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Sakata J, Tatsumi T, Sugiyama A, Shimizu A, Inagaki Y, Katoh H, Yamashita T, Takahashi K, Aki S, Kaneko Y, Kawamura T, Miura M, Ishii M, Osawa T, Tanaka T, Ishikawa S, Tsukagoshi M, Chansler M, Kodama T, Kanai M, Tokuyama H, Yamatsugu K. Antibody-mimetic drug conjugate with efficient internalization activity using anti-HER2 VHH and duocarmycin. Protein Expr Purif 2024; 214:106375. [PMID: 37797818 DOI: 10.1016/j.pep.2023.106375] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2023] [Accepted: 09/24/2023] [Indexed: 10/07/2023]
Abstract
Antibody-mimetic drug conjugate (AMDC) is a cancer cell-targeted drug delivery system based on the non-covalent binding of mutated streptavidin and modified biotin, namely Cupid and Psyche. However, the development of AMDCs is hampered by difficulties in post-translational modification or poor internalization activity. Here, we report an expression, refolding, and purification method for AMDC using a variable heavy chain of heavy chain-only antibodies (VHHs). Monomeric anti-HER2 VHH fused to Cupid was expressed in Escherichia coli inclusion bodies. Solubilization and refolding at optimized reducing conditions and pH levels were selected to form a functional, tetrameric protein (anti-HER2 VHH-Cupid) that can be easily purified based on molecular weight. Anti-HER2 VHH-Cupid non-covalently creates a tight complex with Psyche linked to a potent DNA-alkylating agent, duocarmycin. This complex can be absorbed by the HER2-expressing human breast cancer cell line, KPL-4, and kills KPL-4 cells in vitro and in vivo. The production of a targeting protein with internalizing activity, combined with the non-covalent conjugation of a highly potent payload, renders AMDC a promising platform for developing cancer-targeted therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juri Sakata
- Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Tohoku University, 6-3 Aoba, Aramaki, Aoba-ku, Sendai, 980-8578, Japan
| | - Toshifumi Tatsumi
- Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, The University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo, 113-0033, Japan
| | - Akira Sugiyama
- Isotope Science Center, The University of Tokyo, 2-11-16 Yayoi, Bunyo-ku, Tokyo, 113-0032, Japan; Research Center for Advanced Science and Technology, The University of Tokyo, 4-6-1 Komaba, Meguro-ku, Tokyo, 153-8904, Japan.
| | - Akihiro Shimizu
- Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Tohoku University, 6-3 Aoba, Aramaki, Aoba-ku, Sendai, 980-8578, Japan
| | - Yuya Inagaki
- Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Tohoku University, 6-3 Aoba, Aramaki, Aoba-ku, Sendai, 980-8578, Japan
| | - Hiroto Katoh
- Department of Preventive Medicine, Graduate School of Medicine, The University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo, 113-0033, Japan
| | - Takefumi Yamashita
- Research Center for Advanced Science and Technology, The University of Tokyo, 4-6-1 Komaba, Meguro-ku, Tokyo, 153-8904, Japan; Department of Physical Chemistry, School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Hoshi University, 2-4-41 Ebara, Shinagawa-ku, Tokyo, 142-8501, Japan
| | - Kazuki Takahashi
- Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, The University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo, 113-0033, Japan
| | - Sho Aki
- Research Center for Advanced Science and Technology, The University of Tokyo, 4-6-1 Komaba, Meguro-ku, Tokyo, 153-8904, Japan
| | - Yudai Kaneko
- Research Center for Advanced Science and Technology, The University of Tokyo, 4-6-1 Komaba, Meguro-ku, Tokyo, 153-8904, Japan; Medical & Biological Laboratories Co., Ltd, 2-11-8 Shibadaimon, Minato-ku, Tokyo, 105-0012, Japan
| | - Takeshi Kawamura
- Isotope Science Center, The University of Tokyo, 2-11-16 Yayoi, Bunyo-ku, Tokyo, 113-0032, Japan; Research Center for Advanced Science and Technology, The University of Tokyo, 4-6-1 Komaba, Meguro-ku, Tokyo, 153-8904, Japan
| | - Mai Miura
- Research Center for Advanced Science and Technology, The University of Tokyo, 4-6-1 Komaba, Meguro-ku, Tokyo, 153-8904, Japan
| | - Masazumi Ishii
- Research Center for Advanced Science and Technology, The University of Tokyo, 4-6-1 Komaba, Meguro-ku, Tokyo, 153-8904, Japan
| | - Tsuyoshi Osawa
- Research Center for Advanced Science and Technology, The University of Tokyo, 4-6-1 Komaba, Meguro-ku, Tokyo, 153-8904, Japan
| | - Toshiya Tanaka
- Research Center for Advanced Science and Technology, The University of Tokyo, 4-6-1 Komaba, Meguro-ku, Tokyo, 153-8904, Japan
| | - Shumpei Ishikawa
- Department of Preventive Medicine, Graduate School of Medicine, The University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo, 113-0033, Japan
| | | | - Michael Chansler
- Savid Therapeutics Inc., Eifuku 3-9-10, Suginami-ku, Tokyo, 168-0064, Japan
| | - Tatsuhiko Kodama
- Research Center for Advanced Science and Technology, The University of Tokyo, 4-6-1 Komaba, Meguro-ku, Tokyo, 153-8904, Japan
| | - Motomu Kanai
- Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, The University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo, 113-0033, Japan
| | - Hidetoshi Tokuyama
- Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Tohoku University, 6-3 Aoba, Aramaki, Aoba-ku, Sendai, 980-8578, Japan.
| | - Kenzo Yamatsugu
- Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Chiba University, 1-8-1 Inohana, Chuo-ku, Chiba-shi, Chiba, 260-8675, Japan.
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2
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DiBello M, Healy AR, Nikolayevskiy H, Xu Z, Herzon SB. Structure Elucidation of Secondary Metabolites: Current Frontiers and Lingering Pitfalls. Acc Chem Res 2023; 56:1656-1668. [PMID: 37220079 PMCID: PMC10468810 DOI: 10.1021/acs.accounts.3c00183] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
Analytical methods allow for the structure determination of submilligram quantities of complex secondary metabolites. This has been driven in large part by advances in NMR spectroscopic capabilities, including access to high-field magnets equipped with cryogenic probes. Experimental NMR spectroscopy may now be complemented by remarkably accurate carbon-13 NMR calculations using state-of-the-art DFT software packages. Additionally, microED analysis stands to have a profound effect on structure elucidation by providing X-ray-like images of microcrystalline samples of analytes. Nonetheless, lingering pitfalls in structure elucidation remain, particularly for isolates that are unstable or highly oxidized. In this Account, we discuss three projects from our laboratory that highlight nonoverlapping challenges to the field, with implications for chemical, synthetic, and mechanism of action studies. We first discuss the lomaiviticins, complex unsaturated polyketide natural products disclosed in 2001. The original structures were derived from NMR, HRMS, UV-vis, and IR analysis. Owing to the synthetic challenges presented by their structures and the absence of X-ray crystallographic data, the structure assignments remained untested for nearly two decades. In 2021, the Nelson group at Caltech carried out microED analysis of (-)-lomaiviticin C, leading to the startling discovery that the original structure assignment of the lomaiviticins was incorrect. Acquisition of higher-field (800 MHz 1H, cold probe) NMR data as well as DFT calculations provided insights into the basis for the original misassignment and lent further support to the new structure identified by microED. Reanalysis of the 2001 data set reveals that the two structure assignments are nearly indistinguishable, underscoring the limitations of NMR-based characterization. We then discuss the structure elucidation of colibactin, a complex, nonisolable microbiome metabolite implicated in colorectal cancer. The colibactin biosynthetic gene cluster was detected in 2006, but owing to colibactin's instability and low levels of production, it could not be isolated or characterized. We used a combination of chemical synthesis, mechanism of action studies, and biosynthetic analysis to identify the substructures in colibactin. These studies, coupled with isotope labeling and tandem MS analysis of colibactin-derived DNA interstrand cross-links, ultimately led to a structure assignment for the metabolite. We then discuss the ocimicides, plant secondary metabolites that were studied as agents against drug-resistant P. falciparum. We synthesized the core structure of the ocimicides and found significant discrepancies between our experimental NMR spectroscopic data and that reported for the natural products. We determined the theoretical carbon-13 NMR shifts for 32 diastereomers of the ocimicides. These studies indicated that a revision of the connectivity of the metabolites is likely needed. We end with some thoughts on the frontiers of secondary metabolite structure determination. As modern NMR computational methods are straightforward to execute, we advocate for their systematic use in validating the assignments of novel secondary metabolites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mikaela DiBello
- Department of Chemistry, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut 06520, United States
| | - Alan R Healy
- Department of Chemistry, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut 06520, United States
| | - Herman Nikolayevskiy
- Department of Chemistry, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut 06520, United States
| | - Zhi Xu
- Department of Chemistry, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut 06520, United States
| | - Seth B Herzon
- Department of Chemistry, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut 06520, United States
- Departments of Pharmacology and Therapeutic Radiology, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut 06520, United States
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3
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Sakata J. [Synthetic Studies on Complex Natural Products Based on Development of a Novel Synthetic Method for Heteroaromatic Skeleton]. YAKUGAKU ZASSHI 2022; 142:91-100. [PMID: 35110456 DOI: 10.1248/yakushi.21-00199] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
Among my recent work on the syntheses of complex natural products based on the development of a novel synthetic method for the heteroaromatic skeleton, this article primarily deals with the total syntheses of (+)-CC-1065, isobatzeline A/B, and batzeline A. These syntheses were accomplished via a novel indole synthesis utilizing a ring expansion reaction of benzocyclobutenone oxime sulfonate as the key step. The 1,2-dihydro-3H-pyrrolo[3,2-e]indole segments of (+)-CC-1065 were rapidly constructed via a two-directional double-ring expansion strategy. Highly substituted pyrrolidine-fused common 5-chloro-2-methylthioindoles of isobatzeline A/B and batzeline A were constructed using a ring expansion reaction of benzocyclobutenone oxime sulfonate with NaSMe and a benzyne-mediated cyclization/functionalization reaction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juri Sakata
- Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Tohoku University
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4
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Ma S, Mandalapu D, Wang S, Zhang Q. Biosynthesis of cyclopropane in natural products. Nat Prod Rep 2021; 39:926-945. [PMID: 34860231 DOI: 10.1039/d1np00065a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Covering: 2012 to 2021Cyclopropane attracts wide interests in the fields of synthetic and pharmaceutical chemistry, and chemical biology because of its unique structural and chemical properties. This structural motif is widespread in natural products, and is usually essential for biological activities. Nature has evolved diverse strategies to access this structural motif, and increasing knowledge of the enzymes forming cyclopropane (i.e., cyclopropanases) has been revealed over the last two decades. Here, the scientific literature from the last two decades relating to cyclopropane biosynthesis is summarized, and the enzymatic cyclopropanations, according to reaction mechanism, which can be grouped into two major pathways according to whether the reaction involves an exogenous C1 unit from S-adenosylmethionine (SAM) or not, is discussed. The reactions can further be classified based on the key intermediates required prior to cyclopropane formation, which can be carbocations, carbanions, or carbon radicals. Besides the general biosynthetic pathways of the cyclopropane-containing natural products, particular emphasis is placed on the mechanism and engineering of the enzymes required for forming this unique structure motif.
