Structural reorganization of proteins revealed by radiolysis and mass spectrometry: G-actin solution structure is divalent cation dependent

MICAL-mediated oxidation of actin and its effects on cytoskeletal and cellular dynamics

Actin and its dynamic structural remodelings are involved in multiple cellular functions, including maintaining cell shape and integrity, cytokinesis, motility, navigation, and muscle contraction. Many actin-binding proteins regulate the cytoskeleton to facilitate these functions. Recently, actin's post-translational modifications (PTMs) and their importance to actin functions have gained increasing recognition. The MICAL family of proteins has emerged as important actin regulatory oxidation-reduction (Redox) enzymes, influencing actin's properties both in vitro and in vivo. MICALs specifically bind to actin filaments and selectively oxidize actin's methionine residues 44 and 47, which perturbs filaments' structure and leads to their disassembly. This review provides an overview of the MICALs and the impact of MICAL-mediated oxidation on actin's properties, including its assembly and disassembly, effects on other actin-binding proteins, and on cells and tissue systems.

Protein complex prediction using Rosetta, AlphaFold, and mass spectrometry covalent labeling

Covalent labeling (CL) in combination with mass spectrometry can be used as an analytical tool to study and determine structural properties of protein-protein complexes. However, data from these experiments is sparse and does not unambiguously elucidate protein structure. Thus, computational algorithms are needed to deduce structure from the CL data. In this work, we present a hybrid method that combines models of protein complex subunits generated with AlphaFold with differential CL data via a CL-guided protein-protein docking in Rosetta. In a benchmark set, the RMSD (root-mean-square deviation) of the best-scoring models was below 3.6 Å for 5/5 complexes with inclusion of CL data, whereas the same quality was only achieved for 1/5 complexes without CL data. This study suggests that our integrated approach can successfully use data obtained from CL experiments to distinguish between nativelike and non-nativelike models.

Oxidation and reduction of actin: Origin, impact in vitro and functional consequences in vivo

Actin is among the most abundant proteins in eukaryotic cells and assembles into dynamic filamentous networks regulated by many actin binding proteins. The actin cytoskeleton must be finely tuned, both in space and time, to fulfill key cellular functions such as cell division, cell shape changes, phagocytosis and cell migration. While actin oxidation by reactive oxygen species (ROS) at non-physiological levels are known for long to impact on actin polymerization and on the cellular actin cytoskeleton, growing evidence shows that direct and reversible oxidation/reduction of specific actin amino acids plays an important and physiological role in regulating the actin cytoskeleton. In this review, we describe which actin amino acid residues can be selectively oxidized and reduced in many different ways (e.g. disulfide bond formation, glutathionylation, carbonylation, nitration, nitrosylation and other oxidations), the cellular enzymes at the origin of these post-translational modifications, and the impact of actin redox modifications both in vitro and in vivo. We show that the regulated balance of oxidation and reduction of key actin amino acid residues contributes to the control of actin filament polymerization and disassembly at the subcellular scale and highlight how improper redox modifications of actin can lead to pathological conditions.

Bound nucleotide can control the dynamic architecture of monomeric actin

Polymerization of actin into cytoskeletal filaments is coupled to its bound adenine nucleotides. The mechanism by which nucleotide modulates actin functions has not been evident from analyses of ATP- and ADP-bound crystal structures of the actin monomer. We report that NMR chemical shift differences between the two forms are globally distributed. Furthermore, microsecond–millisecond motions are spread throughout the molecule in the ATP form, but largely confined to subdomains 1 and 2, and the nucleotide binding site in the ADP form. Through these motions, the ATP- and ADP-bound forms sample different high-energy conformations. A deafness-causing, fast-nucleating actin mutant populates the high-energy conformer of ATP-actin more than the wild-type protein, suggesting that this conformer may be on the pathway to nucleation. Together, the data suggest a model in which differential sampling of a nucleation-compatible form of the actin monomer may contribute to control of actin filament dynamics by nucleotide.

NMR shows that ATP- and ADP-actin differ globally, including ground and excited state structures and dynamic architecture. Analyses of an actin mutant suggest the high-energy conformer of ATP-actin may be on the pathway to filament nucleation.

