Spin state and axial ligand bonding in the hydroxide complexes of metmyoglobin, methemoglobin, and horseradish peroxidase at room and low temperatures

Structural and functional mechanisms of cytochrome c oxidase

Cytochrome c oxidase (CcO) is the terminal enzyme in the electron transfer chain in mitochondria. It catalyzes the four-electron reduction of O2 to H2O and harnesses the redox energy to drive unidirectional proton translocation against a proton electrochemical gradient. A great deal of research has been conducted to comprehend the molecular properties of CcO. However, the mechanism by which the oxygen reduction reaction is coupled to proton translocation remains poorly understood. Here, we review the chemical properties of a variety of key oxygen intermediates of bovine CcO (bCcO) revealed by time-resolved resonance Raman spectroscopy and the structural features of the enzyme uncovered by serial femtosecond crystallography, an innovative technique that allows structural determination at room temperature without radiation damage. The implications of these data on the proton translocation mechanism are discussed.

Structural insights into functional properties of the oxidized form of cytochrome c oxidase

Cytochrome c oxidase (CcO) is an essential enzyme in mitochondrial and bacterial respiration. It catalyzes the four-electron reduction of molecular oxygen to water and harnesses the chemical energy to translocate four protons across biological membranes. The turnover of the CcO reaction involves an oxidative phase, in which the reduced enzyme (R) is oxidized to the metastable OH state, and a reductive phase, in which OH is reduced back to the R state. During each phase, two protons are translocated across the membrane. However, if OH is allowed to relax to the resting oxidized state (O), a redox equivalent to OH, its subsequent reduction to R is incapable of driving proton translocation. Here, with resonance Raman spectroscopy and serial femtosecond X-ray crystallography (SFX), we show that the heme a3 iron and CuB in the active site of the O state, like those in the OH state, are coordinated by a hydroxide ion and a water molecule, respectively. However, Y244, critical for the oxygen reduction chemistry, is in the neutral protonated form, which distinguishes O from OH, where Y244 is in the deprotonated tyrosinate form. These structural characteristics of O provide insights into the proton translocation mechanism of CcO.

The effect of pH and nitrite on the haem pocket of GLB-33, a globin-coupled neuronal transmembrane receptor of Caenorhabditis elegans

Out of the 34 globins in Caenorhabditis elegans, GLB-33 is a putative globin-coupled transmembrane receptor with a yet unknown function. The globin domain (GD) contains a particularly hydrophobic haem pocket, that rapidly oxidizes to a low-spin hydroxide-ligated haem state at physiological pH. Moreover, the GD has one of the fastest nitrite reductase activity ever reported for globins. Here, we use a combination of electronic circular dichroism, resonance Raman and electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) spectroscopy with mass spectrometry to study the pH dependence of the ferric form of the recombinantly over-expressed GD in the presence and absence of nitrite. The competitive binding of nitrite and hydroxide is examined as well as nitrite-induced haem modifications at acidic pH. Comparison of the spectroscopic results with data from other haem proteins allows to deduce the important effect of Arg at position E10 in stabilization of exogenous ligands. Furthermore, continuous-wave and pulsed EPR indicate that ligation of nitrite occurs in a nitrito mode at pH 5.0 and above. At pH 4.0, an additional formation of a nitro-bound haem form is observed along with fast formation of a nitri-globin.

Resonance Raman Studies on Heme Ligand Stretching Modes in Methionine80-Depleted Cytochrome c: Fe-His, Fe-O2, and O-O Stretching Modes

The peroxidase activity of cytochrome (cyt) c increases when Met80 dissociates from the heme iron, which is related to the initial cyt c membrane permeation step of apoptosis. Met80-dissociated cyt c can form an oxygenated species. Herein, resonance Raman spectra of Met80-depleted horse cyt c (M80A cyt c) were analyzed to elucidate the heme ligand properties of Met80-dissociated cyt c. The Fe-His stretching (ν_Fe-His) mode of ferrous M80A cyt c was observed at 236 cm^-1, and this frequency decreased by 1.5 cm^-1 for the ¹⁵N-labeled protein. The higher ν_Fe-His frequency of M80A cyt c than of other His-ligated heme proteins indicates strong heme coordination and the imidazolate character of His18. Peaks attributed to the Fe-O₂ stretching (ν_Fe-O2) and O-O stretching (ν_O-O) modes of the oxygenated species of M80A cyt c were observed at 576 and 1148 cm^-1, respectively, under an ¹⁶O₂ atmosphere, whereas the frequencies decreased to 544 and 1077 cm^-1, respectively, under an ¹⁸O₂ atmosphere. The ν_Fe-O2 mode of Hydrogenobacter thermophilus (HT) M59A cyt c₅₅₂ was observed at 580 cm^-1 under an ¹⁶O₂ atmosphere, whereas the frequency decreased to 553 cm^-1 under an ¹⁸O₂ atmosphere, indicating that relatively high ν_Fe-O2 frequencies are characteristic of c-type cyt proteins. By comparison of the simultaneously observed ν_Fe-O2 and ν_O-O frequencies of oxygenated cyt c and other oxygenated His-ligated heme proteins, the frequencies tend to have a positive linear relationship; the ν_Fe-O2 frequency increases when the ν_O-O frequency increases. The imidazolate character of the heme-coordinated His and strong Fe-O and O-O bonds are characteristic of cyt c and apparently related to the peroxidase activity when Met80 dissociates from the heme iron.