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Affiliation(s)
- Suze Ma
- Department of Chemistry, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200433, China.
| | | | - Shu Wang
- Department of Chemistry, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200433, China.
| | - Qi Zhang
- Department of Chemistry, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200433, China.
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5
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Amino DSA analogues as payloads for antibody-drug conjugates with multiple sites for conjugation. Initial studies and solid phase synthesis. Tetrahedron Lett 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tetlet.2021.153058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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6
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Sun Q, Huang M, Wei Y. Diversity of the reaction mechanisms of SAM-dependent enzymes. Acta Pharm Sin B 2021; 11:632-650. [PMID: 33777672 PMCID: PMC7982431 DOI: 10.1016/j.apsb.2020.08.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2020] [Revised: 07/30/2020] [Accepted: 08/08/2020] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
S-adenosylmethionine (SAM) is ubiquitous in living organisms and is of great significance in metabolism as a cofactor of various enzymes. Methyltransferases (MTases), a major group of SAM-dependent enzymes, catalyze methyl transfer from SAM to C, O, N, and S atoms in small-molecule secondary metabolites and macromolecules, including proteins and nucleic acids. MTases have long been a hot topic in biomedical research because of their crucial role in epigenetic regulation of macromolecules and biosynthesis of natural products with prolific pharmacological moieties. However, another group of SAM-dependent enzymes, sharing similar core domains with MTases, can catalyze nonmethylation reactions and have multiple functions. Herein, we mainly describe the nonmethylation reactions of SAM-dependent enzymes in biosynthesis. First, we compare the structural and mechanistic similarities and distinctions between SAM-dependent MTases and the non-methylating SAM-dependent enzymes. Second, we summarize the reactions catalyzed by these enzymes and explore the mechanisms. Finally, we discuss the structural conservation and catalytical diversity of class I-like non-methylating SAM-dependent enzymes and propose a possibility in enzymes evolution, suggesting future perspectives for enzyme-mediated chemistry and biotechnology, which will help the development of new methods for drug synthesis.
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7
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Williams PC, Wernke KM, Tirla A, Herzon SB. Employing chemical synthesis to study the structure and function of colibactin, a "dark matter" metabolite. Nat Prod Rep 2020; 37:1532-1548. [PMID: 33174565 PMCID: PMC7700718 DOI: 10.1039/d0np00072h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
Covering: 2015 to 2020 The field of natural products is dominated by a discovery paradigm that follows the sequence: isolation, structure elucidation, chemical synthesis, and then elucidation of mechanism of action and structure-activity relationships. Although this discovery paradigm has proven successful in the past, researchers have amassed enough evidence to conclude that the vast majority of nature's secondary metabolites - biosynthetic "dark matter" - cannot be identified and studied by this approach. Many biosynthetic gene clusters (BGCs) are expressed at low levels, or not at all, and in some instances a molecule's instability to fermentation or isolation prevents detection entirely. Here, we discuss an alternative approach to natural product identification that addresses these challenges by enlisting synthetic chemistry to prepare putative natural product fragments and structures as guided by biosynthetic insight. We demonstrate the utility of this approach through our structure elucidation of colibactin, an unisolable genotoxin produced by pathogenic bacteria in the human gut.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peyton C Williams
- Department of Chemistry, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut 06520, USA.
| | - Kevin M Wernke
- Department of Chemistry, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut 06520, USA.
| | - Alina Tirla
- Department of Chemistry, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut 06520, USA.
| | - Seth B Herzon
- Department of Chemistry, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut 06520, USA. and Department of Pharmacology, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut 06520, USA
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8
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Wu ZC, Boger DL. The quest for supernatural products: the impact of total synthesis in complex natural products medicinal chemistry. Nat Prod Rep 2020; 37:1511-1531. [PMID: 33169762 PMCID: PMC7678878 DOI: 10.1039/d0np00060d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Covering: 2000 up to 2020This review presents select recent advances in the medicinal chemistry of complex natural products that are prepared by total synthesis. The underlying studies highlight enabling divergent synthetic strategies and methods that permit the systematic medicinal chemistry studies of key analogues bearing deep-seated structural changes not readily accessible by semisynthetic or biosynthetic means. Select and recent examples are detailed where the key structural changes are designed to improve defined properties or to overcome an intrinsic limitation of the natural product itself. In the examples presented, the synthetic efforts provided supernatural products, a term first introduced by our colleague Ryan Shenvi (Synlett, 2016, 27, 1145-1164), with properties superseding the parent natural product. The design principles and approaches for creating the supernatural products are highlighted with an emphasis on the properties addressed that include those that improve activity or potency, increase selectivity, enhance durability, broaden the spectrum of activity, improve chemical or metabolic stability, overcome limiting physical properties, add mechanisms of action, enhance PK properties, overcome drug resistance, and/or improve in vivo efficacy. Some such improvements may be regarded by some as iterative enhancements whereas others, we believe, truly live up to their characterization as supernatural products. Most such efforts are also accompanied by advances in synthetic organic chemistry, inspiring the development of new synthetic methodology and providing supernatural products with improved synthetic accessibility.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhi-Chen Wu
- Department of Chemistry, The Skaggs Institute for Chemical Biology, The Scripps Research Institute, 10550 N. Torrey Pines Road, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA.
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9
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Zhang JR, Jin HS, Sun J, Wang J, Zhao LM. Time-Economical Synthesis of Bis-Spiro Cyclopropanes via Cascade 1,6-Conjugate Addition/Dearomatization Reaction of para
-Quinone Methides with 3-Chlorooxindoles. European J Org Chem 2020. [DOI: 10.1002/ejoc.202000830] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Jing-Ru Zhang
- School of Chemistry and Materials Science; Jiangsu Normal University; 221116 Xuzhou Jiangsu China
| | - Hai-Shan Jin
- School of Chemistry and Materials Science; Jiangsu Normal University; 221116 Xuzhou Jiangsu China
| | - Jin Sun
- School of Chemistry and Materials Science; Jiangsu Normal University; 221116 Xuzhou Jiangsu China
| | - Jie Wang
- School of Chemistry and Materials Science; Jiangsu Normal University; 221116 Xuzhou Jiangsu China
| | - Li-Ming Zhao
- School of Chemistry and Materials Science; Jiangsu Normal University; 221116 Xuzhou Jiangsu China
- State Key Laboratory of Bioactive Substance and Function of Natural Medicines; Institute of Materia Medica; Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College; 100050 Beijing China
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10
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Cartwright OC, Beekman AM, Cominetti MMD, Russell DA, Searcey M. A Peptide–Duocarmycin Conjugate Targeting the Thomsen-Friedenreich Antigen Has Potent and Selective Antitumor Activity. Bioconjug Chem 2020; 31:1745-1749. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.bioconjchem.0c00282] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Oliver Charles Cartwright
- School of Pharmacy, University of East Anglia, Norwich Research Park, Norwich, Norfolk NR47TJ, United Kingdom
| | - Andrew Michael Beekman
- School of Pharmacy, University of East Anglia, Norwich Research Park, Norwich, Norfolk NR47TJ, United Kingdom
| | - Marco M. D. Cominetti
- School of Pharmacy, University of East Anglia, Norwich Research Park, Norwich, Norfolk NR47TJ, United Kingdom
| | - David A. Russell
- School of Chemistry, University of East Anglia, Norwich Research Park, Norwich, Norfolk NR47TJ, United Kingdom
| | - Mark Searcey
- School of Pharmacy, University of East Anglia, Norwich Research Park, Norwich, Norfolk NR47TJ, United Kingdom
- School of Chemistry, University of East Anglia, Norwich Research Park, Norwich, Norfolk NR47TJ, United Kingdom
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11
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Wernke KM, Xue M, Tirla A, Kim CS, Crawford JM, Herzon SB. Structure and bioactivity of colibactin. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2020; 30:127280. [PMID: 32527463 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2020.127280] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2020] [Revised: 05/16/2020] [Accepted: 05/18/2020] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Colibactin is a secondary metabolite produced by certain strains of bacteria found in the human gut. The presence of colibactin-producing bacteria has been correlated to colorectal cancer in humans. Colibactin was first discovered in 2006, but because it is produced in small quantities and is unstable, it has yet to be isolated from bacterial cultures. Here we summarize advances in the field since ~2017 that have led to the identification of the structure of colibactin as a heterodimer containing two DNA-reactive electrophilic cyclopropane residues. Colibactin has been shown to form interstrand cross-links by alkylation of adenine residues on opposing strands of DNA. The structure of colibactin contains two thiazole rings separated by a two-carbon linker that is thought to exist as an α-aminoketone following completion of the biosynthetic pathway. However, synthetic studies have now established that this α-aminoketone is unstable toward aerobic oxidation; the resulting oxidation products are in turn unstable toward nucleophilic cleavage under mild conditions. These data provide a simple molecular-level explanation for colibactin's instability and potentially also explain the observation that cell-to-cell contact is required for genotoxic effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kevin M Wernke
- Department of Chemistry, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06520, United States
| | - Mengzhao Xue
- Department of Chemistry, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06520, United States
| | - Alina Tirla
- Department of Chemistry, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06520, United States
| | - Chung Sub Kim
- Department of Chemistry, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06520, United States; Chemical Biology Institute, Yale University, West Haven, CT 06516, United States
| | - Jason M Crawford
- Department of Chemistry, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06520, United States; Chemical Biology Institute, Yale University, West Haven, CT 06516, United States; Department of Microbial Pathogenesis, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06536, United States
| | - Seth B Herzon
- Department of Chemistry, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06520, United States; Department of Pharmacology, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06520, United States.