Myopathy-Sensitive G-Actin Segment 227-235 Is Involved in Salt-Induced Stabilization of Contacts within the Actin Filament

Formation of stable actin filaments, critically important for actin functions, is determined by the ionic strength of the solution. However, not much is known about the elements of the actin fold involved in ionic-strength-dependent filament stabilization. In this work, F-actin was destabilized by Cu²⁺ binding to Cys374, and the effects of solvent conditions on the dynamic properties of F-actin were correlated with the involvement of Segment 227-235 in filament stabilization. The results of our work show that the presence of Mg²⁺ at the high-affinity cation binding site of Cu-modified actin polymerized with MgCl₂ strongly enhances the rate of filament subunit exchange and promotes the filament instability. In the presence of 0.1 M KCl, the filament subunit exchange was 2-3-fold lower than that in the MgCl₂-polymerized F-actin. This effect correlates with the reduced accessibility of the D-loop and Segment 227-235 on opposite filament strands, consistent with an ionic-strength-dependent conformational change that modulates involvement of Segment 227-235 in stabilization of the intermonomer interface. KCl may restrict the mobility of the α-helix encompassing part of Segment 227-235 and/or be bound to Asp236 at the boundary of Segment 227-235. These results provide experimental evidence for the involvement of Segment 227-235 in salt-induced stabilization of contacts within the actin filament and suggest that they can be weakened by mutations characteristic of actin-associated myopathies.

Protein Footprinting: Auxiliary Engine to Power the Structural Biology Revolution

Structural biology is entering an exciting time where many new high-resolution structures of large complexes and membrane proteins are determined regularly. These advances have been driven by over fifteen years of technology advancements, first in macromolecular crystallography, and recently in Cryo-electron microscopy. These structures are allowing detailed questions about functional mechanisms of the structures, and the biology enabled by these structures, to be addressed for the first time. At the same time, mass spectrometry technologies for protein structure analysis, "footprinting" studies, have improved their sensitivity and resolution dramatically and can provide detailed sub-peptide and residue level information for validating structures and interactions or understanding the dynamics of structures in the context of ligand binding or assembly. In this perspective, we review the use of protein footprinting to extend our understanding of macromolecular systems, particularly for systems challenging for analysis by other techniques, such as intrinsically disordered proteins, amyloidogenic proteins, and other proteins/complexes so far recalcitrant to existing methods. We also illustrate how the availability of high-resolution structural information can be a foundation for a suite of hybrid approaches to divine structure-function relationships beyond what individual techniques can deliver.

Illuminating Biological Interactions with in Vivo Protein Footprinting

Protein footprinting coupled with mass spectrometry is being increasingly used for the study of protein interactions and conformations. The hydroxyl radical footprinting method, fast photochemical oxidation of proteins (FPOP), utilizes hydroxyl radicals to oxidatively modify solvent accessible amino acids. Here, we describe the further development of FPOP for protein structural analysis in vivo (IV-FPOP) with Caenorhabditis elegans. C. elegans, part of the nematode family, are used as model systems for many human diseases. The ability to perform structural studies in these worms would provide insight into the role of structure in disease pathogenesis. Many parameters were optimized for labeling within the worms including the microfluidic flow system and hydrogen peroxide concentration. IV-FPOP was able to modify several hundred proteins in various organs within the worms. The method successfully probed solvent accessibility similarily to in vitro FPOP, demonstrating its potential for use as a structural technique in a multiorgan system. The coupling of the method with mass spectrometry allows for amino-acid-residue-level structural information, a higher resolution than currently available in vivo methods.

High-Resolution Hydroxyl Radical Protein Footprinting: Biophysics Tool for Drug Discovery

Hydroxyl radical footprinting (HRF) of proteins with mass spectrometry (MS) is a widespread approach for assessing protein structure. Hydroxyl radicals react with a wide variety of protein side chains, and the ease with which radicals can be generated (by radiolysis or photolysis) has made the approach popular with many laboratories. As some side chains are less reactive and thus cannot be probed, additional specific and nonspecific labeling reagents have been introduced to extend the approach. At the same time, advances in liquid chromatography and MS approaches permit an examination of the labeling of individual residues, transforming the approach to high resolution. Lastly, advances in understanding of the chemistry of the approach have led to the determination of absolute protein topologies from HRF data. Overall, the technology can provide precise and accurate measures of side-chain solvent accessibility in a wide range of interesting and useful contexts for the study of protein structure and dynamics in both academia and industry.

