitor for Alzheimer's disease, with previous candidates demonstrating high toxicity, poor ability to cross the blood-brain barrier, compromised biocompatibility and low selectivity. Here, we report a new class of non-toxic and biocompatible CypD inhibitor, ebselen, using a conventional PPIase assay to screen a library of ∼2000 FDA-approved drugs with crystallographic analysis of the CypD-ebselen crystal structure (PDB code: 8EJX). More importantly, we assessed the effects of genetic and pharmacological blockade of CypD on Alzheimer's disease mitochondrial and glycolytic bioenergetics in Alzheimer's disease-derived mitochondrial cybrid cells, an ex vivo human sporadic Alzheimer's disease mitochondrial model, and on synaptic function, inflammatory response and learning and memory in Alzheimer's disease mouse models. Inhibition of CypD by ebselen protects against sporadic Alzheimer's disease- and amyloid-β-induced mitochondrial and glycolytic perturbation, synaptic and cognitive dysfunction, together with suppressing neuroinflammation in the brain of Alzheimer's disease mouse models, which is linked to CypD-related membrane permeability transition pore formation. Thus, CypD inhibitors have the potential to slow the progression of neurodegenerative diseases, including Alzheimer's disease, by boosting mitochondrial bioenergetics and improving synaptic and cognitive function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sourav Samanta
- Division of Surgical Science of Department of Surgery, Columbia University in New York, New York, NY 10032, USA
| | - Firoz Akhter
- Division of Surgical Science of Department of Surgery, Columbia University in New York, New York, NY 10032, USA
| | - Anuradha Roy
- High Throughput Screening Laboratory, Del M. Shankel Structural Biology Center, University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS 66047, USA
| | - Doris Chen
- Higuchi Bioscience Center, School of Pharmacy, University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS 66047, USA
| | - Benjamin Turner
- High Throughput Screening Laboratory, Del M. Shankel Structural Biology Center, University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS 66047, USA
| | - Yongfu Wang
- Higuchi Bioscience Center, School of Pharmacy, University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS 66047, USA
| | - Nicolina Clemente
- Center for Biotechnology and Interdisciplinary Studies, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, New York, NY 12180-3590, USA
| | - Chunyu Wang
- Center for Biotechnology and Interdisciplinary Studies, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, New York, NY 12180-3590, USA
| | | | - Kevin P Battaile
- New York Structural Biology Center, NSLS-II, Upton, NY 11973, USA
| | - Scott Lovell
- Protein Structure and X-Ray Crystallography Laboratory, The University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS 66047, USA
| | - Shi Fang Yan
- Division of Surgical Science of Department of Surgery, Columbia University in New York, New York, NY 10032, USA
| | - Shirley ShiDu Yan
- Division of Surgical Science of Department of Surgery, Columbia University in New York, New York, NY 10032, USA
- Department of Molecular Pharmacology and Therapeutics, Columbia University, New York, NY 10032, USA
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6
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Li J, Zhong X, Li H, Yu Z, Li J, Duan Q, Li Y, Chen F, Wang Y, Wu Z, Liu Y, Peng Z, Song D. Design, synthesis and biological evaluation of biaryl amide derivatives against SARS-CoV-2 with dual-target mechanism. Eur J Med Chem 2024; 264:115978. [PMID: 38061229 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2023.115978] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2023] [Revised: 11/14/2023] [Accepted: 11/18/2023] [Indexed: 12/30/2023]
Abstract
The COVID-19 pandemic highlights the urgent need to develop effective small-molecule antivirals. Thirty-three novel biaryl amide derivatives were synthesized and evaluated for anti-coronaviral activity. Some significant SARs were uncovered and the intensive structure modifications led to the most active compounds 8b and 8h. The broad-spectrum anti-coronaviral effects of 8h were validated at RNA and protein levels. 8h inhibits coronavirus replication at multiple stages, from virus entry to virus dsRNA synthesis. The mechanism of action showed that 8h may simultaneously act on 3CLpro and TMPRSS2 to display anti-coronaviral effects. 8h combined with RdRp inhibitor showed synergistic inhibitory activity against coronavirus. This study confirmed that biaryl amide derivatives may be a new class of potential therapeutic agents against coronavirus with multiple target effect, worthy of further investigation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiayu Li
- Institute of Medicinal Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, 100050, China
| | - Xiuli Zhong
- Institute of Medicinal Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, 100050, China
| | - Hongying Li
- Institute of Medicinal Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, 100050, China
| | - Zhihui Yu
- Institute of Medicinal Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, 100050, China
| | - Jianrui Li
- Institute of Medicinal Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, 100050, China
| | - Qionglu Duan
- Institute of Medicinal Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, 100050, China
| | - Yinghong Li
- Institute of Medicinal Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, 100050, China
| | - Fenbei Chen
- Institute of Medicinal Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, 100050, China
| | - Yanxiang Wang
- Institute of Medicinal Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, 100050, China
| | - Zhiyun Wu
- Institute of Medicinal Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, 100050, China
| | - Yonghua Liu
- Institute of Medicinal Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, 100050, China.