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12
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Sakhaee N, Sakhaee S, Mobaraki A, Takallou A. Using conformational landscape to explain the non-classical nature of cyclobutyl and cyclopropylcarbinyl cations. Chem Phys Lett 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cplett.2020.137369] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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13
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Jin WB, Wu S, Xu YF, Yuan H, Tang GL. Recent advances in HemN-like radical S-adenosyl-l-methionine enzyme-catalyzed reactions. Nat Prod Rep 2020; 37:17-28. [DOI: 10.1039/c9np00032a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
HemN-like radical S-adenosyl-l-methionine (SAM) enzymes have been recently disclosed to catalyze diverse chemically challenging reactions from primary to secondary metabolic pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wen-Bing Jin
- State Key Laboratory of Bio-organic and Natural Products Chemistry
- Center for Excellence in Molecular Synthesis
- Shanghai Institute of Organic Chemistry
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences
- Chinese Academy of Sciences
| | - Sheng Wu
- State Key Laboratory of Bio-organic and Natural Products Chemistry
- Center for Excellence in Molecular Synthesis
- Shanghai Institute of Organic Chemistry
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences
- Chinese Academy of Sciences
| | - Yi-Fan Xu
- State Key Laboratory of Bio-organic and Natural Products Chemistry
- Center for Excellence in Molecular Synthesis
- Shanghai Institute of Organic Chemistry
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences
- Chinese Academy of Sciences
| | - Hua Yuan
- State Key Laboratory of Bio-organic and Natural Products Chemistry
- Center for Excellence in Molecular Synthesis
- Shanghai Institute of Organic Chemistry
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences
- Chinese Academy of Sciences
| | - Gong-Li Tang
- State Key Laboratory of Bio-organic and Natural Products Chemistry
- Center for Excellence in Molecular Synthesis
- Shanghai Institute of Organic Chemistry
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences
- Chinese Academy of Sciences
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14
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Mhetre AB, Sreedhar E, Dubey R, Sable GA, Lee H, Yang H, Lee K, Nam DH, Lim D. Synthesis and biological evaluation of potent benzoselenophene and heteroaromatic analogues of ( S)-1-(chloromethyl)-8-methoxy-2,3-dihydro-1 H-benzo[ e]indol-5-ol ( seco-MCBI). RSC Adv 2019; 9:29023-29036. [PMID: 35528410 PMCID: PMC9071829 DOI: 10.1039/c9ra04749b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2019] [Accepted: 08/29/2019] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
A diverse series of compounds (18a-x) were synthesized from (S)-1-(chloromethyl)-8-methoxy-2,3-dihydro-1H-benzo[e]indol-5-ol (seco-MCBI) and benzoselenophene or heteroaromatic acids. These new compounds were evaluated for their cytotoxicity against the human gastric NCI-N87 and human ovarian SK-OV3 cancer cell lines. The incorporation of a methoxy substituent at the C-7 position of the seco-CBI unit enhances the cytotoxicity through its additional van der Waals interaction and gave a much higher potency than the corresponding seco-CBI-based analogues. Similarly, the seco-MCBI-benzoselenophene conjugates (18h-x) exhibited substitution effects on biological activity, and the N-butyramido and N-methylthiopropanamido analogues are highly potent, possessing >77- and >24-fold better activity than seco-MCBI-TMI for the SK-OV3 and NCI-N87 cell lines, respectively.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amol B Mhetre
- Department of Chemistry, Sejong University Seoul 143-747 Republic of Korea
| | | | - Rashmi Dubey
- Department of Chemistry, Sejong University Seoul 143-747 Republic of Korea
| | - Ganesh A Sable
- Department of Chemistry, Sejong University Seoul 143-747 Republic of Korea
| | - Hangeun Lee
- Department of Chemistry, Sejong University Seoul 143-747 Republic of Korea
| | - Heekyoung Yang
- Department of Neurosurgery, Samsung Medical Center, Sungkyunkwan University School of Medicine Seoul Republic of Korea
| | - Kyoungmin Lee
- Department of Neurosurgery, Samsung Medical Center, Sungkyunkwan University School of Medicine Seoul Republic of Korea
| | - Do-Hyun Nam
- Department of Neurosurgery, Samsung Medical Center, Sungkyunkwan University School of Medicine Seoul Republic of Korea
| | - Dongyeol Lim
- Department of Chemistry, Sejong University Seoul 143-747 Republic of Korea
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15
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Imaizumi T, Yamashita Y, Nakazawa Y, Okano K, Sakata J, Tokuyama H. Total Synthesis of (+)-CC-1065 Utilizing Ring Expansion Reaction of Benzocyclobutenone Oxime Sulfonate. Org Lett 2019; 21:6185-6189. [PMID: 31188001 DOI: 10.1021/acs.orglett.9b01690] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
An indole synthesis via ring expansion of benzocyclobutenone oxime sulfonate was developed. Utility of the indole synthesis was demonstrated by the total synthesis of (+)-CC-1065. The middle and right segments were constructed by a sequential ring expansion of the symmetrical benzo-bis-cyclobutenone. The left segment was also constructed via ring expansion of the methyl-substituted benzocyclobutenone oxime sulfonates. After condensation of these three segments, the dienone cyclopropane structure was formed to complete the total synthesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Taku Imaizumi
- Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences , Tohoku University , Aoba 6-3, Aramaki , Aoba-ku, Sendai 980-8578 , Japan
| | - Yumi Yamashita
- Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences , Tohoku University , Aoba 6-3, Aramaki , Aoba-ku, Sendai 980-8578 , Japan
| | - Yuki Nakazawa
- Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences , Tohoku University , Aoba 6-3, Aramaki , Aoba-ku, Sendai 980-8578 , Japan
| | - Kentaro Okano
- Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences , Tohoku University , Aoba 6-3, Aramaki , Aoba-ku, Sendai 980-8578 , Japan
| | - Juri Sakata
- Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences , Tohoku University , Aoba 6-3, Aramaki , Aoba-ku, Sendai 980-8578 , Japan
| | - Hidetoshi Tokuyama
- Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences , Tohoku University , Aoba 6-3, Aramaki , Aoba-ku, Sendai 980-8578 , Japan
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16
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Zhang J, Shukla V, Boger DL. Inverse Electron Demand Diels-Alder Reactions of Heterocyclic Azadienes, 1-Aza-1,3-Butadienes, Cyclopropenone Ketals, and Related Systems. A Retrospective. J Org Chem 2019; 84:9397-9445. [PMID: 31062977 DOI: 10.1021/acs.joc.9b00834] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
A summary of the investigation and applications of the inverse electron demand Diels-Alder reaction is provided that have been conducted in our laboratory over a period that now spans more than 35 years. The work, which continues to provide solutions to complex synthetic challenges, is presented in the context of more than 70 natural product total syntheses in which the reactions served as a key strategic step in the approach. The studies include the development and use of the cycloaddition reactions of heterocyclic azadienes (1,2,4,5-tetrazines; 1,2,4-, 1,3,5-, and 1,2,3-triazines; 1,2-diazines; and 1,3,4-oxadiazoles), 1-aza-1,3-butadienes, α-pyrones, and cyclopropenone ketals. Their applications illustrate the power of the methodology, often provided concise and nonobvious total syntheses of the targeted natural products, typically were extended to the synthesis of analogues that contain deep-seated structural changes in more comprehensive studies to explore or optimize their biological properties, and highlight a wealth of opportunities not yet tapped.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiajun Zhang
- Department of Chemistry and The Skaggs Institute for Chemical Biology , The Scripps Research Institute , 10550 North Torrey Pines Road , La Jolla , California 92037 , United States
| | - Vyom Shukla
- Department of Chemistry and The Skaggs Institute for Chemical Biology , The Scripps Research Institute , 10550 North Torrey Pines Road , La Jolla , California 92037 , United States
| | - Dale L Boger
- Department of Chemistry and The Skaggs Institute for Chemical Biology , The Scripps Research Institute , 10550 North Torrey Pines Road , La Jolla , California 92037 , United States
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17
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Otrubova K, Chatterjee S, Ghimire S, Cravatt BF, Boger DL. N-Acyl pyrazoles: Effective and tunable inhibitors of serine hydrolases. Bioorg Med Chem 2019; 27:1693-1703. [PMID: 30879861 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmc.2019.03.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2019] [Revised: 03/08/2019] [Accepted: 03/08/2019] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
A series of N-acyl pyrazoles was examined as candidate serine hydrolase inhibitors in which the active site acylating reactivity and the leaving group ability of the pyrazole could be tuned not only through the nature of the acyl group (reactivity: amide > carbamate > urea), but also through pyrazole C4 substitution with electron-withdrawing or electron-donating substituents. Their impact on enzyme inhibitory activity displayed pronounced effects with the activity improving substantially as one alters both the nature of the reacting carbonyl group (urea > carbamate > amide) and the pyrazole C4 substituent (CN > H > Me). It was further demonstrated that the acyl chain of the N-acyl pyrazole ureas can be used to tailor the potency and selectivity of the inhibitor class to a targeted serine hydrolase. Thus, elaboration of the acyl chain of pyrazole-based ureas provided remarkably potent, irreversible inhibitors of fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH, apparent Ki = 100-200 pM), dual inhibitors of FAAH and monoacylglycerol hydrolase (MGLL), or selective inhibitors of MGLL (IC50 = 10-20 nM) while simultaneously minimizing off-target activity (e.g., ABHD6 and KIAA1363).
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Affiliation(s)
- Katerina Otrubova
- Department of Chemistry and The Skaggs Institute for Chemical Biology, The Scripps Research Institute, 10550 N. Torrey Pines Road, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
| | - Shreyosree Chatterjee
- Department of Chemistry and The Skaggs Institute for Chemical Biology, The Scripps Research Institute, 10550 N. Torrey Pines Road, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
| | - Srijana Ghimire
- Department of Chemistry and The Skaggs Institute for Chemical Biology, The Scripps Research Institute, 10550 N. Torrey Pines Road, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
| | - Benjamin F Cravatt
- Department of Chemistry and The Skaggs Institute for Chemical Biology, The Scripps Research Institute, 10550 N. Torrey Pines Road, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
| | - Dale L Boger
- Department of Chemistry and The Skaggs Institute for Chemical Biology, The Scripps Research Institute, 10550 N. Torrey Pines Road, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA.