Actin filaments-A target for redox regulation

Actin and its ability to polymerize into dynamic filaments is critical for the form and function of cells throughout the body. While multiple proteins have been characterized as affecting actin dynamics through noncovalent means, actin and its protein regulators are also susceptible to covalent modifications of their amino acid residues. In this regard, oxidation-reduction (Redox) intermediates have emerged as key modulators of the actin cytoskeleton with multiple different effects on cellular form and function. Here, we review work implicating Redox intermediates in post-translationally altering actin and discuss what is known regarding how these alterations affect the properties of actin. We also focus on two of the best characterized enzymatic sources of these Redox intermediates-the NADPH oxidase NOX and the flavoprotein monooxygenase MICAL-and detail how they have both been identified as altering actin, but share little similarity and employ different means to regulate actin dynamics. Finally, we discuss the role of these enzymes and redox signaling in regulating the actin cytoskeleton in vivo and highlight their importance for neuronal form and function in health and disease. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Quantitative mapping of protein structure by hydroxyl radical footprinting-mediated structural mass spectrometry: a protection factor analysis

Measurements from hydroxyl radical footprinting (HRF) provide rich information about the solvent accessibility of amino acid side chains of a protein. Traditional HRF data analyses focus on comparing the difference in the modification/footprinting rate of a specific site to infer structural changes across two protein states, e.g., between a free and ligand-bound state. However, the rate information itself is not fully used for the purpose of comparing different protein sites within a protein on an absolute scale. To provide such a cross-site comparison, we present a new, to our knowledge, data analysis algorithm to convert the measured footprinting rate constant to a protection factor (PF) by taking into account the known intrinsic reactivity of amino acid side chain. To examine the extent to which PFs can be used for structural interpretation, this PF analysis is applied to three model systems where radiolytic footprinting data are reported in the literature. By visualizing structures colored with the PF values for individual peptides, a rational view of the structural features of various protein sites regarding their solvent accessibility is revealed, where high-PF regions are buried and low-PF regions are more exposed to the solvent. Furthermore, a detailed analysis correlating solvent accessibility and local structural contacts for gelsolin shows a statistically significant agreement between PF values and various structure measures, demonstrating that the PFs derived from this PF analysis readily explain fundamental HRF rate measurements. We also tested this PF analysis on alternative, chemical-based HRF data, showing improved correlations of structural properties of a model protein barstar compared to examining HRF rate data alone. Together, this PF analysis not only permits a novel, to our knowledge, approach of mapping protein structures by using footprinting data, but also elevates the use of HRF measurements from a qualitative, cross-state comparison to a quantitative, cross-site assessment of protein structures in the context of individual conformational states of interest.

Multiscale impact of nucleotides and cations on the conformational equilibrium, elasticity and rheology of actin filaments and crosslinked networks

Cells are able to respond to mechanical forces and deformations. The actin cytoskeleton, a highly dynamic scaffolding structure, plays an important role in cell mechano-sensing. Thus, understanding rheological behaviors of the actin cytoskeleton is critical for delineating mechanical behaviors of cells. The actin cytoskeleton consists of interconnected actin filaments (F-actin) that form via self-assembly of actin monomers. It has been shown that molecular changes of the monomer subunits impact the rigidity of F-actin. However, it remains inconclusive whether or not the molecular changes can propagate to the network level and thus alter the rheological properties of actin networks. Here, we focus on how cation binding and nucleotide state tune the molecular conformation and rigidity of F-actin and a representative rheological behavior of actin networks, strain-stiffening. We employ a multiscale approach by combining established computational techniques: molecular dynamics, normal mode analysis and Brownian dynamics. Our findings indicate that different combinations of nucleotide (ATP, ADP or ADP-Pi) and cation [Formula: see text] or [Formula: see text] at one or multiple sites) binding change the molecular conformation of F-actin by varying inter- and intra-strand interactions which bridge adjacent subunits between and within F-actin helical strands. This is reflected in the rigidity of actin filaments against bending and stretching. We found that differences in extension and bending rigidity of F-actin induced by cation binding to the low-, intermediate- and high-affinity sites vary the strain-stiffening response of actin networks crosslinked by rigid crosslinkers, such as scruin, whereas they minimally impact the strain-stiffening response when compliant crosslinkers, such as filamin A or [Formula: see text]-actinin, are used.