| | - Zonggen Peng
- Institute of Medicinal Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, 100050, China.
| | - Danqing Song
- Institute of Medicinal Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, 100050, China.
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7
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Halliwell B. Understanding mechanisms of antioxidant action in health and disease. Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol 2024; 25:13-33. [PMID: 37714962 DOI: 10.1038/s41580-023-00645-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 38.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 07/17/2023] [Indexed: 09/17/2023]
Abstract
Several different reactive oxygen species (ROS) are generated in vivo. They have roles in the development of certain human diseases whilst also performing physiological functions. ROS are counterbalanced by an antioxidant defence network, which functions to modulate ROS levels to allow their physiological roles whilst minimizing the oxidative damage they cause that can contribute to disease development. This Review describes the mechanisms of action of antioxidants synthesized in vivo, antioxidants derived from the human diet and synthetic antioxidants developed as therapeutic agents, with a focus on the gaps in our current knowledge and the approaches needed to close them. The Review also explores the reasons behind the successes and failures of antioxidants in treating or preventing human disease. Antioxidants may have special roles in the gastrointestinal tract, and many lifestyle features known to promote health (especially diet, exercise and the control of blood glucose and cholesterol levels) may be acting, at least in part, by antioxidant mechanisms. Certain reactive sulfur species may be important antioxidants but more accurate determinations of their concentrations in vivo are needed to help assess their contributions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Barry Halliwell
- Department of Biochemistry, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore.
- Neurobiology Research Programme, Life Sciences Institute, Centre for Life Sciences, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore.
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8
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Ali F, Alom S, Ali SR, Kondoli B, Sadhu P, Borah C, Kakoti BB, Ghosh SK, Shakya A, Ahmed AB, Singh UP, Bhat HR. Ebselen: A Review on its Synthesis, Derivatives, Anticancer Efficacy and Utility in Combating SARS-COV-2. Mini Rev Med Chem 2024; 24:1203-1225. [PMID: 37711004 DOI: 10.2174/1389557523666230914103339] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2023] [Revised: 05/26/2023] [Accepted: 06/16/2023] [Indexed: 09/16/2023]
Abstract
Ebselen is a selenoorganic chiral compound with antioxidant properties comparable to glutathione peroxidase. It is also known as 2-phenyl-1,2-benzisoselenazol-3(2H)-one. In studies examining its numerous pharmacological activities, including antioxidant, anticancer, antiviral, and anti- Alzheimer's, ebselen has demonstrated promising results. This review's primary objective was to emphasize the numerous synthesis pathways of ebselen and their efficacy in fighting cancer. The data were collected from multiple sources, including Scopus, PubMed, Google Scholar, Web of Science, and Publons. The starting reagents for the synthesis of ebselen are 2-aminobenzoic acid and N-phenyl benzamide. It was discovered that ebselen has the ability to initiate apoptosis in malignant cells and prevent the formation of new cancer cells by scavenging free radicals. In addition, ebselen increases tumor cell susceptibility to apoptosis by inhibiting TNF-α mediated NF-kB activation. Ebselen can inhibit both doxorubicin and daunorubicin-induced cardiotoxicity. Allopurinol and ebselen administered orally can be used to suppress renal ototoxicity and nephrotoxicity. Due to excessive administration, diclofenac can induce malignancy of the gastrointestinal tract, which ebselen can effectively suppress. Recent research has demonstrated