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18
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Amide Activation in Ground and Excited States. Molecules 2018; 23:molecules23112859. [PMID: 30400217 PMCID: PMC6278462 DOI: 10.3390/molecules23112859] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2018] [Revised: 10/26/2018] [Accepted: 10/31/2018] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Not all amide bonds are created equally. The purpose of the present paper is the reinterpretation of the amide group by means of two concepts: amidicity and carbonylicity. These concepts are meant to provide a new viewpoint in defining the stability and reactivity of amides. With the help of simple quantum-chemical calculations, practicing chemists can easily predict the outcome of a desired process. The main benefit of the concepts is their simplicity. They provide intuitive, but quasi-thermodynamic data, making them a practical rule of thumb for routine use. In the current paper we demonstrate the performance of our methods to describe the chemical character of an amide bond strength and the way of its activation methods. Examples include transamidation, acyl transfer and amide reductions. Also, the method is highly capable for simple interpretation of mechanisms for biological processes, such as protein splicing and drug mechanisms. Finally, we demonstrate how these methods can provide information about photo-activation of amides, through the examples of two caged neurotransmitter derivatives.
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19
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Xue M, Shine E, Wang W, Crawford JM, Herzon SB. Characterization of Natural Colibactin-Nucleobase Adducts by Tandem Mass Spectrometry and Isotopic Labeling. Support for DNA Alkylation by Cyclopropane Ring Opening. Biochemistry 2018; 57:6391-6394. [PMID: 30365310 DOI: 10.1021/acs.biochem.8b01023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Colibactins are genotoxic secondary metabolites whose biosynthesis is encoded in the clb gene cluster harbored by certain strains of gut commensal Escherichia coli. Using synthetic colibactin analogues, we previously provided evidence that colibactins alkylate DNA by addition of a nucleotide to an electrophilic cyclopropane intermediate. However, natural colibactin-nucleobase adducts have not been identified, to the best of our knowledge. Here we present the first identification of such adducts, derived from treatment of pUC19 DNA with clb + E. coli. Previous biosynthetic studies established cysteine and methionine as building blocks in colibactin biosynthesis; accordingly, we used cysteine (Δ cysE) and methionine (Δ metA) auxotrophic strains cultured in media supplemented with l-[U-13C]Cys or l-[U-13C]Met to facilitate the identification of nucleobases bound to colibactins. Using MS2 and MS3 analysis, in conjunction with the known oxidative instability of colibactin cyclopropane-opened products, we were able to characterize adenine adducts derived from cyclopropane ring opening. This study provides the first reported detection of nucleobase adducts derived from clb + E. coli and lends support to our earlier model suggesting DNA alkylation by addition of a nucleotide to an electrophilic cyclopropane.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mengzhao Xue
- Department of Chemistry , Yale University , New Haven , Connecticut 06520 , United States
| | - Emilee Shine
- Chemical Biology Institute , Yale University , West Haven , Connecticut 06516 , United States.,Department of Microbial Pathogenesis , Yale University School of Medicine , New Haven , Connecticut 06536 , United States
| | - Weiwei Wang
- Department of Molecular Biophysics and Biochemistry , Yale University School of Medicine , P.O. Box 208114, New Haven , Connecticut 06520 , United States.,W. M. Keck Biotechnology Resource Laboratory , Yale University School of Medicine , 300 George Street , New Haven , Connecticut 06510 , United States
| | - Jason M Crawford
- Department of Chemistry , Yale University , New Haven , Connecticut 06520 , United States.,Chemical Biology Institute , Yale University , West Haven , Connecticut 06516 , United States.,Department of Microbial Pathogenesis , Yale University School of Medicine , New Haven , Connecticut 06536 , United States
| | - Seth B Herzon
- Department of Chemistry , Yale University , New Haven , Connecticut 06520 , United States.,Department of Pharmacology , Yale University School of Medicine , New Haven , Connecticut 06520 , United States
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20
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A radical S-adenosyl-L-methionine enzyme and a methyltransferase catalyze cyclopropane formation in natural product biosynthesis. Nat Commun 2018; 9:2771. [PMID: 30018376 PMCID: PMC6050322 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-018-05217-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2018] [Accepted: 05/23/2018] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Cyclopropanation of unactivated olefinic bonds via addition of a reactive one-carbon species is well developed in synthetic chemistry, whereas natural cyclopropane biosynthesis employing this strategy is very limited. Here, we identify a two-component cyclopropanase system, composed of a HemN-like radical S-adenosyl-L-methionine (SAM) enzyme C10P and a methyltransferase C10Q, catalyzes chemically challenging cyclopropanation in the antitumor antibiotic CC-1065 biosynthesis. C10P uses its [4Fe-4S] cluster for reductive cleavage of the first SAM to yield a highly reactive 5'-deoxyadenosyl radical, which abstracts a hydrogen from the second SAM to produce a SAM methylene radical that adds to an sp2-hybridized carbon of substrate to form a SAM-substrate adduct. C10Q converts this adduct to CC-1065 via an intramolecular SN2 cyclization mechanism with elimination of S-adenosylhomocysteine. This cyclopropanation strategy not only expands the enzymatic reactions catalyzed by the radical SAM enzymes and methyltransferases, but also sheds light on previously unnoticed aspects of the versatile SAM-based biochemistry.
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21
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Kiakos K, Englinger B, Yanow SK, Wernitznig D, Jakupec MA, Berger W, Keppler BK, Hartley JA, Lee M, Patil PC. Design, synthesis, nuclear localization, and biological activity of a fluorescent duocarmycin analog, HxTfA. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2018; 28:1342-1347. [PMID: 29548574 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2018.03.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2017] [Revised: 02/23/2018] [Accepted: 03/05/2018] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
HxTfA 4 is a fluorescent analog of a potent cytotoxic and antimalarial agent, TfA 3, which is currently being investigated for the development of an antimalarial vaccine, PlasProtect®. HxTfA contains a p-anisylbenzimidazole or Hx moiety, which is endowed with a blue emission upon excitation at 318 nm; thus enabling it to be used as a surrogate for probing the cellular fate of TfA using confocal microscopy, and addressing the question of nuclear localization. HxTfA exhibits similar selectivity to TfA for A-tract sequences of DNA, alkylating adenine-N3, albeit at 10-fold higher concentrations. It also possesses in vitro cytotoxicity against A549 human lung carcinoma cells and Plasmodium falciparum. Confocal microscopy studies showed for the first time that HxTfA, and by inference TfA, entered A549 cells and localized in the nucleus to exert its biological activity. At biologically relevant concentrations, HxTfA elicits DNA damage response as evidenced by a marked increase in the levels of γH2AX observed by confocal microscopy and immunoblotting studies, and ultimately induces apoptosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Konstantinos Kiakos
- Cancer Research UK Drug-DNA Interactions Research Group, UCL Cancer Institute, London WC1E 6BT, United Kingdom; Institute of Inorganic Chemistry, University of Vienna, Waehringer Str. 42, 1090 Vienna, Austria; Research Cluster "Translational Cancer Therapy Research", University of Vienna, Waehringer Str. 42, 1090 Vienna, Austria.
| | - Bernhard Englinger
- Institute of Cancer Research and Comprehensive Cancer Center, Department of Medicine I, Medical University of Vienna, Borschkegasse 8a, A-1090 Vienna, Austria
| | | | - Debora Wernitznig
- Institute of Inorganic Chemistry, University of Vienna, Waehringer Str. 42, 1090 Vienna, Austria; Research Cluster "Translational Cancer Therapy Research", University of Vienna, Waehringer Str. 42, 1090 Vienna, Austria
| | - Michael A Jakupec
- Institute of Inorganic Chemistry, University of Vienna, Waehringer Str. 42, 1090 Vienna, Austria; Research Cluster "Translational Cancer Therapy Research", University of Vienna, Waehringer Str. 42, 1090 Vienna, Austria
| | - Walter Berger
- Research Cluster "Translational Cancer Therapy Research", University of Vienna, Waehringer Str. 42, 1090 Vienna, Austria; Institute of Cancer Research and Comprehensive Cancer Center, Department of Medicine I, Medical University of Vienna, Borschkegasse 8a, A-1090 Vienna, Austria
| | - Bernhard K Keppler
- Institute of Inorganic Chemistry, University of Vienna, Waehringer Str. 42, 1090 Vienna, Austria; Research Cluster "Translational Cancer Therapy Research", University of Vienna, Waehringer Str. 42, 1090 Vienna, Austria
| | - John A Hartley
- Cancer Research UK Drug-DNA Interactions Research Group, UCL Cancer Institute, London WC1E 6BT, United Kingdom
| | - Moses Lee
- Department of Chemistry, Hope College, Holland, MI 49423, United States
| | - Pravin C Patil
- Department of Chemistry, Hope College, Holland, MI 49423, United States
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22
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Angelbello AJ, Chen JL, Childs-Disney JL, Zhang P, Wang ZF, Disney MD. Using Genome Sequence to Enable the Design of Medicines and Chemical Probes. Chem Rev 2018; 118:1599-1663. [PMID: 29322778 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.7b00504] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Rapid progress in genome sequencing technology has put us firmly into a postgenomic era. A key challenge in biomedical research is harnessing genome sequence to fulfill the promise of personalized medicine. This Review describes how genome sequencing has enabled the identification of disease-causing biomolecules and how these data have been converted into chemical probes of function, preclinical lead modalities, and ultimately U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA)-approved drugs. In particular, we focus on the use of oligonucleotide-based modalities to target disease-causing RNAs; small molecules that target DNA, RNA, or protein; the rational repurposing of known therapeutic modalities; and the advantages of pharmacogenetics. Lastly, we discuss the remaining challenges and opportunities in the direct utilization of genome sequence to enable design of medicines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alicia J Angelbello
- Departments of Chemistry and Neuroscience, The Scripps Research Institute , 130 Scripps Way, Jupiter, Florida 33458, United States
| | - Jonathan L Chen
- Departments of Chemistry and Neuroscience, The Scripps Research Institute , 130 Scripps Way, Jupiter, Florida 33458, United States
| | - Jessica L Childs-Disney
- Departments of Chemistry and Neuroscience, The Scripps Research Institute , 130 Scripps Way, Jupiter, Florida 33458, United States