MICAL, the flavoenzyme participating in cytoskeleton dynamics

MICAL (from the Molecule Interacting with CasL) indicates a family of recently discovered cytosolic, multidomain proteins, which uniquely couple an N-terminal FAD-containing monooxygenase-like domain to typical calponine homology, LIM and coiled-coil protein-interaction modules. Genetic and cell biology approaches have demonstrated an essential role of the catalytic activity of the monooxygenase-like domain in transducing the signal initiated by semaphorins interaction with their plexin receptors, which results in local actin cytoskeleton disassembly as part of fundamental processes that include differentiation, migration and cell-cell contacts in neuronal and non-neuronal cell types. This review focuses on the structure-function relations of the MICAL monooxygenase-like domain as they are emerging from the available in vitro studies on mouse, human and Drosophila MICAL forms that demonstrated a NADPH-dependent actin depolymerizing activity of MICAL. With Drosophila MICAL forms, actin depolymerization was demonstrated to be associated to conversion of Met44 to methionine sulfone through a postulated hydroxylating reaction. Arguments supporting the concept that MICAL effect on F-actin may be reversible will be discussed.

Post-translational modification and regulation of actin

Many of the best-studied actin regulatory proteins use non-covalent means to modulate the properties of actin. Yet, actin is also susceptible to covalent modifications of its amino acids. Recent work is increasingly revealing that actin processing and its covalent modifications regulate important cellular events. In addition, numerous pathogens express enzymes that specifically use actin as a substrate to regulate their hosts' cells. Actin post-translational alterations have been linked to different normal and disease processes and the effects associated with metabolic and environmental stressors. Herein, we highlight specific co-translational and post-translational modifications of actin and discuss the current understanding of the role that these modifications play in regulating actin.

Spontaneous structural changes in actin regulate G-F transformation

Transformations between G- (monomeric) and F-actin (polymeric) are important in cellular behaviors such as migration, cytokinesis, and morphing. In order to understand these transitions, we combined single-molecule Förster resonance energy transfer with total internal reflection fluorescence microscopy to examine conformational changes of individual actin protomers. We found that the protomers can take different conformational states and that the transition interval is in the range of hundreds of seconds. The distribution of these states was dependent on the environment, suggesting that actin undergoes spontaneous structural changes that accommodate itself to polymerization.

Direct redox regulation of F-actin assembly and disassembly by Mical

Different types of cell behavior, including growth, motility, and navigation, require actin proteins to assemble into filaments. Here, we describe a biochemical process that was able to disassemble actin filaments and limit their reassembly. Actin was a specific substrate of the multidomain oxidation-reduction enzyme, Mical, a poorly understood actin disassembly factor that directly responds to Semaphorin/Plexin extracellular repulsive cues. Actin filament subunits were directly modified by Mical on their conserved pointed-end, which is critical for filament assembly. Mical posttranslationally oxidized the methionine 44 residue within the D-loop of actin, simultaneously severing filaments and decreasing polymerization. This mechanism underlying actin cytoskeletal collapse may have broad physiological and pathological ramifications.

Myosin binding surface on actin probed by hydroxyl radical footprinting and site-directed labels

Actin and myosin are the two main proteins required for cell motility and muscle contraction. The structure of their strongly bound complex-rigor state-is a key for delineating the functional mechanism of actomyosin motor. Current knowledge of that complex is based on models obtained from the docking of known atomic structures of actin and myosin subfragment 1 (S1; the head and neck region of myosin) into low-resolution electron microscopy electron density maps, which precludes atomic- or side-chain-level information. Here, we use radiolytic protein footprinting for global mapping of sites across the actin molecules that are impacted directly or allosterically by myosin binding to actin filaments. Fluorescence and electron paramagnetic resonance spectroscopies and cysteine actin mutants are used for independent, residue-specific probing of S1 effects on two structural elements of actin. We identify actin residue candidates involved in S1 binding and provide experimental evidence to discriminate between the regions of hydrophobic and electrostatic interactions. Focusing on the role of the DNase I binding loop (D-loop) and the W-loop residues of actin in their interactions with S1, we found that the emission properties of acrylodan and the mobility of electron paramagnetic resonance spin labels attached to cysteine mutants of these residues change strongly and in a residue-specific manner upon S1 binding, consistent with the recently proposed direct contacts of these loops with S1. As documented in this study, the direct and indirect changes on actin induced by myosin are more extensive than known until now and attest to the importance of actin dynamics to actomyosin function.