Structural basis for functional properties of cytochrome c oxidase

Cytochrome c oxidase (CcO) is an essential enzyme in mitochondrial and bacterial respiration. It catalyzes the four-electron reduction of molecular oxygen to water and harnesses the chemical energy to translocate four protons across biological membranes, thereby establishing the proton gradient required for ATP synthesis1. The full turnover of the CcO reaction involves an oxidative phase, in which the reduced enzyme (R) is oxidized by molecular oxygen to the metastable oxidized OH state, and a reductive phase, in which OH is reduced back to the R state. During each of the two phases, two protons are translocated across the membranes2. However, if OH is allowed to relax to the resting oxidized state (O), a redox equivalent to OH, its subsequent reduction to R is incapable of driving proton translocation2,3. How the O state structurally differs from OH remains an enigma in modern bioenergetics. Here, with resonance Raman spectroscopy and serial femtosecond X-ray crystallography (SFX)4, we show that the heme a3 iron and CuB in the active site of the O state, like those in the OH state5,6, are coordinated by a hydroxide ion and a water molecule, respectively. However, Y244, a residue covalently linked to one of the three CuB ligands and critical for the oxygen reduction chemistry, is in the neutral protonated form, which distinguishes O from OH, where Y244 is in the deprotonated tyrosinate form. These structural characteristics of O provide new insights into the proton translocation mechanism of CcO.

Ferric heme b in aqueous micellar and vesicular systems: state-of-the-art and challenges

Ferric heme b (= ferric protoporphyrin IX = hemin) is an important prosthetic group of different types of enzymes, including the intensively investigated and widely applied horseradish peroxidase (HRP). In HRP, hemin is present in monomeric form in a hydrophobic pocket containing among other amino acid side chains the two imidazoyl groups of His170 and His42. Both amino acids are important for the peroxidase activity of HRP as an axial ligand of hemin (proximal His170) and as an acid/base catalyst (distal His42). A key feature of the peroxidase mechanism of HRP is the initial formation of compound I under heterolytic cleavage of added hydrogen peroxide as a terminal oxidant. Investigations of free hemin dispersed in aqueous solution showed that different types of hemin dimers can form, depending on the experimental conditions, possibly resulting in hemin crystallization. Although it has been recognized already in the 1970s that hemin aggregation can be prevented in aqueous solution by using micelle-forming amphiphiles, it remains a challenge to prepare hemin-containing micellar and vesicular systems with peroxidase-like activities. Such systems are of interest as cheap HRP-mimicking catalysts for analytical and synthetic applications. Some of the key concepts on which research in this fascinating and interdisciplinary field is based are summarized, along with major accomplishments and possible directions for further improvement. A systematic analysis of the physico-chemical properties of hemin in aqueous micellar solutions and vesicular dispersions must be combined with a reliable evaluation of its catalytic activity. Future studies should show how well the molecular complexity around hemin in HRP can be mimicked by using micelles or vesicles. Because of the importance of heme b in virtually all biological systems and the fact that porphyrins and hemes can be obtained under potentially prebiotic conditions, ideas exist about the possible role of heme-containing micellar and vesicular systems in prebiotic times.

Catalysis and Electron Transfer in De Novo Designed Metalloproteins

One of the hallmark advances in our understanding of metalloprotein function is showcased in our ability to design new, non-native, catalytically active protein scaffolds. This review highlights progress and milestone achievements in the field of de novo metalloprotein design focused on reports from the past decade with special emphasis on de novo designs couched within common subfields of bioinorganic study: heme binding proteins, monometal- and dimetal-containing catalytic sites, and metal-containing electron transfer sites. Within each subfield, we highlight several of what we have identified as significant and important contributions to either our understanding of that subfield or de novo metalloprotein design as a discipline. These reports are placed in context both historically and scientifically. General suggestions for future directions that we feel will be important to advance our understanding or accelerate discovery are discussed.

Identification of Fe(iii)–OH species as a catalytic intermediate in plant peroxidases at high H2O2 concentration

The structure for compound III formed after exposure of plant heme peroxidases to excess H2O2 seems to be a hydroxylated form, providing new evidence for understanding the structural basis of the substrate-induced suicidal behavior of these enzymes.

Structure-function characterization of the mono- and diheme forms of MhuD, a noncanonical heme oxygenase from Mycobacterium tuberculosis

MhuD is a noncanonical heme oxygenase (HO) from Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) that catalyzes unique heme degradation chemistry distinct from canonical HOs, generating mycobilin products without releasing carbon monoxide. Its crucial role in the Mtb heme uptake pathway has identified MhuD as an auspicious drug target. MhuD is capable of binding either one or two hemes within a single active site, but only the monoheme form was previously reported to be enzymatically active. Here we employed resonance Raman (rR) spectroscopy to examine several factors proposed to impact the reactivity of mono- and diheme MhuD, including heme ruffling, heme pocket hydrophobicity, and amino acid–heme interactions. We determined that the distal heme in the diheme MhuD active site has negligible effects on both the planarity of the His-coordinated heme macrocycle and the strength of the Fe-N_His linkage relative to the monoheme form. Our rR studies using isotopically labeled hemes unveiled unexpected biomolecular dynamics for the process of heme binding that converts MhuD from mono- to diheme form, where the second incoming heme replaces the first as the His75-coordinated heme. Ferrous CO-ligated diheme MhuD was found to exhibit multiple Fe-C-O conformers, one of which contains catalytically predisposed H-bonding interactions with the distal Asn7 residue identical to those in the monoheme form, implying that it is also enzymatically active. This was substantiated by activity assays and MS product analysis that confirmed the diheme form also degrades heme to mycobilins, redefining MhuD’s functional paradigm and further expanding our understanding of its role in Mtb physiology.