| | - Peiyuan Zhang
- Departments of Chemistry and Neuroscience, The Scripps Research Institute , 130 Scripps Way, Jupiter, Florida 33458, United States
| | - Zi-Fu Wang
- Departments of Chemistry and Neuroscience, The Scripps Research Institute , 130 Scripps Way, Jupiter, Florida 33458, United States
| | - Matthew D Disney
- Departments of Chemistry and Neuroscience, The Scripps Research Institute , 130 Scripps Way, Jupiter, Florida 33458, United States
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23
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Boger DL. The Difference a Single Atom Can Make: Synthesis and Design at the Chemistry-Biology Interface. J Org Chem 2017; 82:11961-11980. [PMID: 28945374 PMCID: PMC5712263 DOI: 10.1021/acs.joc.7b02088] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2017] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
A Perspective of work in our laboratory on the examination of biologically active compounds, especially natural products, is presented. In the context of individual programs and along with a summary of our work, selected cases are presented that illustrate the impact single atom changes can have on the biological properties of the compounds. The examples were chosen to highlight single heavy atom changes that improve activity, rather than those that involve informative alterations that reduce or abolish activity. The examples were also chosen to illustrate that the impact of such single-atom changes can originate from steric, electronic, conformational, or H-bonding effects, from changes in functional reactivity, from fundamental intermolecular interactions with a biological target, from introduction of a new or altered functionalization site, or from features as simple as improvements in stability or physical properties. Nearly all the examples highlighted represent not only unusual instances of productive deep-seated natural product modifications and were introduced through total synthesis but are also remarkable in that they are derived from only a single heavy atom change in the structure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dale L. Boger
- Department of Chemistry and
The Skaggs Research Institute, The Scripps
Research Institute, 10550
North Torrey Pines Road, La Jolla, California 92037, United States
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24
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Abstract
(-)-Lomaiviticin A (4) is a complex C2-symmetric bacterial metabolite that contains two diazofluorene functional groups. The diazofluorene consists of naphthoquinone, cyclopentadiene, and diazo substituents fused through a σ- and π-bonding network. Additionally, (-)-lomaiviticin A (4) is a potent cytotoxin, with half-maximal inhibitory potency (IC50) values in the low nanomolar range against many cancer cell lines. Because of limitations in supply, its mechanism of action had remained a "black box" since its isolation in the early 2000s. In this Account, I describe how studies directed toward the total synthesis of (-)-lomaiviticin A (4) provided a platform to elucidate the emergent properties of this metabolite and thereby connect chemical reactivity with cellular phenotype. We first developed a convergent strategy to prepare the diazofluorene (9 + 10 → 13). We then adapted this chemistry to the synthesis of lomaiviticin aglycon (21/22) and the natural monomeric diazofluorene (-)-kinamycin F (3). The key step in the lomaiviticin aglycon (21/22) synthesis involved the stereoselective oxidative coupling of two monomeric diazofluorenes (2 × 18 → 20) to establish the cojoining carbon-carbon bond of the target. As the absolute stereochemistry of the aglycon and carbohydrate residues of (-)-lomaiviticin A (4) were unknown, we developed a semisynthetic route to the metabolite that proceeds in one step and 42% yield by diazo transfer to the more abundant isolate (-)-lomaiviticin C (6). This allowed us to complete the stereochemical assignment of (-)-lomaiviticin A (4) and provided a renewable source of material. Using this material, we established that the remarkable cytotoxic effects of (-)-lomaiviticin A (4) derive from the induction of highly toxic double-strand breaks (DSBs) in DNA. At the molecular level, 1,7-nucleophilic additions to each electrophilic diazofluorene trigger homolytic decomposition pathways that produce sp2 radicals at the carbon atoms of each diazo group. These radicals abstract hydrogen atoms from the deoxyribose of DNA, a process known to initiate strand cleavage. NMR spectroscopy and molecular mechanics simulations were used to elucidate the mode of DNA binding. These studies showed that both diazofluorenes of (-)-lomaiviticin A (4) penetrate into the duplex. This mode of non-covalent binding places each diazo carbon atom in close proximity to each DNA strand. Throughout these studies, isolates containing one diazofluorene, such as (-)-lomaiviticin C (6) and (-)-kinamycin C (2), were used as controls. Consistent with our mechanistic model, these compounds do not induce DSBs in DNA and are several orders of magnitude less potent. Reactivity studies suggest that (-)-lomaiviticin A (4) is more electrophilic than simple monomeric diazofluorenes. We attribute this to through-space delocalization of the developing negative charge in the transition state for 1,7-addition. Consistent with this mechanism of action, (-)-lomaiviticin A (4) displays selective low-picomolar potencies toward DNA DSB repair-deficient cell types. The emergent properties of (-)-lomaiviticin A (4) derive from the specific arrangement of diazo, naphthoquinone, cyclopentadiene, and ketone functional groups. These functional groups work together to yield, essentially, a masked vinyl radical that can be exposed under biological conditions. Furthermore, the rotational symmetry of the metabolite, deriving from dimerization, allows it to interact with the antiparallel symmetry of DNA and affect cleavage of the duplex.
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Affiliation(s)
- Seth B. Herzon
- Department of Chemistry, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut 06520, United States. Department of Pharmacology, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut 06520, United States
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25
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Wu S, Jian XH, Yuan H, Jin WB, Yin Y, Wang LY, Zhao J, Tang GL. Unified Biosynthetic Origin of the Benzodipyrrole Subunits in CC-1065. ACS Chem Biol 2017; 12:1603-1610. [PMID: 28426198 DOI: 10.1021/acschembio.7b00302] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
CC-1065 is the first characterized member of a family of naturally occurring antibiotics including yatakemycin and duocarmycins with exceptionally potent antitumor activity. CC-1065 contains three benzodipyrroles (1a-, 1b-, and 1c-) of which the 1a-subunit is remarkable by being composed of a cyclopropane ring, and the mechanism for the biological formation of benzodipyrrole rings remains elusive. Previously, biosynthetic studies of CC-1065 were limited to radioactively labeled precursor feeding experiments, which showed that tyrosine (Tyr) and serine (Ser) were incorporated into the two benzodipyrrole (1b- and 1c-) subunits via the same mode but that this was different from the key cyclopropabenzodipyrrole (1a-) subunit with N1-C2-C3 derived from Ser. Herein, the biosynthetic gene cluster of CC-1065 has been cloned, analyzed, and characterized by a series of gene inactivations. Significantly, a key intermediate bearing a C7-OH group derived from a Δc10C mutant exhibited improved cytotoxicity. Moreover, this data inspired us to suspect that the 1a-subunit might employ the same precursor incorporation mode as the 1b- and 1c-subunits. Subsequently, 13C-labeled Tyr feeding experiments confirmed that the N1-C2-C3 is originated from Tyr via DOPA as an intermediate. Collectively, a biosynthetic pathway of benzodipyrrole is proposed featuring a revised and unified precursor incorporation mode, which implicates an oxidative cyclization strategy for the assembly of benzodipyrrole. This work sets the stage for further study of enzymatic mechanisms and combinatorial biosynthesis for new DNA alkylating analogues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sheng Wu
- State Key Laboratory of Bio-organic
and Natural Products Chemistry, Shanghai Institute of Organic Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 345 Lingling Road, Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Xiao-Hong Jian
- State Key Laboratory of Bio-organic
and Natural Products Chemistry, Shanghai Institute of Organic Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 345 Lingling Road, Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Hua Yuan
- State Key Laboratory of Bio-organic
and Natural Products Chemistry, Shanghai Institute of Organic Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 345 Lingling Road, Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Wen-Bing Jin
- State Key Laboratory of Bio-organic
and Natural Products Chemistry, Shanghai Institute of Organic Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 345 Lingling Road, Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Yue Yin
- State Key Laboratory of Bio-organic
and Natural Products Chemistry, Shanghai Institute of Organic Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 345 Lingling Road, Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Ling-Yun Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Bio-organic
and Natural Products Chemistry, Shanghai Institute of Organic Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 345 Lingling Road, Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Juan Zhao
- State Key Laboratory of Bio-organic
and Natural Products Chemistry, Shanghai Institute of Organic Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 345 Lingling Road, Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Gong-Li Tang
- State Key Laboratory of Bio-organic
and Natural Products Chemistry, Shanghai Institute of Organic Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 345 Lingling Road, Shanghai 200032, China
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26
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Gillingham D, Geigle S, Anatole von Lilienfeld O. Properties and reactivity of nucleic acids relevant to epigenomics, transcriptomics, and therapeutics. Chem Soc Rev 2017; 45:2637-55. [PMID: 26992131 DOI: 10.1039/c5cs00271k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Abstract
Developments in epigenomics, toxicology, and therapeutic nucleic acids all rely on a precise understanding of nucleic acid properties and chemical reactivity. In this review we discuss the properties and chemical reactivity of each nucleobase and attempt to provide some general principles for nucleic acid targeting or engineering. For adenine-thymine and guanine-cytosine base pairs, we review recent quantum chemical estimates of their Watson-Crick interaction energy, π-π stacking energies, as well as the nuclear quantum effects on tautomerism. Reactions that target nucleobases have been crucial in the development of new sequencing technologies and we believe further developments in nucleic acid chemistry will be required to deconstruct the enormously complex transcriptome.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dennis Gillingham
- Department of Chemistry, University of Basel, St. Johanns-Ring 19, Basel, CH-4056, Switzerland.
| | - Stefanie Geigle
- Department of Chemistry, University of Basel, St. Johanns-Ring 19, Basel, CH-4056, Switzerland.