Visualizing water molecules in transmembrane proteins using radiolytic labeling methods

Essential to cells and their organelles, water is both shuttled to where it is needed and trapped within cellular compartments and structures. Moreover, ordered waters within protein structures often colocalize with strategically placed polar or charged groups critical for protein function, yet it is unclear if these ordered water molecules provide structural stabilization, mediate conformational changes in signaling, neutralize charged residues, or carry out a combination of all these functions. Structures of many integral membrane proteins, including G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs), reveal the presence of ordered water molecules that may act like prosthetic groups in a manner quite unlike bulk water. Identification of "ordered" waters within a crystalline protein structure requires sufficient occupancy of water to enable its detection in the protein's X-ray diffraction pattern, and thus, the observed waters likely represent a subset of tightly bound functional waters. In this review, we highlight recent studies that suggest the structures of ordered waters within GPCRs are as conserved (and thus as important) as conserved side chains. In addition, methods of radiolysis, coupled to structural mass spectrometry (protein footprinting), reveal dynamic changes in water structure that mediate transmembrane signaling. The idea of water as a prosthetic group mediating chemical reaction dynamics is not new in fields such as catalysis. However, the concept of water as a mediator of conformational dynamics in signaling is just emerging, because of advances in both crystallographic structure determination and new methods of protein footprinting. Although oil and water do not mix, understanding the roles of water is essential to understanding the function of membrane proteins.

New aspects of the spontaneous polymerization of actin in the presence of salts

The mechanism of salt-induced actin polymerization involves the energetically unfavorable nucleation step, followed by filament elongation by the addition of monomers. The use of a bifunctional cross-linker, N,N'-(1,4-phenylene)dimaleimide, revealed rapid formation of the so-called lower dimers (LD) in which actin monomers are arranged in an antiparallel fashion. The filament elongation phase is characterized by a gradual LD decay and an increase in the yield of "upper dimers" (UD) characteristic of F-actin. Here we have used 90 degrees light scattering, electron microscopy, and N, N'-(1,4-phenylene)dimaleimide cross-linking to reinvestigate relationships between changes in filament morphology, LD decay, and increase in the yield of UD during filament growth in a wide range of conditions influencing the rate of the nucleation reaction. The results show irregularity and instability of filaments at early stages of polymerization under all conditions used, and suggest that an earlier documented coassembling of LD with monomeric actin contributes to the initial disordering of the filaments rather than to the nucleation of polymerization. The effects of the type of G-actin-bound divalent cation (Ca2+/Mg2+), nucleotide (ATP/ADP), and polymerizing salt on the relation between changes in filament morphology and progress in G-actin-to-F-actin transformation show that ligand-dependent alterations in G-actin conformation determine not only the nucleation rate but also the kinetics of ordering of the filament structure in the elongation phase. The time courses of changes in the yield of UD suggest that filament maturation involves cooperative propagation of "proper" interprotomer contacts. Acceleration of this process by the initially bound MgATP supports the view that the filament-destabilizing conformational changes triggered by ATP hydrolysis and Pi liberation during polymerization are constrained by the intermolecular contacts established between MgATP monomers prior to ATP hydrolysis. An important role of contacts involving the DNase-I-binding loop and the C-terminus of actin is proposed.

Electronically activated actin protein polymerization and alignment

Biological systems are the paragon of dynamic self-assembly, using a combination of spatially localized protein complexation, ion concentration, and protein modification to coordinate a diverse set of self-assembling components. Biomimetic materials based upon biologically inspired design principles or biological components have had some success at replicating these traits, but have difficulty capturing the dynamic aspects and diversity of biological self-assembly. Here, we demonstrate that the polymerization of ion-sensitive proteins can be dynamically regulated using electronically enhanced ion mixing and monomer concentration. Initially, the global activity of the cytoskeletal protein actin is inhibited using a low-ionic strength buffer that minimizes ion complexation and protein-protein interactions. Nucleation and growth of actin filaments are then triggered by a low-frequency AC voltage, which causes local enhancement of the actin monomer concentration and mixing with Mg(2+). The location and extent of polymerization are governed by the voltage and frequency, producing highly ordered structures unprecedented in bulk experiments. Polymerization rate and filament orientation could be independently controlled using a combination of low-frequency (approximately 100 Hz) and high frequency (1 MHz) AC voltages, creating a range of macromolecular architectures from network hydrogel microparticles to highly aligned arrays of actin filaments with approximately 750 nm periodicity. Since a wide range of proteins are activated upon complexation with charged species, this approach may be generally applicable to a variety of biopolymers and proteins.