ebselen to inhibit viral function by binding to cysteinecontaining catalytic domains of various viral proteases. It was discovered that ebselen could inhibit the catalytic dyad function of Mpro by forming an irreversible covalent bond between Se and Cys145, thereby altering protease function and inhibiting SARS-CoV-2. Ebselen may also inhibit the activation of endosomal NADPH oxidase of vascular endothelial cells, which is believed to be required for thrombotic complications in COVID-19. In this review, we have included various studies conducted on the anticancer effect of ebselen as well as its inhibition of SARS-CoV-2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Farak Ali
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Dibrugarh University, Dibrugarh, Assam, 786004, India
- Girijananda Chowdhury Institute of Pharmaceutical Science, Tezpur Medical College and Hospital, Tezpur, Sonitpur Assam, 784501,India
| | - Shahnaz Alom
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Dibrugarh University, Dibrugarh, Assam, 786004, India
- Girijananda Chowdhury Institute of Pharmaceutical Science, Tezpur Medical College and Hospital, Tezpur, Sonitpur Assam, 784501,India
| | - Sheikh Rezzak Ali
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Dibrugarh University, Dibrugarh, Assam, 786004, India
| | - Biswanarayan Kondoli
- Department of Pharmacy, Tripura University, Suryamani Nagar, Agartala, Tripura 799022, India
| | - Prativa Sadhu
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Dibrugarh University, Dibrugarh, Assam, 786004, India
| | - Chinmoyee Borah
- Girijananda Chowdhury Institute of Pharmaceutical Science, Guwahati, Kamrup, Assam, 781017, India
| | - Bibhuti Bushan Kakoti
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Dibrugarh University, Dibrugarh, Assam, 786004, India
| | - Surajit Kumar Ghosh
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Dibrugarh University, Dibrugarh, Assam, 786004, India
| | - Anshul Shakya
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Dibrugarh University, Dibrugarh, Assam, 786004, India
| | - Abdul Baquee Ahmed
- Girijananda Chowdhury Institute of Pharmaceutical Science,Tezpur Medical College and Hospital, Tezpur, Sonitpur-784501, Assam, India
| | - Udaya Pratap Singh
- Drug Design & Discovery Laboratory, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Sam Higginbottom University of Agriculture, Technology & Sciences, Allahabad, Uttar Pradesh, 211007, India
| | - Hans Raj Bhat
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Dibrugarh University, Dibrugarh, Assam, 786004, India
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9
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Zhang H, Li J, Toth K, Tollefson AE, Jing L, Gao S, Liu X, Zhan P. Identification of Ebselen derivatives as novel SARS-CoV-2 main protease inhibitors: Design, synthesis, biological evaluation, and structure-activity relationships exploration. Bioorg Med Chem 2023; 96:117531. [PMID: 37972434 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmc.2023.117531] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2023] [Revised: 11/07/2023] [Accepted: 11/08/2023] [Indexed: 11/19/2023]
Abstract
The main protease (Mpro) represents one of the most effective and attractive targets for designing anti-SARS-CoV-2 drugs. In this study, we designed and synthesized a novel series of Ebselen derivatives by incorporating privileged fragments from different pockets of the Mpro active site. Among these compounds, 11 compounds showed submicromolar activity in the FRET-based SARS-CoV-2 Mpro inhibition assay, with IC50 values ranging from 233 nM to 550 nM. Notably, compound 3a displayed submicromolar Mpro activity (IC50 = 364 nM) and low micromolar antiviral activity (EC50 = 8.01 µM), comparable to that of Ebselen (IC50 = 339 nM, EC50 = 3.78 µM). Time-dependent inhibition assay confirmed that these compounds acted as covalent inhibitors. Taken together, our optimization campaigns thoroughly explored the structural diversity of Ebselen and verified the impact of specific modifications on potency against Mpro.