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27
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Healy AR, Nikolayevskiy H, Patel JR, Crawford JM, Herzon SB. A Mechanistic Model for Colibactin-Induced Genotoxicity. J Am Chem Soc 2016; 138:15563-15570. [PMID: 27934011 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.6b10354] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
Precolibactins and colibactins represent a family of natural products that are encoded by the clb gene cluster and are produced by certain commensal, extraintestinal, and probiotic E. coli. clb+ E. coli induce megalocytosis and DNA double-strand breaks in eukaryotic cells, but paradoxically, this gene cluster is found in the probiotic Nissle 1917. Evidence suggests precolibactins are converted to genotoxic colibactins by colibactin peptidase (ClbP)-mediated cleavage of an N-acyl-d-Asn side chain, and all isolation efforts have employed ΔclbP strains to facilitate accumulation of precolibactins. It was hypothesized that colibactins form unsaturated imines that alkylate DNA by cyclopropane ring opening (2 → 3). However, as no colibactins have been isolated, this hypothesis has not been tested experimentally. Additionally, precolibactins A-C (7-9) contain a pyridone that cannot generate the unsaturated imines that form the basis of this hypothesis. To resolve this, we prepared 13 synthetic colibactin derivatives and evaluated their DNA binding and alkylation activity. We show that unsaturated imines, but not the corresponding pyridone derivatives, potently alkylate DNA. The imine, unsaturated lactam, and cyclopropane are essential for efficient DNA alkylation. A cationic residue enhances activity. These studies suggest that precolibactins containing a pyridone are not responsible for the genotoxicity of the clb cluster. Instead, we propose that these are off-pathway fermentation products produced by a facile double cyclodehydration route that manifests in the absence of viable ClbP. The results presented herein provide a foundation to begin to connect metabolite structure with the disparate phenotypes associated with clb+ E. coli.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alan R Healy
- Department of Chemistry, Yale University , New Haven, Connecticut 06520, United States.,Chemical Biology Institute, Yale University , West Haven, Connecticut 06516, United States
| | - Herman Nikolayevskiy
- Department of Chemistry, Yale University , New Haven, Connecticut 06520, United States
| | - Jaymin R Patel
- Chemical Biology Institute, Yale University , West Haven, Connecticut 06516, United States.,Department of Molecular, Cellular, and Developmental Biology, Yale University , New Haven, Connecticut 06520, United States
| | - Jason M Crawford
- Department of Chemistry, Yale University , New Haven, Connecticut 06520, United States.,Chemical Biology Institute, Yale University , West Haven, Connecticut 06516, United States.,Department of Microbial Pathogenesis, Yale School of Medicine , New Haven, Connecticut 06536, United States
| | - Seth B Herzon
- Department of Chemistry, Yale University , New Haven, Connecticut 06520, United States.,Department of Pharmacology, Yale School of Medicine , New Haven, Connecticut 06520, United States
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28
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Zhou X, Yu S, Qi Z, Kong L, Li X. Rhodium(III)-Catalyzed Mild Alkylation of (Hetero)Arenes with Cyclopropanols via C–H Activation and Ring Opening. J Org Chem 2016; 81:4869-75. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.joc.6b00650] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Xukai Zhou
- Dalian
Institute of Chemical
Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Dalian 116023, China
| | - Songjie Yu
- Dalian
Institute of Chemical
Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Dalian 116023, China
| | - Zisong Qi
- Dalian
Institute of Chemical
Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Dalian 116023, China
| | - Lingheng Kong
- Dalian
Institute of Chemical
Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Dalian 116023, China
| | - Xingwei Li
- Dalian
Institute of Chemical
Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Dalian 116023, China
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29
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Chanda PB, Boyle KE, Brody DM, Shukla V, Boger DL. Synthesis and evaluation of duocarmycin SA analogs incorporating the methyl 1,2,8,8a-tetrahydrocyclopropa[c]imidazolo[4,5-e]indol-4-one-6-carboxylate (CImI) alkylation subunit. Bioorg Med Chem 2016; 24:4779-4786. [PMID: 27221071 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmc.2016.04.050] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2016] [Revised: 04/18/2016] [Accepted: 04/23/2016] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
The design, synthesis, and evaluation of methyl 1,2,8,8a-tetrahydrocyclopropa[c]imidazolo[4,5-e]indol-4-one-6-carboxylate (CImI) derivatives are detailed representing analogs of duocarmycin SA and yatakemycin containing an imidazole replacement for the fused pyrrole found in the DNA alkylation subunit.
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Affiliation(s)
- Prem B Chanda
- Department of Chemistry and the Skaggs Institute for Chemical Biology, The Scripps Research Institute, 10550 North Torrey Pines Road, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
| | - Kristopher E Boyle
- Department of Chemistry and the Skaggs Institute for Chemical Biology, The Scripps Research Institute, 10550 North Torrey Pines Road, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
| | - Daniel M Brody
- Department of Chemistry and the Skaggs Institute for Chemical Biology, The Scripps Research Institute, 10550 North Torrey Pines Road, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
| | - Vyom Shukla
- Department of Chemistry and the Skaggs Institute for Chemical Biology, The Scripps Research Institute, 10550 North Torrey Pines Road, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
| | - Dale L Boger
- Department of Chemistry and the Skaggs Institute for Chemical Biology, The Scripps Research Institute, 10550 North Torrey Pines Road, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA.
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30
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Structural basis for DNA cleavage by the potent antiproliferative agent (-)-lomaiviticin A. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2016; 113:2851-6. [PMID: 26929332 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1519846113] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
(-)-Lomaiviticin A (1) is a complex antiproliferative metabolite that inhibits the growth of many cultured cancer cell lines at low nanomolar-picomolar concentrations. (-)-Lomaiviticin A (1) possesses a C2-symmetric structure that contains two unusual diazotetrahydrobenzo[b]fluorene (diazofluorene) functional groups. Nucleophilic activation of each diazofluorene within 1 produces vinyl radical intermediates that affect hydrogen atom abstraction from DNA, leading to the formation of DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs). Certain DNA DSB repair-deficient cell lines are sensitized toward 1, and 1 is under evaluation in preclinical models of these tumor types. However, the mode of binding of 1 to DNA had not been determined. Here we elucidate the structure of a 1:1 complex between 1 and the duplex d(GCTATAGC)2 by NMR spectroscopy and computational modeling. Unexpectedly, we show that both diazofluorene residues of 1 penetrate the duplex. This binding disrupts base pairing leading to ejection of the central AT bases, while placing the proreactive centers of 1 in close proximity to each strand. DNA binding may also enhance the reactivity of 1 toward nucleophilic activation through steric compression and conformational restriction (an example of shape-dependent catalysis). This study provides a structural basis for the DNA cleavage activity of 1, will guide the design of synthetic DNA-activated DNA cleavage agents, and underscores the utility of natural products to reveal novel modes of small molecule-DNA association.
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31
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Ríos-Gutiérrez M, Layeb H, Domingo LR. A DFT study of the mechanism of Brønsted acid catalysed Povarov reactions. Tetrahedron 2015. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tet.2015.10.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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32
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Stephenson MJ, Howell LA, O'Connell MA, Fox KR, Adcock C, Kingston J, Sheldrake H, Pors K, Collingwood SP, Searcey M. Solid-Phase Synthesis of Duocarmycin Analogues and the Effect of C-Terminal Substitution on Biological Activity. J Org Chem 2015; 80:9454-67. [PMID: 26356089 DOI: 10.1021/acs.joc.5b01373] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
The duocarmycins are potent antitumor agents with potential for use in the development of antibody-drug conjugates (ADCs) as well as being clinical candidates in their own right. In this article, we describe the synthesis of a duocarmycin monomer (DSA) that is suitably protected for utilization in solid-phase synthesis. The synthesis was performed on a large scale, and the resulting racemic protected Fmoc-DSA subunit was separated by supercritical fluid chromatography (SFC) into the single enantiomers; its application to solid-phase synthesis methodology gave a series of monomeric and extended duocarmycin analogues with amino acid substituents. The DNA sequence selectivity was similar to that in previous reports for both the monomeric and extended compounds. Substitution at the C-terminus of duocarmycin caused a decrease in antiproliferative activity for all of the compounds studied. An extended compound containing an alanine at the C-terminus was converted to the primary amide or to an extended structure containing a terminal tertiary amine, but this had no beneficial effects on biological activity.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Keith R Fox
- Centre for Biological Sciences, University of Southampton , Life Sciences Building 85, Southampton SO17 1BJ, United Kingdom
| | - Claire Adcock
- Novartis Institutes for Biomedical Research, Novartis Pharmaceuticals UK Limited , Horsham Research Centre, Wimblehurst Road, Horsham, West Sussex RH12 5AB, United Kingdom
| | - Jenny Kingston
- Novartis Institutes for Biomedical Research, Novartis Pharmaceuticals UK Limited , Horsham Research Centre, Wimblehurst Road, Horsham, West Sussex RH12 5AB, United Kingdom
| | - Helen Sheldrake
- Institute for Cancer Therapeutics, University of Bradford , Bradford, West Yorkshire BD7 1DP, United Kingdom
| | - Klaus Pors
- Institute for Cancer Therapeutics, University of Bradford , Bradford, West Yorkshire BD7 1DP, United Kingdom
| | - Stephen P Collingwood
- Novartis Institutes for Biomedical Research, Novartis Pharmaceuticals UK Limited , Horsham Research Centre, Wimblehurst Road, Horsham, West Sussex RH12 5AB, United Kingdom
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33
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Uematsu M, Brody DM, Boger DL. A five-membered lactone prodrug of CBI-based analogs of the duocarmycins. Tetrahedron Lett 2015; 56:3101-3104. [PMID: 26069351 PMCID: PMC4459655 DOI: 10.1016/j.tetlet.2014.11.038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
The preparation, characterization and examination of the CBI-based 5-membered lactone 5 capable of serving as a prodrug or protein (antibody) conjugation reagent are disclosed along with its incorporation into the corresponding CC-1065 and duocarmycin analog 6, and the establishment of their properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mika Uematsu
- Department of Chemistry and The Skaggs Institute for Chemical Biology, The Scripps Research Institute, 10550 N. Torrey Pines Road, La Jolla, California 92037, United States
| | - Daniel M. Brody
- Department of Chemistry and The Skaggs Institute for Chemical Biology, The Scripps Research Institute, 10550 N. Torrey Pines Road, La Jolla, California 92037, United States
| | - Dale L. Boger
- Department of Chemistry and The Skaggs Institute for Chemical Biology, The Scripps Research Institute, 10550 N. Torrey Pines Road, La Jolla, California 92037, United States
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34
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Brotherton CA, Wilson M, Byrd G, Balskus EP. Isolation of a metabolite from the pks island provides insights into colibactin biosynthesis and activity. Org Lett 2015; 17:1545-8. [PMID: 25753745 DOI: 10.1021/acs.orglett.5b00432] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