Probing Heme Active Sites of Hemoglobin in Functional Red Blood Cells Using Resonance Raman Spectroscopy

The UV–vis absorption, Raman imaging, and resonance Raman (rR) spectroscopy methods were employed to study cyanohemoglobin (HbCN) adducts inside living functional red blood cells (RBCs). The cyanide ligands are especially optically sensitive probes of the active site environment of heme proteins. The rR studies of HbCN and its isotopic analogues (¹³CN^–, C¹⁵N^–, and ¹³C¹⁵N^–), as well as a careful deconvolution of spectral data, revealed that the ν(Fe–CN) stretching, δ(Fe–CN) bending, and ν(C≡N) stretching modes occur at 454, 382, and 2123 cm^–1, respectively. Interestingly, while the ν(Fe–CN) modes exhibit the same frequencies in both the isolated and RBC-enclosed hemoglobin molecules, small frequency differences are observed in the δ(Fe–CN) bending modes and the values of their isotopic shifts. These studies show that even though the overall tilted conformation of the Fe–C≡N fragment in the isolated HbCN is preserved in the HbCN enclosed within living cells, there is a small difference in the degree of distortion of the Fe–C≡N fragment. The slight changes in the ligand geometry can be reasonably attributed to the high ordering and tight packing of Hb molecules inside RBCs.

Probing the structure-function relationship of hemoglobin in living human red blood cells

Hemoglobin (Hb) is a key component of respiratory system and as such plays important role in human physiology. The studies of Hb's structure and functions are usually performed on cell-free protein; however, it has been shown that there are functionally relevant differences between isolated Hb and Hb present inside red blood cells (RBCs). It is clear that new experimental approaches are needed to understand the origin of these differences and to gain insight into the structure-function relationship of Hb within intact living cells. In this work we present a novel application of Resonance Raman spectroscopy to study heme active site of different forms of human Hb within living RBCs using laser excitation lines in resonance with their Soret absorption bands. These studies revealed that there are no significant changes in the disposition of the Fe-O-O fragment or the Fe-N_His linkage for Hb molecules enclosed in RBCs and these in free isolated states. However, some changes in the orientation of the heme vinyl groups were observed which might account for the differences in the protein activity and ligand affinity. This work highlights importance of protein-based studies and presents a new opportunity to translate these results to physiological cell systems.

Spectroscopy-based characterization of Hb-NO adducts in human red blood cells exposed to NO-donor and endothelium-derived NO

The work presents the complementary approach to characterize the formation of various Hb species inside isolated human RBCs exposed to NO, with a focus on the formed Hb-NO adducts. This work presents a complementary approach based on Resonance Raman Spectroscopy (RRS) supported by Blood Gas Analysis, Electron Paramagnetic Resonance Spectroscopy, UV-Vis Absorption Spectroscopy and Mössbauer Spectroscopy to characterize the formation of various Hb species, with a focus on the Hb-NO adducts formed inside isolated human RBCs exposed to NO, under the experimental conditions of low and high levels of oxygen Hb saturation. In the present work, we induced Hb-NO adducts using PAPA-NONOate, a NO-donor with known chemistry and kinetics of NO release, and confirmed the formation of Hb-NO adducts in RBCs incubated with Human Aortic Endothelial Cells (HAECs) stimulated to produce NO. Our results provide a new insight into the formation of Hb-NO adducts after the exposure of RBCs with high oxyHb content to exogenous NO with special attention to the formation of LSHbIIINO in addition to LSHbIINO and metHb (HS/LSHbIIIH2O). We also point out that reliable characterization of Hb-NO adducts requires complementary techniques. Among them, RRS, as a label-free and non-destructive tool, appears to be an important discrimination technique in the studies of Hb-NO adducts inside intact RBCs.

Redox-dependent axial ligand replacement and its functional significance in heme-bound iron regulatory proteins

Iron regulatory proteins (IRPs), regulators of iron metabolism in mammalian cells, control the translation of proteins involved in iron uptake, storage and utilization by binding to specific iron-responsive element (IRE) sequences of mRNAs. Two homologs of IRPs (IRP1 and IRP2) have a typical heme regulatory motif (HRM), a consensus sequence found in "heme-regulated proteins". However, specific heme binding to HRM has been reported only for IRP2, which is essential for oxidative modification and loss of binding to target mRNAs. In this paper, we confirmed that IRP1 also specifically binds two molar equivalents of heme, and found that the absorption and resonance Raman spectra of heme-bound IRP1 were quite similar to those of heme-bound IRP2. This shows that the heme environmental structures in IRP1 are close to those of proteins using heme as a regulatory molecule. Pulse radiolysis experiments, however, clearly revealed an axial ligand exchange from Cys to His immediately after the reduction of the heme iron to form a 5-coordinate His-ligated heme in heme-bound IRP2, whereas the 5-coordinate His-ligated heme was not observed after the reduction of heme-bound IRP1. Considering that the oxidative modification is only observed in heme-bound IRP2, but not IRP1, probably owing to the structural flexibility of IRP2, we propose that the transient 5-coordinate His-ligated heme is a prerequisite for oxidative modification of heme-bound IRP2, which functionally differentiates heme binding of IRP2 from that of IRP1.