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Affiliation(s)
- Heng Zhang
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Key Laboratory of Chemical Biology (Ministry of Education), School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Cheeloo College of Medicine, Shandong University, 44 West Culture Road, 250012 Ji'nan, Shandong, PR China
| | - Jing Li
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Key Laboratory of Chemical Biology (Ministry of Education), School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Cheeloo College of Medicine, Shandong University, 44 West Culture Road, 250012 Ji'nan, Shandong, PR China
| | - Karoly Toth
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Saint Louis University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri 63104, United States; Saint Louis University Institute for Drug and Biotherapeutic Innovation, St. Louis, Missouri 63104, United States
| | - Ann E Tollefson
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Saint Louis University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri 63104, United States; Saint Louis University Institute for Drug and Biotherapeutic Innovation, St. Louis, Missouri 63104, United States
| | - Lanlan Jing
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Key Laboratory of Chemical Biology (Ministry of Education), School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Cheeloo College of Medicine, Shandong University, 44 West Culture Road, 250012 Ji'nan, Shandong, PR China
| | - Shenghua Gao
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Key Laboratory of Chemical Biology (Ministry of Education), School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Cheeloo College of Medicine, Shandong University, 44 West Culture Road, 250012 Ji'nan, Shandong, PR China
| | - Xinyong Liu
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Key Laboratory of Chemical Biology (Ministry of Education), School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Cheeloo College of Medicine, Shandong University, 44 West Culture Road, 250012 Ji'nan, Shandong, PR China.
| | - Peng Zhan
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Key Laboratory of Chemical Biology (Ministry of Education), School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Cheeloo College of Medicine, Shandong University, 44 West Culture Road, 250012 Ji'nan, Shandong, PR China.
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10
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Tucci AR, da Rosa RM, Rosa AS, Augusto Chaves O, Ferreira VNS, Oliveira TKF, Coutinho Souza DD, Borba NRR, Dornelles L, Rocha NS, Mayer JCP, da Rocha JBT, Rodrigues OED, Miranda MD. Antiviral Effect of 5'-Arylchalcogeno-3-aminothymidine Derivatives in SARS-CoV-2 Infection. Molecules 2023; 28:6696. [PMID: 37764472 PMCID: PMC10537738 DOI: 10.3390/molecules28186696] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2023] [Revised: 09/04/2023] [Accepted: 09/14/2023] [Indexed: 09/29/2023] Open
Abstract
The understanding that zidovudine (ZDV or azidothymidine, AZT) inhibits the RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp) of SARS-CoV-2 and that chalcogen atoms can increase the bioactivity and reduce the toxicity of AZT has directed our search for the discovery of novel potential anti-coronavirus compounds. Here, the antiviral activity of selenium and tellurium containing AZT derivatives in human type II pneumocytes cell model (Calu-3) and monkey kidney cells (Vero E6) infected with SARS-CoV-2, and their toxic effects on these cells, was evaluated. Cell viability analysis revealed that organoselenium (R3a-R3e) showed lower cytotoxicity than organotellurium (R3f, R3n-R3q), with CC50 ≥ 100 µM. The R3b and R3e were particularly noteworthy for inhibiting viral replication in both cell models and showed better selectivity index. In Vero E6, the EC50 values for R3b and R3e were 2.97 ± 0.62 µM and 1.99 ± 0.42 µM, respectively, while in Calu-3, concentrations of 3.82 ± 1.42 µM and 1.92 ± 0.43 µM (24 h treatment) and 1.33 ± 0.35 µM and 2.31 ± 0.54 µM (48 h) were observed, respectively. The molecular docking calculations were carried out to main protease (Mpro), papain-like protease (PLpro), and RdRp following non-competitive, competitive, and allosteric inhibitory approaches. The in silico results suggested that the organoselenium is a potential non-competitive inhibitor of RdRp, interacting in the allosteric cavity located in the palm region. Overall, the cell-based results indicated that the chalcogen-zidovudine derivatives were more potent than AZT in inhibiting SARS-CoV-2 replication and that the compounds R3b and R3e play an important inhibitory role, expanding the knowledge about the promising therapeutic capacity of organoselenium against COVID-19.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amanda Resende Tucci
- Laboratório de Morfologia e Morfogênese Viral, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro 21041-250, RJ, Brazil; (A.R.T.); (A.S.R.); (V.N.S.F.); (T.K.F.O.); (D.D.C.S.); (N.R.R.B.)