Colibactin is a structurally uncharacterized, genotoxic natural product produced by commensal and pathogenic strains of E. coli that harbor the pks island. A new metabolite has been isolated from a pks(+) E. coli mutant missing an essential biosynthetic enzyme. The unusual azaspiro[2.4] bicyclic ring system of this molecule provides new insights into colibactin biosynthesis and suggests a mechanism through which colibactin and other pks-derived metabolites may exert genotoxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carolyn A Brotherton
- †Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138, United States
| | - Matthew Wilson
- †Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138, United States
| | - Gary Byrd
- ‡Small Molecule Mass Spectrometry Facility, Faculty of Arts and Sciences Division of Science, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138, United States
| | - Emily P Balskus
- †Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138, United States
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35
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Elgersma RC, Coumans RGE, Huijbregts T, Menge WMPB, Joosten JAF, Spijker HJ, de Groot FMH, van der Lee MMC, Ubink R, van den Dobbelsteen DJ, Egging DF, Dokter WHA, Verheijden GFM, Lemmens JM, Timmers CM, Beusker PH. Design, Synthesis, and Evaluation of Linker-Duocarmycin Payloads: Toward Selection of HER2-Targeting Antibody–Drug Conjugate SYD985. Mol Pharm 2015; 12:1813-35. [DOI: 10.1021/mp500781a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 134] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Ronald C. Elgersma
- Departments of †Medicinal & Protein Chemistry, ‡Preclinical, and §New Molecular Entities, Synthon Biopharmaceuticals BV, Microweg 22, 6545 CM Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Ruud G. E. Coumans
- Departments of †Medicinal & Protein Chemistry, ‡Preclinical, and §New Molecular Entities, Synthon Biopharmaceuticals BV, Microweg 22, 6545 CM Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Tijl Huijbregts
- Departments of †Medicinal & Protein Chemistry, ‡Preclinical, and §New Molecular Entities, Synthon Biopharmaceuticals BV, Microweg 22, 6545 CM Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Wiro M. P. B. Menge
- Departments of †Medicinal & Protein Chemistry, ‡Preclinical, and §New Molecular Entities, Synthon Biopharmaceuticals BV, Microweg 22, 6545 CM Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - John A. F. Joosten
- Departments of †Medicinal & Protein Chemistry, ‡Preclinical, and §New Molecular Entities, Synthon Biopharmaceuticals BV, Microweg 22, 6545 CM Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Henri J. Spijker
- Departments of †Medicinal & Protein Chemistry, ‡Preclinical, and §New Molecular Entities, Synthon Biopharmaceuticals BV, Microweg 22, 6545 CM Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Franciscus M. H. de Groot
- Departments of †Medicinal & Protein Chemistry, ‡Preclinical, and §New Molecular Entities, Synthon Biopharmaceuticals BV, Microweg 22, 6545 CM Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Miranda M. C. van der Lee
- Departments of †Medicinal & Protein Chemistry, ‡Preclinical, and §New Molecular Entities, Synthon Biopharmaceuticals BV, Microweg 22, 6545 CM Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Ruud Ubink
- Departments of †Medicinal & Protein Chemistry, ‡Preclinical, and §New Molecular Entities, Synthon Biopharmaceuticals BV, Microweg 22, 6545 CM Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Diels J. van den Dobbelsteen
- Departments of †Medicinal & Protein Chemistry, ‡Preclinical, and §New Molecular Entities, Synthon Biopharmaceuticals BV, Microweg 22, 6545 CM Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - David F. Egging
- Departments of †Medicinal & Protein Chemistry, ‡Preclinical, and §New Molecular Entities, Synthon Biopharmaceuticals BV, Microweg 22, 6545 CM Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Wim H. A. Dokter
- Departments of †Medicinal & Protein Chemistry, ‡Preclinical, and §New Molecular Entities, Synthon Biopharmaceuticals BV, Microweg 22, 6545 CM Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Gijs F. M. Verheijden
- Departments of †Medicinal & Protein Chemistry, ‡Preclinical, and §New Molecular Entities, Synthon Biopharmaceuticals BV, Microweg 22, 6545 CM Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Jacques M. Lemmens
- Departments of †Medicinal & Protein Chemistry, ‡Preclinical, and §New Molecular Entities, Synthon Biopharmaceuticals BV, Microweg 22, 6545 CM Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - C. Marco Timmers
- Departments of †Medicinal & Protein Chemistry, ‡Preclinical, and §New Molecular Entities, Synthon Biopharmaceuticals BV, Microweg 22, 6545 CM Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Patrick H. Beusker
- Departments of †Medicinal & Protein Chemistry, ‡Preclinical, and §New Molecular Entities, Synthon Biopharmaceuticals BV, Microweg 22, 6545 CM Nijmegen, The Netherlands
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36
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Uematsu M, Boger DL. Asymmetric synthesis of a CBI-based cyclic N-acyl O-amino phenol duocarmycin prodrug. J Org Chem 2014; 79:9699-703. [PMID: 25247380 PMCID: PMC4201355 DOI: 10.1021/jo501839x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
A short, asymmetric synthesis of a cyclic N-acyl O-amino phenol duocarmycin prodrug subject to reductive activation based on the simplified 1,2,9,9a-tetrahydrocyclopropa[c]benz[e]indol-4-one (CBI) DNA alkylation subunit is described. A key element of the approach entailed treatment of iodo-epoxide 7, prepared by N-alkylation of 6 with (S)-glycidal 3-nosylate, with EtMgBr at room temperature to directly provide the optically pure alcohol 8 in 78% yield (99% ee) derived from an effective metal-halogen exchange and subsequent regioselective intramolecular 6-endo-tet cyclization. Following O-debenzylation, introduction of a protected N-methylhydroxamic acid, direct trannannular spirocyclization, and subsequent stereoelectronically controlled acid-catalyzed cleavage of the resulting cyclopropane (HCl), further improvements in a unique intramolecular cyclization with N-O bond formation originally introduced for formation of the reductively labile prodrug functionality are detailed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mika Uematsu
- Department of Chemistry and The Skaggs Institute for Chemical Biology, The Scripps Research Institute , 10550 N. Torrey Pines Road, La Jolla, California 92037, United States
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37
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Tercel M, Pruijn FB, O'Connor PD, Liyanage HDS, Atwell GJ, Alix SM. Mechanism of action of AminoCBIs: highly reactive but highly cytotoxic analogues of the duocarmycins. Chembiochem 2014; 15:1998-2006. [PMID: 25087870 DOI: 10.1002/cbic.201402256] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2014] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Duocarmycins are highly cytotoxic natural products that have potential for development into anticancer agents. Herein we describe proposed but previously unidentified NH analogues of the DNA-alkylating subunit and characterise these by solvolysis studies, NMR and computational modelling. These compounds are shown to be the exclusive intermediates in the solvolysis of their seco precursors and to possess very similar structural features to the widely studied O-based analogues, apart from an unusually high basicity. The measured pKa of 10.5 implies that the NH compounds are fully protonated under physiological conditions. Remarkably, their extremely high reactivity (calculated hydrolysis rate 10(8) times higher for protonated NH compared to the neutral O analogue) is still compatible with potent cytotoxicity, provided the active species is formed in the presence of cells. These surprising findings are of relevance to the design of duocarmycin-based tumour-selective therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Moana Tercel
- Auckland Cancer Society Research Centre, Faculty of Medical and Health Sciences, The University of Auckland, Private Bag 92019, Auckland 1142 (New Zealand).
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38
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Patil PC, Lee M. An efficient synthesis of furano analogs of duocarmycin C1 and C2: seco-iso-cyclopropylfurano[e]indoline-trimethoxyindole and seco-cyclopropylfurano[f]quinoline-trimethoxyindole. Tetrahedron Lett 2014. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tetlet.2014.04.062] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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39
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Greenberg MM. Looking beneath the surface to determine what makes DNA damage deleterious. Curr Opin Chem Biol 2014; 21:48-55. [PMID: 24762292 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbpa.2014.03.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2014] [Revised: 03/21/2014] [Accepted: 03/25/2014] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Apurinic/apyrimidinic and oxidized abasic sites are chemically reactive DNA lesions that are produced by a variety of damaging agents. The effects of these molecules that lack a Watson-Crick base on polymerase enzymes are well documented. More recently, multiple consequences of the electrophilic nature of abasic lesions have been revealed. Members of this family of DNA lesions have been shown to inactivate repair enzymes and undergo spontaneous transformation into more deleterious forms of damage. Abasic site reactivity provides insight into the chemical basis for the cytotoxicity of DNA damaging agents that produce them and are valuable examples of how looking beneath the surface of seemingly simple molecules can reveal biologically relevant chemical complexity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marc M Greenberg
- Department of Chemistry, Johns Hopkins University, 3400N, Charles Street, Baltimore, MD 21218, United States.
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40
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Shawakfeh KQ, Ishtaiwi ZN, Al-Said NH. Facile access to a benzoazepinoquinazolinone via a free radical cyclization. Tetrahedron Lett 2014. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tetlet.2014.01.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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41
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Vielhauer GA, Swink M, Parelkar NK, Lajiness JP, Wolfe AL, Boger D. Evaluation of a reductively activated duocarmycin prodrug against murine and human solid cancers. Cancer Biol Ther 2014; 14:527-36. [PMID: 23760495 DOI: 10.4161/cbt.24348] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
In treating cancer with clinically approved chemotherapies, the high systemic toxicity and lack of selectivity for malignant cells often result in an overall poor response rate. One pharmacological approach to improve patient response is to design targeted therapies that exploit the cancer milieu by reductively activating prodrugs, which results in the selective release of the free drug in the tumor tissue. Previously, we characterized prodrugs of seco-CBI-indole 2 (CBI-indole 2) designed to be activated in hypoxic tumor microenvironments, wherein the tumor maintains higher concentrations of "reducing" nucleophiles capable of preferentially releasing the free drug by nucleophilic attack on a weak N-O bond. Of these prodrugs, BocNHO-CBI-indole 2 (BocNHO) surpassed the efficacy of the free drug, CBI-indole 2, when examined in vivo in the murine L1210 leukemia model and demonstrated reduced toxicity suggesting a targeted or sustained release in vivo. Herein, we further examine the biological activity of the BocNHO prodrug in murine breast cancer, as well as human prostate and lung cancer cell lines, in vitro. Notably, BocNHO manifests potent antiproliferative and cytotoxic activity in all three tumor cell lines. However, in comparison to the activity observed in the murine cancer cell line, the human cancer cell lines were less sensitive, especially at early timepoints for cytotoxicity. Based on these findings, BocNHO was tested in a more clinically relevant orthotopic lung tumor model, revealing significant efficacy and reduced toxicity compared with the free drug. The data suggests that this pharmacological approach to designing targeted therapies is amenable to human solid tumors.
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Affiliation(s)
- George A Vielhauer
- Department of Urology, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, KS, USA.