The Greenland shark Somniosus microcephalus-Hemoglobins and ligand-binding properties

A large amount of data is currently available on the adaptive mechanisms of polar bony fish hemoglobins, but structural information on those of cartilaginous species is scarce. This study presents the first characterisation of the hemoglobin system of one of the longest-living vertebrate species (392 ± 120 years), the Arctic shark Somniosus microcephalus. Three major hemoglobins are found in its red blood cells and are made of two copies of the same α globin combined with two copies of three very similar β subunits. The three hemoglobins show very similar oxygenation and carbonylation properties, which are unaffected by urea, a very important compound in marine elasmobranch physiology. They display identical electronic absorption and resonance Raman spectra, indicating that their heme-pocket structures are identical or highly similar. The quaternary transition equilibrium between the relaxed (R) and the tense (T) states is more dependent on physiological allosteric effectors than in human hemoglobin, as also demonstrated in polar teleost hemoglobins. Similar to other cartilaginous fishes, we found no evidence for functional differentiation among the three isoforms. The very similar ligand-binding properties suggest that regulatory control of O₂ transport may be at the cellular level and that it may involve changes in the cellular concentrations of allosteric effectors and/or variations of other systemic factors. The hemoglobins of this polar shark have evolved adaptive decreases in O₂ affinity in comparison to temperate sharks.

Active Sites of O2-Evolving Chlorite Dismutases Probed by Halides and Hydroxides and New Iron-Ligand Vibrational Correlations

O₂-evolving chlorite dismutases (Clds) fall into two subfamilies, which efficiently convert ClO₂^- to O₂ and Cl^-. The Cld from Dechloromonas aromatica (DaCld) represents the chlorite-decomposing homopentameric enzymes found in perchlorate- and chlorate-respiring bacteria. The Cld from the Gram-negative human pathogen Klebsiella pneumoniae (KpCld) is representative of the second subfamily, comprising homodimeric enzymes having truncated N-termini. Here steric and nonbonding properties of the DaCld and KpCld active sites have been probed via kinetic, thermodynamic, and spectroscopic behaviors of their fluorides, chlorides, and hydroxides. Cooperative binding of Cl^- to KpCld drives formation of a hexacoordinate, high-spin aqua heme, whereas DaCld remains pentacoordinate and high-spin under analogous conditions. Fluoride coordinates to the heme iron in KpCld and DaCld, exhibiting ν(Fe^III-F) bands at 385 and 390 cm^-1, respectively. Correlation of these frequencies with their CT1 energies reveals strong H-bond donation to the F^- ligand, indicating that atoms directly coordinated to heme iron are accessible to distal H-bond donation. New vibrational frequency correlations between either ν(Fe^III-F) or ν(Fe^III-OH) and ν(Fe^II-His) of Clds and other heme proteins are reported. These correlations orthogonalize proximal and distal effects on the bonding between iron and exogenous π-donor ligands. The axial Fe-X vibrations and the relationships between them illuminate both similarities and differences in the H-bonding and electrostatic properties of the distal and proximal heme environments in pentameric and dimeric Clds. Moreover, they provide general insight into the structural basis of reactivity toward substrates in heme-dependent enzymes and their mechanistic intermediates, especially those containing the ferryl moiety.

Effective intermediate-spin iron in O2-transporting heme proteins

Proteins carrying an iron-porphyrin (heme) cofactor are essential for biological O2 management. The nature of Fe-O2 bonding in hemoproteins is debated for decades. We used energy-sampling and rapid-scan X-ray Kβ emission and K-edge absorption spectroscopy as well as quantum chemistry to determine molecular and electronic structures of unligated (deoxy), CO-inhibited (carboxy), and O2-bound (oxy) hemes in myoglobin (MB) and hemoglobin (HB) solutions and in porphyrin compounds at 20-260 K. Similar metrical and spectral features revealed analogous heme sites in MB and HB and the absence of low-spin (LS) to high-spin (HS) conversion. Amplitudes of Kβ main-line emission spectra were directly related to the formal unpaired Fe(d) spin count, indicating HS Fe(II) in deoxy and LS Fe(II) in carboxy. For oxy, two unpaired Fe(d) spins and, thus by definition, an intermediate-spin iron center, were revealed by our static and kinetic X-ray data, as supported by (time-dependent) density functional theory and complete-active-space self-consistent-field calculations. The emerging Fe-O2 bonding situation includes in essence a ferrous iron center, minor superoxide character of the noninnocent ligand, significant double-bond properties of the interaction, and three-center electron delocalization as in ozone. It resolves the apparently contradictory classical models of Pauling, Weiss, and McClure/Goddard into a unifying view of O2 bonding, tuned toward reversible oxygen transport.

Resonance Raman in Vitro Detection and Differentiation of the Nitrite-Induced Hemoglobin Adducts in Functional Human Red Blood Cells

This work presents in vitro studies of the functional, isolated human red blood cells (RBCs) treated with various concentrations of Na¹⁴NO₂ and Na¹⁵NO₂ with the use of resonance Raman spectroscopy (RRS) at two different laser excitations supported by absorption spectrophotometry (UV-vis). The products of the reaction between oxyhemoglobin (oxyHb) in isolated RBCs with NaNO₂ were analyzed and identified in situ. The metHb-H₂O was found to be the major product of this reaction; however, additional adducts were also clearly observed. Vibrational analysis allowed identification of various Hb³⁺NO₂ species (Fe³⁺-O-N=O with O-binding mode of nitrite ion to the Fe³⁺ core and nitrovinyl adducts with 2-vinyl nitration favored over 4-vinyl nitration) as well as the Fe³⁺-NO adduct. In addition, we were able to visualize in situ the Hb-NO₂ species inside functional RBCs with the use of Raman imaging.