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Biologia Celular e Molecular, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro 21041-250, RJ, Brazil
| | - Raquel Mello da Rosa
- LabSelen-NanoBio—Departamento de Química, Universidade Federal de Santa Maria, Santa Maria 97105-900, RS, Brazil; (R.M.d.R.); (L.D.); (N.S.R.); (J.C.P.M.)
| | - Alice Santos Rosa
- Laboratório de Morfologia e Morfogênese Viral, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro 21041-250, RJ, Brazil; (A.R.T.); (A.S.R.); (V.N.S.F.); (T.K.F.O.); (D.D.C.S.); (N.R.R.B.)
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Biologia Celular e Molecular, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro 21041-250, RJ, Brazil
| | - Otávio Augusto Chaves
- CQC-IMS, Departamento de Química, Universidade de Coimbra, Rua Larga, 3004-535 Coimbra, Portugal
- Laboratório de Imunofarmacologia, Centro de Pesquisa, Inovação e Vigilância em COVID-19 e Emergências Sanitárias (CPIV), Instituto Oswaldo Cruz (IOC), Fundação Oswaldo Cruz (Fiocruz), Rio de Janeiro 21040-900, RJ, Brazil
| | - Vivian Neuza Santos Ferreira
- Laboratório de Morfologia e Morfogênese Viral, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro 21041-250, RJ, Brazil; (A.R.T.); (A.S.R.); (V.N.S.F.); (T.K.F.O.); (D.D.C.S.); (N.R.R.B.)
| | - Thamara Kelcya Fonseca Oliveira
- Laboratório de Morfologia e Morfogênese Viral, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro 21041-250, RJ, Brazil; (A.R.T.); (A.S.R.); (V.N.S.F.); (T.K.F.O.); (D.D.C.S.); (N.R.R.B.)
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Biologia Celular e Molecular, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro 21041-250, RJ, Brazil
| | - Daniel Dias Coutinho Souza
- Laboratório de Morfologia e Morfogênese Viral, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro 21041-250, RJ, Brazil; (A.R.T.); (A.S.R.); (V.N.S.F.); (T.K.F.O.); (D.D.C.S.); (N.R.R.B.)
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Biologia Celular e Molecular, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro 21041-250, RJ, Brazil
| | - Nathalia Roberto Resende Borba
- Laboratório de Morfologia e Morfogênese Viral, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro 21041-250, RJ, Brazil; (A.R.T.); (A.S.R.); (V.N.S.F.); (T.K.F.O.); (D.D.C.S.); (N.R.R.B.)
| | - Luciano Dornelles
- LabSelen-NanoBio—Departamento de Química, Universidade Federal de Santa Maria, Santa Maria 97105-900, RS, Brazil; (R.M.d.R.); (L.D.); (N.S.R.); (J.C.P.M.)
| | - Nayra Salazar Rocha
- LabSelen-NanoBio—Departamento de Química, Universidade Federal de Santa Maria, Santa Maria 97105-900, RS, Brazil; (R.M.d.R.); (L.D.); (N.S.R.); (J.C.P.M.)
| | - João Candido Pilar Mayer
- LabSelen-NanoBio—Departamento de Química, Universidade Federal de Santa Maria, Santa Maria 97105-900, RS, Brazil; (R.M.d.R.); (L.D.); (N.S.R.); (J.C.P.M.)
| | - João B. Teixeira da Rocha
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Bioquímica Toxicológica, Universidade Federal de Santa Maria, Santa Maria 97105-900, RS, Brazil;
| | - Oscar Endrigo D. Rodrigues
- LabSelen-NanoBio—Departamento de Química, Universidade Federal de Santa Maria, Santa Maria 97105-900, RS, Brazil; (R.M.d.R.); (L.D.); (N.S.R.); (J.C.P.M.)
| | - Milene Dias Miranda
- Laboratório de Morfologia e Morfogênese Viral, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro 21041-250, RJ, Brazil; (A.R.T.); (A.S.R.); (V.N.S.F.); (T.K.F.O.); (D.D.C.S.); (N.R.R.B.)