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42
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Neo AG, López C, López A, Castedo L, Tojo G. Studies on the synthesis of a hindered analogue of the antitumour agent CC-1065. Tetrahedron 2013. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tet.2013.10.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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43
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Wolfe AL, Duncan KK, Lajiness JP, Zhu K, Duerfeldt AS, Boger DL. A fundamental relationship between hydrophobic properties and biological activity for the duocarmycin class of DNA-alkylating antitumor drugs: hydrophobic-binding-driven bonding. J Med Chem 2013; 56:6845-57. [PMID: 23944748 DOI: 10.1021/jm400665c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Two systematic series of increasingly hydrophilic derivatives of duocarmycin SA that feature the incorporation of ethylene glycol units (n = 1-5) into the methoxy substituents of the trimethoxyindole subunit are described. These derivatives exhibit progressively increasing water solubility along with progressive decreases in cell growth inhibitory activity and DNA alkylation efficiency with the incremental ethylene glycol unit incorporations. Linear relationships of cLogP with -log IC50 for cell growth inhibition and -log AE (AE = cell-free DNA alkylation efficiency) were observed, with the cLogP values spanning the productive range of 2.5-0.49 and the -log IC50 values spanning the range of 11.2-6.4, representing IC50 values that vary by a factor of 10(5) (0.008 to 370 nM). The results quantify the fundamental role played by the hydrophobic character of the compound in the expression of the biological activity of members in this class (driving the intrinsically reversible DNA alkylation reaction) and define the stunning magnitude of its effect.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amanda L Wolfe
- Department of Chemistry and The Skaggs Institute for Chemical Biology, The Scripps Research Institute , 10550 North Torrey Pines Road, La Jolla, California 92037, United States
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44
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Controlling the radical 5-exo-trig cyclization, and selective synthesis of seco-iso-cyclopropylfurano[e]indoline (seco-iso-CFI) and seco-cyclopropylthiophene[e]indoline (seco-CTI) DNA alkylating subunit of the duocarmycins. Tetrahedron Lett 2013. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tetlet.2013.06.116] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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45
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Joyner JC, Cowan JA. Target-directed catalytic metallodrugs. Braz J Med Biol Res 2013; 46:465-85. [PMID: 23828584 PMCID: PMC3854446 DOI: 10.1590/1414-431x20133086] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2013] [Accepted: 03/11/2013] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Most drugs function by binding reversibly to specific biological targets, and therapeutic effects generally require saturation of these targets. One means of decreasing required drug concentrations is incorporation of reactive metal centers that elicit irreversible modification of targets. A common approach has been the design of artificial proteases/nucleases containing metal centers capable of hydrolyzing targeted proteins or nucleic acids. However, these hydrolytic catalysts typically provide relatively low rate constants for target inactivation. Recently, various catalysts were synthesized that use oxidative mechanisms to selectively cleave/inactivate therapeutic targets, including HIV RRE RNA or angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE). These oxidative mechanisms, which typically involve reactive oxygen species (ROS), provide access to comparatively high rate constants for target inactivation. Target-binding affinity, co-reactant selectivity, reduction potential, coordination unsaturation, ROS products (metal-associated vs metal-dissociated; hydroxyl vs superoxide), and multiple-turnover redox chemistry were studied for each catalyst, and these parameters were related to the efficiency, selectivity, and mechanism(s) of inactivation/cleavage of the corresponding target for each catalyst. Important factors for future oxidative catalyst development are 1) positioning of catalyst reduction potential and redox reactivity to match the physiological environment of use, 2) maintenance of catalyst stability by use of chelates with either high denticity or other means of stabilization, such as the square planar geometric stabilization of Ni- and Cu-ATCUN complexes, 3) optimal rate of inactivation of targets relative to the rate of generation of diffusible ROS, 4) targeting and linker domains that afford better control of catalyst orientation, and 5) general bio-availability and drug delivery requirements.
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Affiliation(s)
- J C Joyner
- Evans Laboratory of Chemistry, Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA.
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46
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Wolfe AL, Duncan KK, Parelkar NK, Brown D, Vielhauer GA, Boger DL. Efficacious cyclic N-acyl O-amino phenol duocarmycin prodrugs. J Med Chem 2013; 56:4104-15. [PMID: 23627265 PMCID: PMC3687800 DOI: 10.1021/jm400413r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Two novel cyclic N-acyl O-amino phenol prodrugs are reported as new members of a unique class of reductively cleaved prodrugs of the duocarmycin family of natural products. These prodrugs were explored with the expectation that they may be cleaved selectively within hypoxic tumor environments that have intrinsically higher concentrations of reducing nucleophiles and were designed to liberate the free drug without the release of an extraneous group. In vivo evaluation of the prodrug 6 showed that it exhibits extraordinary efficacy (T/C > 1500, L1210; 6/10 one year survivors), substantially exceeding that of the free drug, that its therapeutic window of activity is much larger, permitting a dosing ≥ 40-fold higher than the free drug, and yet that it displays a potency in vivo that approaches the free drug (within 3-fold). Clearly, the prodrug 6 benefits from either its controlled slow release of the free drug or its preferential intracellular reductive cleavage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amanda L Wolfe
- Department of Chemistry and The Skaggs Institute for Chemical Biology, The Scripps Research Institute, 10550 North Torrey Pines Road, La Jolla, California 92037, USA
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47
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Sczepanski JT, Zhou C, Greenberg MM. Nucleosome core particle-catalyzed strand scission at abasic sites. Biochemistry 2013; 52:2157-64. [PMID: 23480734 DOI: 10.1021/bi3010076] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
The reactivity of apurinic/apyrimidinic (AP) sites at different locations within nucleosome core particles was examined. AP sites are greatly destabilized in nucleosome core particles compared to free DNA. Their reactivity varied ~5-fold with respect to the location within the nucleosome core particles but followed a common mechanism involving formation of a Schiff base between histone proteins and the lesion. The identity of the histone protein(s) involved in the reaction and the reactivity of the corresponding DNA-protein cross-links varied with the location of the abasic site, indicating that while the relative rate constants for individual steps varied in a complex manner, the overall mechanism remained the same. The source of the accelerated reactivity was probed using nucleosomes containing AP89 and histone H3 and H4 variants. Mutating the five lysine residues in the amino tail region of histone H4 to arginines reduced the rate constant for disappearance almost 15-fold. Replacing histidine 18 with an alanine reduced AP reactivity more than 3-fold. AP89 in a nucleosome core particle composed of the H4 variant containing both sets of mutations reacted only <4-fold faster than it did in naked DNA. These experiments reveal that nucleosome-catalyzed reaction at AP89 is a general phenomenon and that the lysine rich histone tails, whose modification is integrally involved in epigenetics, are primarily responsible for this chemistry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan T Sczepanski
- Department of Chemistry, Johns Hopkins University , 3400 North Charles Street, Baltimore, Maryland 21218, United States
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48
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Mucsi Z, Chass GA, Ábrányi-Balogh P, Jójárt B, Fang DC, Ramirez-Cuesta AJ, Viskolcz B, Csizmadia IG. Penicillin's catalytic mechanism revealed by inelastic neutrons and quantum chemical theory. Phys Chem Chem Phys 2013; 15:20447-20455. [DOI: 10.1039/c3cp50868d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
Penicillin's dynamic structure–activity relationship resolved by inelastic neutrons kinetics, NMR and QM/MM-theory. Self-activating geometric changes catalyse bacterial enzyme inactivation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zoltán Mucsi
- Department of Chemistry
- University of Toronto
- Toronto
- Canada
| | - Gregory A. Chass
- School of Biological and Chemical Sciences
- Queen Mary University of London
- London
- UK
| | | | - Balázs Jójárt
- Department of Chemical Informatics University of Szeged
- Szeged
- Hungary
| | - De-Cai Fang
- College of Chemistry
- Beijing Normal University
- Beijing
- China
| | | | - Béla Viskolcz
- Department of Chemical Informatics University of Szeged
- Szeged
- Hungary
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49
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Wolfe AL, Duncan KK, Parelkar NK, Weir SJ, Vielhauer GA, Boger DL. A novel, unusually efficacious duocarmycin carbamate prodrug that releases no residual byproduct. J Med Chem 2012; 55:5878-86. [PMID: 22650244 PMCID: PMC3386426 DOI: 10.1021/jm300330b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
A unique heterocyclic carbamate prodrug of seco-CBI-indole(2) that releases no residual byproduct is reported as a new member of a class of hydrolyzable prodrugs of the duocarmycin and CC-1065 family of natural products. The prodrug was designed to be activated by hydrolysis of a carbamate releasing the free drug without the cleavage release of a traceable extraneous group. Unlike prior carbamate prodrugs examined that are rapidly cleaved in vivo, the cyclic carbamate was found to be exceptionally stable to hydrolysis under both chemical and biological conditions providing a slow, sustained release of the exceptionally potent free drug. An in vivo evaluation of the prodrug found that its efficacy exceeded that of the parent drug, that its therapeutic window of efficacy versus toxicity is much larger than the parent drug, and that its slow free drug release permitted the safe and efficacious use of doses 150-fold higher than the parent compound.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amanda L. Wolfe
- Department of Chemistry and The Skaggs Institute for Chemical Biology, The Scripps Research Institute, 10550 N. Torrey Pines Road, La Jolla, California 92037, United States
| | - Katharine K. Duncan
- Department of Chemistry and The Skaggs Institute for Chemical Biology, The Scripps Research Institute, 10550 N. Torrey Pines Road, La Jolla, California 92037, United States
| | - Nikhil K. Parelkar
- University of Kansas Cancer Center, University of Kansas Medical Center, 3901 Rainbow Boulevard, Kansas City, Kansas 66160, United States
| | - Scott J. Weir
- University of Kansas Cancer Center, University of Kansas Medical Center, 3901 Rainbow Boulevard, Kansas City, Kansas 66160, United States
| | - George A. Vielhauer
- Department of Urology University of Kansas Medical Center, 3901 Rainbow Boulevard, Kansas City, Kansas 66160, United States
- University of Kansas Cancer Center, University of Kansas Medical Center, 3901 Rainbow Boulevard, Kansas City, Kansas 66160, United States
| | - Dale L. Boger
- Department of Chemistry and The Skaggs Institute for Chemical Biology, The Scripps Research Institute, 10550 N. Torrey Pines Road, La Jolla, California 92037, United States
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50
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Thibodeaux CJ, Chang WC, Liu HW. Enzymatic chemistry of cyclopropane, epoxide, and aziridine biosynthesis. Chem Rev 2012; 112:1681-709. [PMID: 22017381 PMCID: PMC3288687 DOI: 10.1021/cr200073d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 204] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Wei-chen Chang
- College of Pharmacy and Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas 78712
| | - Hung-wen Liu
- Institute for Cellular and Molecular Biology, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas 78712
- College of Pharmacy and Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas 78712
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