Iron porphyrins with a hydrogen bonding cavity: effect of weak interactions on their electronic structure and reactivity

The electronic structure and reactivity of iron porphyrin complexes bearing 2^nd sphere hydrogen bonding residues have been investigated over the last few years.

Heme Binding by Corynebacterium diphtheriae HmuT: Function and Heme Environment

The heme uptake pathway (hmu) of Corynebacterium diphtheriae utilizes multiple proteins to bind and transport heme into the cell. One of these proteins, HmuT, delivers heme to the ABC transporter HmuUV. In this study, the axial ligation of the heme in ferric HmuT is probed by examination of wild-type (WT) HmuT and a series of conserved heme pocket residue mutants, H136A, Y235A, and M292A. Characterization by UV-visible, resonance Raman, and magnetic circular dichroism spectroscopies indicates that H136 and Y235 are the axial ligands in ferric HmuT. Consistent with this assignment of axial ligands, ferric WT and H136A HmuT are difficult to reduce while Y235A is reduced readily in the presence of dithionite. The FeCO Raman shifts in WT, H136A, and Y235A HmuT-CO complexes provide further evidence of the axial ligand assignments. Additionally, these frequencies provide insight into the nonbonding environment of the heme pocket. Ferrous Y235A and the Y235A-CO complex reveal that the imidazole of H136 exists in two forms, one neutral and one with imidazolate character, consistent with a hydrogen bond acceptor on the H136 side of the heme. The ferric fluoride complex of Y235A reveals the presence of at least one hydrogen bond donor on the Y235 side of the heme. Hemoglobin utilization assays showed that the axial Y235 ligand is required for heme uptake in HmuT.

Coexistence of Native-Like and Non-Native Cytochrome c on Anionic Liposomes with Different Cardiolipin Content

We employed a combination of fluorescence, visible circular dichroism, and absorption spectroscopy to study the conformational changes of ferricytochrome c upon its binding to cardiolipin-containing small unilamellar vesicles. The measurements were performed as a function of the cardiolipin concentration, the cardiolipin content of the liposomes, and the NaCl concentration of the solvent. The data were analyzed with a novel model that combines a single binding step with a conformational equilibrium between native-like and non-native-like proteins bound to the membrane surface. The equilibrium between the two conformations, which themselves are comprised of structurally slightly different subconformations, shifts to the more non-native-like conformation with increasing cardiolipin concentration. For the binding isotherms described in this paper, we explicitly considered the enthalpic and entropic contributions of molecular crowding to protein binding at low lipid concentrations and high occupancy of the liposome surface. Increasing the CL content of liposomes increases the overall binding affinity but makes the conformational distribution much more susceptible to the influence of sodium and chloride ions, which shifts the equilibrium toward the more native-like state and directly inhibits binding, particularly to liposomes with 100% cardiolipin content. Spectroscopic evidence further suggests that a fraction of the non-native conformers adopts a pentacoordinated state similar to those obtained in class C peroxidases. On the basis of our results, we propose a hypothesis that describes the balance between facilitating and impeding forces controlling the peroxidase activity of cytochrome c in the inner membrane space of mitochondria.

Comment on "Sensitive marker bands for the detection of spin states of heme in surface-enhanced resonance Raman scattering spectra of metmyoglobin" by Y. Kitahama, M. Egashira, T. Suzuki, I. Tanabe and Y. Ozaki

We contrast recently reported surface-enhanced resonance Raman spectra (SERRS) of myoglobin on silver nanoparticles with established knowledge about this complex. We conclude that the detected bands are not related to the spin states of the protein cofactor, being rather originated by a heme coordination change induced by the metal surface.

Structural flexibility of the heme cavity in the cold-adapted truncated hemoglobin from the Antarctic marine bacterium Pseudoalteromonas haloplanktis TAC125

Truncated hemoglobins build one of the three branches of the globin protein superfamily. They display a characteristic two-on-two α-helical sandwich fold and are clustered into three groups (I, II and III) based on distinct structural features. Truncated hemoglobins are present in eubacteria, cyanobacteria, protozoa and plants. Here we present a structural, spectroscopic and molecular dynamics characterization of a group-II truncated hemoglobin, encoded by the PSHAa0030 gene from Pseudoalteromonas haloplanktis TAC125 (Ph-2/2HbO), a cold-adapted Antarctic marine bacterium hosting one flavohemoglobin and three distinct truncated hemoglobins. The Ph-2/2HbO aquo-met crystal structure (at 2.21 Å resolution) shows typical features of group-II truncated hemoglobins, namely the two-on-two α-helical sandwich fold, a helix Φ preceding the proximal helix F, and a heme distal-site hydrogen-bonded network that includes water molecules and several distal-site residues, including His(58)CD1. Analysis of Ph-2/2HbO by electron paramagnetic resonance, resonance Raman and electronic absorption spectra, under varied solution conditions, shows that Ph-2/2HbO can access diverse heme ligation states. Among these, detection of a low-spin heme hexa-coordinated species suggests that residue Tyr(42)B10 can undergo large conformational changes in order to act as the sixth heme-Fe ligand. Altogether, the results show that Ph-2/2HbO maintains the general structural features of group-II truncated hemoglobins but displays enhanced conformational flexibility in the proximity of the heme cavity, a property probably related to the functional challenges, such as low temperature, high O2 concentration and low kinetic energy of molecules, experienced by organisms living in the Antarctic environment.