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Biologia Celular e Molecular, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro 21041-250, RJ, Brazil
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11
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Wildner G, Tucci AR, Prestes ADS, Muller T, Rosa ADS, Borba NRR, Ferreira VN, Rocha JBT, Miranda MD, Barbosa NV. Ebselen and Diphenyl Diselenide Inhibit SARS-CoV-2 Replication at Non-Toxic Concentrations to Human Cell Lines. Vaccines (Basel) 2023; 11:1222. [PMID: 37515038 PMCID: PMC10384302 DOI: 10.3390/vaccines11071222] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2023] [Revised: 06/18/2023] [Accepted: 06/25/2023] [Indexed: 07/30/2023] Open
Abstract
The novel severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) was the causative agent of the COVID-19 pandemic, a global public health problem. Despite the numerous studies for drug repurposing, there are only two FDA-approved antiviral agents (Remdesivir and Nirmatrelvir) for non-hospitalized patients with mild-to-moderate COVID-19 symptoms. Consequently, it is pivotal to search for new molecules with anti-SARS-CoV-2 activity and to study their effects in the human immune system. Ebselen (Eb) is an organoselenium compound that is safe for humans and has antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and antimicrobial properties. Diphenyl diselenide ((PhSe)2) shares several pharmacological properties with Eb and is of low toxicity to mammals. Herein, we investigated Eb and (PhSe)2 anti-SARS-CoV-2 activity in a human pneumocytes cell model (Calu-3) and analyzed their toxic effects on human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs). Both compounds significantly inhibited the SARS-CoV-2 replication in Calu-3 cells. The EC50 values for Eb and (PhSe)2 after 24 h post-infection (hpi) were 3.8 µM and 3.9 µM, respectively, and after 48 hpi were 2.6 µM and 3.4 µM. These concentrations are safe for non-infected cells, since the CC50 values found for Eb and (PhSe)2 on Calu-3 were greater than 200 µM. Importantly, the concentration rates tested on viral replication were not toxic to human PBMCs. Therefore, our findings reinforce the efficacy of Eb and demonstrate (PhSe)2 as a new candidate to be tested in future trials against SARS-CoV-2 infection/inflammation conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guilherme Wildner
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Bioquímica Toxicológica, Universidade Federal de Santa Maria, Santa Maria 97105-900, RS, Brazil
| | - Amanda Resende Tucci
- Laboratório de Morfologia e Morfogênese Viral, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro 21041-250, RJ, Brazil
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Biologia Celular e Molecular, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro 21041-250, RJ, Brazil
| | - Alessandro de Souza Prestes
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Bioquímica Toxicológica, Universidade Federal de Santa Maria, Santa Maria 97105-900, RS, Brazil
| | - Talise Muller
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Bioquímica Toxicológica, Universidade Federal de Santa Maria, Santa Maria 97105-900, RS, Brazil
| | - Alice Dos Santos Rosa
- Laboratório de Morfologia e Morfogênese Viral, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro 21041-250, RJ, Brazil
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Biologia Celular e Molecular, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro 21041-250, RJ, Brazil
| | - Nathalia Roberto R Borba
- Laboratório de Morfologia e Morfogênese Viral, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro 21041-250, RJ, Brazil
| | - Vivian Neuza Ferreira
- Laboratório de Morfologia e Morfogênese Viral, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro 21041-250, RJ, Brazil
| | - João Batista Teixeira Rocha
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Bioquímica Toxicológica, Universidade Federal de Santa Maria, Santa Maria 97105-900, RS, Brazil
| | - Milene Dias Miranda
- Laboratório de Morfologia e Morfogênese Viral, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro 21041-250, RJ, Brazil
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Biologia Celular e Molecular, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro 21041-250, RJ, Brazil
| | - Nilda Vargas Barbosa
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Bioquímica Toxicológica, Universidade Federal de Santa Maria, Santa Maria 97105-900, RS, Brazil