Redox-dependent Ligand Switching in a Sensory Heme-binding GAF Domain of the Cyanobacterium Nostoc sp. PCC7120

The genome of the cyanobacterium Nostoc sp. PCC7120 carries three genes (all4978, all7016, and alr7522) encoding putative heme-binding GAF (cGMP-specific phosphodiesterases, adenylyl cyclases, and FhlA) proteins that were annotated as transcriptional regulators. They are composed of an N-terminal cofactor domain and a C-terminal helix-turn-helix motif. All4978 showed the highest affinity for protoheme binding. The heme binding capability of All7016 was moderate, and Alr7522 did not bind heme at all. The "as isolated" form of All4978, identified by Soret band (λmax = 427 nm), was assigned by electronic absorption, EPR, and resonance Raman spectroscopy as a hexa-coordinated low spin Fe(III) heme with a distal cysteine ligand (absorption of δ-band around 360 nm). The protoheme cofactor is noncovalently incorporated. Reduction of the heme could be accomplished by chemically using sodium dithionite and electrospectrochemically; this latter method yielded remarkably low midpoint potentials of -445 and -453 mV (following Soret and α-band absorption changes, respectively). The reduced form of the heme (Fe(II) state) binds both NO and CO. Cysteine coordination of the as isolated Fe(III) protein is unambiguous, but interestingly, the reduced heme instead displays spectral features indicative of histidine coordination. Cys-His ligand switches have been reported as putative signaling mechanisms in other heme-binding proteins; however, these novel cyanobacterial proteins are the first where such a ligand-switch mechanism has been observed in a GAF domain. DNA binding of the helix-turn-helix domain was investigated using a DNA sequence motif from its own promoter region. Formation of a protein-DNA complex preferentially formed in ferric state of the protein.

Bridging Theory and Experiment to Address Structural Properties of Truncated Haemoglobins: Insights from Thermobifida fusca HbO

In this chapter, we will discuss the paradigmatic case of Thermobifida fusca (Tf-trHb) HbO in its ferrous and ferric states and its behaviour towards a battery of possible ligands. This choice was dictated by the fact that it has been one of the most extensively studied truncated haemoglobins, both in terms of spectroscopic and molecular dynamics studies. Tf-trHb typifies the structural properties of group II trHbs, as the active site is characterized by a highly polar distal environment in which TrpG8, TyrCD1, and TyrB10 provide three potential H-bond donors in the distal cavity capable of stabilizing the incoming ligands. The role of these residues in key topological positions, and their interplay with the iron-bound ligands, has been addressed in studies carried out on the CO, F(-), OH(-), CN(-), and HS(-) adducts formed with the wild-type protein and a combinatorial set of mutants, in which the distal polar residues, TrpG8, TyrCD1, and TyrB10, have been singly, doubly, or triply replaced by a Phe residue. In this context, such a complete analysis provides an excellent benchmark for the investigation of the relationship between protein structure and function, allowing one to translate physicochemical properties of the active site into the observed functional behaviour. Tf-trHb will be compared with other members of the group II trHbs and, more generally, with members of the other trHb subgroups.

A dimeric chlorite dismutase exhibits O2-generating activity and acts as a chlorite antioxidant in Klebsiella pneumoniae MGH 78578

Chlorite dismutases (Clds) convert chlorite to O₂ and Cl^–, stabilizing heme in the presence of strong oxidants and forming the O=O bond with high efficiency. The enzyme from the pathogen Klebsiella pneumoniae (KpCld) represents a subfamily of Clds that share most of their active site structure with efficient O₂-producing Clds, even though they have a truncated monomeric structure, exist as a dimer rather than a pentamer, and come from Gram-negative bacteria without a known need to degrade chlorite. We hypothesized that KpCld, like others in its subfamily, should be able to make O₂ and may serve an in vivo antioxidant function. Here, it is demonstrated that it degrades chlorite with limited turnovers relative to the respiratory Clds, in part because of the loss of hypochlorous acid from the active site and destruction of the heme. The observation of hypochlorous acid, the expected leaving group accompanying transfer of an oxygen atom to the ferric heme, is consistent with the more open, solvent-exposed heme environment predicted by spectroscopic measurements and inferred from the crystal structures of related proteins. KpCld is more susceptible to oxidative degradation under turnover conditions than the well-characterized Clds associated with perchlorate respiration. However, wild-type K. pneumoniae has a significant growth advantage in the presence of chlorate relative to a Δcld knockout strain, specifically under nitrate-respiring conditions. This suggests that a physiological function of KpCld may be detoxification of endogenously produced chlorite.

Setting an upper limit on the myoglobin iron(IV)hydroxide pK(a): insight into axial ligand tuning in heme protein catalysis

To provide insight into the iron(IV)hydroxide pK(a) of histidine ligated heme proteins, we have probed the active site of myoglobin compound II over the pH range of 3.9-9.5, using EXAFS, Mössbauer, and resonance Raman spectroscopies. We find no indication of ferryl protonation over this pH range, allowing us to set an upper limit of 2.7 on the iron(IV)hydroxide pK(a) in myoglobin. Together with the recent determination of an iron(IV)hydroxide pK(a) ∼ 12 in the thiolate-ligated heme enzyme cytochrome P450, this result provides insight into Nature's ability to tune catalytic function through its choice of axial ligand.

Orienting the heterocyclic periphery: a structural model for chloroquine's antimalarial activity

A fluorescent structurally characterized chloroquine–metalloporphyrin adduct has been prepared and characterized. This allows for new insights into antimalarial drug–heme interactions.

H-bonding networks of the distal residues and water molecules in the active site of Thermobifida fusca hemoglobin

The ferric form of truncated hemoglobin II from Thermobifida fusca (Tf-trHb) and its triple mutant WG8F-YB10F-YCD1F at neutral and alkaline pH, and in the presence of CN(-) have been characterized by resonance Raman spectroscopy, electron paramagnetic resonance spectroscopy, and molecular dynamics simulations. Tf-trHb contains three polar residues in the distal site, namely TrpG8, TyrCD1 and TyrB10. Whereas TrpG8 can act as a potential hydrogen-bond donor, the tyrosines can act as donors or acceptors. Ligand binding in heme-containing proteins is determined by a number of factors, including the nature and conformation of the distal residues and their capability to stabilize the heme-bound ligand via hydrogen-bonding and electrostatic interactions. Since both the RR Fe-OH(-) and Fe-CN(-) frequencies are very sensitive to the distal environment, detailed information on structural variations has been obtained. The hydroxyl ligand binds only the WT protein giving rise to two different conformers. In form 1 the anion is stabilized by H-bonds with TrpG8, TyrCD1 and a water molecule, in turn H-bonded to TyrB10. In form 2, H-bonding with TyrCD1 is mediated by a water molecule. Unlike the OH(-) ligand, CN(-) binds both WT and the triple mutant giving rise to two forms with similar spectroscopic characteristics. The overall results clearly indicate that H-bonding interactions both with distal residues and water molecules are important structural determinants in the active site of Tf-trHb. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Oxygen Binding and Sensing Proteins.

Interaction of NO with Cu and heme-bound Aβ peptides associated with Alzheimer's disease

Reduced Cu and heme has been invoked to be involved in Alzheimer's disease (AD). Recently the Aβ peptides have been demonstrated to bind heme and Cu simultaneously, and this complex produces significantly more toxic partially reduced oxygen species (PROS) than the Cu or heme-bound Aβ peptides. Here a combination of absorption, EPR, and resonance Raman spectroscopy along with kinetic assays are used to investigate the interaction of nitric oxide (NO) with the physiologically relevant form of Cu and heme-bound Aβ peptides, since a down-regulation of nitric oxide synthase activity is observed in patients suffering from AD. The data indicate that NO oxidizes the Cu(I) sites, making them less toxic toward PROS generation and releases heme from the Aβ peptides ameliorating the effects of heme binding to Aβ peptides associated with AD. This process involves a tyrosine-mediated electron transfer between the Cu and heme sites. These results provide a mechanistic pathway for the possible protective role of NO in AD.

De novo design, synthesis and characterisation of MP3, a new catalytic four-helix bundle hemeprotein

A new artificial metalloenzyme, MP3 (MiniPeroxidase 3), designed by combining the excellent structural properties of four-helix bundle protein scaffolds with the activity of natural peroxidases, was synthesised and characterised. This new hemeprotein model was developed by covalently linking the deuteroporphyrin to two peptide chains of different compositions to obtain an asymmetric helix-loop-helix/heme/helix-loop-helix sandwich arrangement, characterised by 1) a His residue on one chain that acts as an axial ligand to the iron ion; 2) a vacant distal site that is able to accommodate exogenous ligands or substrates; and 3) an Arg residue in the distal site that should assist in hydrogen peroxide activation to give an HRP-like catalytic process. MP3 was synthesised and characterised as its iron complex. CD measurements revealed the high helix-forming propensity of the peptide, confirming the appropriateness of the model procedure; UV/Vis, MCD and EPR experiments gave insights into the coordination geometry and the spin state of the metal. Kinetic experiments showed that Fe(III)-MP3 possesses peroxidase-like activity comparable to R38A-hHRP, highlighting the possibility of mimicking the functional features of natural enzymes. The synergistic application of de novo design methods, synthetic procedures, and spectroscopic characterisation, described herein, demonstrates a method by which to implement and optimise catalytic activity for an enzyme mimetic.

Ligand changes in ferric species of the giant extracellular hemoglobin ofGlossoscolex paulistusas function of pH: correlations between redox, spectroscopic and oligomeric properties and general implications with different hemoproteins

The present review is focused on the relationship between oligomeric and heme properties of HbGp, emphasizing the characteristics that can be generalized to other hemoproteins. This study represents the state-of-the-art with respect to the approaches for investigating giant extracellular hemoglobins as well as the correlation between oligomeric assembly alterations and their consequent changes in the first coordination sphere. A wide introduction focused on the properties of this hemoglobin is developed. Indeed, this hemoprotein is considered an interesting prototype of blood substitute and biosensor due to its peculiar properties, such as resistance to autoxidation and oligomeric stability. Previous studies by our group employing UV-vis, EPR and CD spectroscopies have been revised in a complete approach, in agreement with recent and relevant data from the literature. In fact, a consistent and inter-related spectroscopic study is described propitiating a wide assignment of "fingerprint" peaks found in the techniques evaluated in this paper. This review furnishes physicochemical information regarding the identification of ferric heme species of hemoproteins and metallic complexes through their spectroscopic bands. This effort at the attribution of UV-vis, EPR and CD peaks is not restricted to HbGp, and includes a comparative analysis of several hemoproteins involving relevant implications regarding several types of iron-porphyrin systems.