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Farkaš B, Minneci M, Misevicius M, Rozas I. A Tale of Two Proteases: M Pro and TMPRSS2 as Targets for COVID-19 Therapies. Pharmaceuticals (Basel) 2023; 16:834. [PMID: 37375781 DOI: 10.3390/ph16060834] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2023] [Revised: 05/29/2023] [Accepted: 05/31/2023] [Indexed: 06/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Considering the importance of the 2019 outbreak of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) resulting in the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic, an overview of two proteases that play an important role in the infection by SARS-CoV-2, the main protease of SARS-CoV-2 (MPro) and the host transmembrane protease serine 2 (TMPRSS2), is presented in this review. After summarising the viral replication cycle to identify the relevance of these proteases, the therapeutic agents already approved are presented. Then, this review discusses some of the most recently reported inhibitors first for the viral MPro and next for the host TMPRSS2 explaining the mechanism of action of each protease. Afterward, some computational approaches to design novel MPro and TMPRSS2 inhibitors are presented, also describing the corresponding crystallographic structures reported so far. Finally, a brief discussion on a few reports found some dual-action inhibitors for both proteases is given. This review provides an overview of two proteases of different origins (viral and human host) that have become important targets for the development of antiviral agents to treat COVID-19.
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Affiliation(s)
- Barbara Farkaš
- School of Chemistry, Trinity Biomedical Sciences Institute, Trinity College Dublin, 152-160 Pearse Street, D02 R590 Dublin, Ireland
| | - Marco Minneci
- School of Chemistry, Trinity Biomedical Sciences Institute, Trinity College Dublin, 152-160 Pearse Street, D02 R590 Dublin, Ireland
| | - Matas Misevicius
- School of Chemistry, Trinity Biomedical Sciences Institute, Trinity College Dublin, 152-160 Pearse Street, D02 R590 Dublin, Ireland
| | - Isabel Rozas
- School of Chemistry, Trinity Biomedical Sciences Institute, Trinity College Dublin, 152-160 Pearse Street, D02 R590 Dublin, Ireland
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Ramos-Guzmán CA, Andjelkovic M, Zinovjev K, Ruiz-Pernía JJ, Tuñón I. The impact of SARS-CoV-2 3CL protease mutations on nirmatrelvir inhibitory efficiency. Computational insights into potential resistance mechanisms. Chem Sci 2023; 14:2686-2697. [PMID: 36908962 PMCID: PMC9993853 DOI: 10.1039/d2sc06584c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2022] [Accepted: 02/13/2023] [Indexed: 02/16/2023] Open
Abstract
The use of antiviral drugs can promote the appearance of mutations in the target protein that increase the resistance of the virus to the treatment. This is also the case of nirmatrelvir, a covalent inhibitor of the 3CL protease, or main protease, of SARS-CoV-2. In this work we show how the by-residue decomposition of noncovalent interactions established between the drug and the enzyme, in combination with an analysis of naturally occurring mutations, can be used to detect potential mutations in the 3CL protease conferring resistance to nirmatrelvir. We also investigate the consequences of these mutations on the reaction mechanism to form the covalent enzyme-inhibitor complex using QM/MM methods. In particular, we show that the E166V variant of the protease displays smaller binding affinity to nirmatrelvir and larger activation free energy for the formation of the covalent complex, both factors contributing to the observed resistance to the treatment with this drug. The conclusions derived from our work can be used to anticipate the consequences of the introduction of nirmatrelvir in the fitness landscape of the virus and to design new inhibitors adapted to some of the possible resistance mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carlos A Ramos-Guzmán
- Departamento de Química Física, Universidad de Valencia 46100 Burjassot Spain
- Instituto de Materiales Avanzados, Universidad Jaume I 12071 Castelló Spain
| | - Milorad Andjelkovic
- Departamento de Química Física, Universidad de Valencia 46100 Burjassot Spain
| | - Kirill Zinovjev
- Departamento de Química Física, Universidad de Valencia 46100 Burjassot Spain
| | | | - Iñaki Tuñón
- Departamento de Química Física, Universidad de Valencia 46100 Burjassot Spain
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