Kinetic and spectroscopic studies of hemin acquisition in the hemophore HasAp from Pseudomonas aeruginosa

The extreme limitation of free iron has driven various pathogens to acquire iron from the host in the form of heme. Specifically, several Gram-negative pathogens secrete a heme binding protein known as HasA to scavenge heme from the extracellular environment and to transfer it to the receptor protein HasR for import into the bacterial cell. Structures of heme-bound and apo-HasA homologues show that the heme iron(III) ligands, His32 and Tyr75, reside on loops extending from the core of the protein and that a significant conformational change must occur at the His32 loop upon heme binding. Here, we investigate the kinetics of heme acquisition by HasA from Pseudomonas aeruginosa (HasAp). The rate of heme acquisition from human met-hemoglobin (met-Hb) closely matches that of heme dissociation which suggests a passive mode of heme uptake from this source. The binding of free hemin is characterized by an initial rapid phase forming an intermediate before further conversion to the final complex. Analysis of this same reaction using an H32A variant lacking the His heme ligand shows only the rapid phase to form a heme-protein complex spectroscopically equivalent to that of the wild-type intermediate. Further characterization of these reactions using electron paramagnetic resonance and resonance Raman spectroscopy of rapid freeze quench samples provides support for a model in which heme is initially bound by the Tyr75 to form a high-spin heme-protein complex before slower coordination of the His32 ligand upon closing of the His loop over the heme. The slow rate of this loop closure implies that the induced-fit mechanism of heme uptake in HasAp is not based on a rapid sampling of the H32 loop between open and closed configurations but, rather, that the H32 loop motions are triggered by the formation of the high-spin heme-HasAp intermediate complex.

Spectroscopic insights into axial ligation and active-site H-bonding in substrate-bound human heme oxygenase-2

Heme oxygenases (HOs) are monooxygenases that catalyze the first step in heme degradation, converting heme to biliverdin with concomitant release of Fe(II) and CO from the porphyrin macrocycle. Two heme oxygenase isoforms, HO-1 and HO-2, exist that differ in several ways, including a complete lack of Cys residues in HO-1 and the presence of three Cys residues as part of heme-regulatory motifs (HRMs) in HO-2. HRMs in other heme proteins are thought to directly bind heme, or to otherwise regulate protein stability or activity; however, it is not currently known how the HRMs exert these effects on HO-2 function. To better understand the properties of this vital enzyme and to elucidate possible roles of its HRMs, various forms of HO-2 possessing distinct alterations to the HRMs were prepared. In this study, variants with Cys265 in a thiol form are compared with those with this residue in an oxidized (part of a disulfide bond or existing as a sulfenate moiety) form. Absorption and magnetic circular dichroism spectroscopic data of these HO-2 variants clearly demonstrate that a new low-spin Fe(III) heme species characteristic of thiolate ligation is formed when Cys265 is reduced. Additionally, absorption, magnetic circular dichroism, and resonance Raman data collected at different temperatures reveal an intriguing temperature dependence of the iron spin state in the heme-HO-2 complex. These findings are consistent with the presence of a hydrogen-bonding network at the heme's distal side within the active site of HO-2 with potentially significant differences from that observed in HO-1.

How active-site protonation state influences the reactivity and ligation of the heme in chlorite dismutase

Chlorite dismutase catalyzes O(2) release from chlorite with exquisite efficiency and specificity. The spectroscopic properties, ligand binding affinities, and steady-state kinetics of chlorite dismutase from Dechloromonas aromatica were examined over pH 3-11.5 to gain insight into how the protonation state of the heme environment influences dioxygen formation. An acid-base transition was observed by UV/visible and resonance Raman (rR) spectroscopy with a pK(a) of 8.7, 2-3 pH units below analogous transitions observed in typical His-ligated peroxidases. This transition marks the conversion of a five-coordinate high-spin Fe(III) to a mixed high/low-spin ferric hydroxide, as confirmed by rR spectroscopy. The two Fe-OH stretching frequencies are quite low, consistent with a weak Fe-OH bond, despite the nearly neutral imidazole side chain of the proximal histidine ligand. The hydroxide is proposed to interact strongly with a distal H-bond donor, thereby weakening the Fe-OH bond. The rR spectra of Cld-CO as a function of pH reveal two forms of the complex, one in which there is minimal interaction of distal residues with the carbonyl oxygen and another, acidic form in which the oxygen is under the influence of positive charge. Recent crystallographic data reveal arginine 183 as the lone H-bond-donating residue in the distal pocket. It is likely that this Arg is the strong, positively charged H-bond donor implicated by vibrational data to interact with exogenous axial heme ligands. The same Arg in its neutral (pK(a) approximately 6.5) form also appears to act as the active-site base in binding reactions of protonated ligands, such as HCN, to ferric Cld. The steady-state profile for the rate of chlorite decomposition is characterized by these same pK(a) values. The five-coordinate high-spin acidic Cld is more active than the alkaline hydroxide-bound form. The acid form decomposes chlorite most efficiently when the distal Arg is protonated/cationic (maximum k(cat) = 2.0(+/-0.6) x 10(5) s(-1), k(cat)/K(M) = 3.2(+/-0.4) x 10(7) M(-1) s(-1), pH 5.2, 4 degrees C) and to a somewhat lesser extent when it acts as a H-bond donor to the axial hydroxide ligand under alkaline conditions.