Mapping the cofilin binding site on yeast G-actin by chemical cross-linking

Cofilin is a major cytoskeletal protein that binds to both monomeric actin (G-actin) and polymeric actin (F-actin) and is involved in microfilament dynamics. Although an atomic structure of the G-actin-cofilin complex does not exist, models of the complex have been built using molecular dynamics simulations, structural homology considerations, and synchrotron radiolytic footprinting data. The hydrophobic cleft between actin subdomains 1 and 3 and, alternatively, the cleft between actin subdomains 1 and 2 have been proposed as possible high-affinity cofilin binding sites. In this study, the proposed binding of cofilin to the subdomain 1/subdomain 3 region on G-actin has been probed using site-directed mutagenesis, fluorescence labeling, and chemical cross-linking, with yeast actin mutants containing single reactive cysteines in the actin hydrophobic cleft and with cofilin mutants carrying reactive cysteines in the regions predicted to bind to G-actin. Mass spectrometry analysis of the cross-linked complex revealed that cysteine 345 in subdomain 1 of mutant G-actin was cross-linked to native cysteine 62 on cofilin. A cofilin mutant that carried a cysteine substitution in the alpha 3-helix (residue 95) formed a cross-link with residue 144 in actin subdomain 3. Distance constraints imposed by these cross-links provide experimental evidence for cofilin binding between actin subdomains 1 and 3 and fit a corresponding docking-based structure of the complex. The cross-linking of the N-terminal region of recombinant yeast cofilin to actin residues 346 and 374 with dithio-bis-maleimidoethane (12.4 A) and via disulfide bond formation was also documented. This set of cross-linking data confirms the important role of the N-terminal segment of cofilin in interactions with G-actin.

Integrating diverse data for structure determination of macromolecular assemblies

To understand the cell, we need to determine the macromolecular assembly structures, which may consist of tens to hundreds of components. First, we review the varied experimental data that characterize the assemblies at several levels of resolution. We then describe computational methods for generating the structures using these data. To maximize completeness, resolution, accuracy, precision, and efficiency of the structure determination, a computational approach is required that uses spatial information from a variety of experimental methods. We propose such an approach, defined by its three main components: a hierarchical representation of the assembly, a scoring function consisting of spatial restraints derived from experimental data, and an optimization method that generates structures consistent with the data. This approach is illustrated by determining the configuration of the 456 proteins in the nuclear pore complex (NPC) from baker's yeast. With these tools, we are poised to integrate structural information gathered at multiple levels of the biological hierarchy--from atoms to cells--into a common framework.

Modeling of protein binary complexes using structural mass spectrometry data

In this article, we describe a general approach to modeling the structure of binary protein complexes using structural mass spectrometry data combined with molecular docking. In the first step, hydroxyl radical mediated oxidative protein footprinting is used to identify residues that experience conformational reorganization due to binding or participate in the binding interface. In the second step, a three-dimensional atomic structure of the complex is derived by computational modeling. Homology modeling approaches are used to define the structures of the individual proteins if footprinting detects significant conformational reorganization as a function of complex formation. A three-dimensional model of the complex is constructed from these binary partners using the ClusPro program, which is composed of docking, energy filtering, and clustering steps. Footprinting data are used to incorporate constraints-positive and/or negative-in the docking step and are also used to decide the type of energy filter-electrostatics or desolvation-in the successive energy-filtering step. By using this approach, we examine the structure of a number of binary complexes of monomeric actin and compare the results to crystallographic data. Based on docking alone, a number of competing models with widely varying structures are observed, one of which is likely to agree with crystallographic data. When the docking steps are guided by footprinting data, accurate models emerge as top scoring. We demonstrate this method with the actin/gelsolin segment-1 complex. We also provide a structural model for the actin/cofilin complex using this approach which does not have a crystal or NMR structure.

Three-dimensional structure of cofilin bound to monomeric actin derived by structural mass spectrometry data

The cytoskeletal protein, actin, has its structure and function regulated by cofilin. In the absence of an atomic resolution structure for the actin/cofilin complex, the mechanism of cofilin regulation is poorly understood. Theoretical studies based on the similarities of cofilin and gelsolin segment 1 proposed the cleft between subdomains 1 and 3 in actin as the cofilin binding site. We used radiolytic protein footprinting with mass spectrometry and molecular modeling to provide an atomic model of how cofilin binds to monomeric actin. Footprinting data suggest that cofilin binds to the cleft between subdomains 1 and 2 in actin and that cofilin induces further closure of the actin nucleotide cleft. Site-specific fluorescence data confirm these results. The model identifies key ionic and hydrophobic interactions at the binding interface, including hydrogen-bonding between His-87 of actin to Ser-89 of cofilin that may control the charge dependence of cofilin binding. This model and its implications fill an especially important niche in the actin field, owing to the fact that ongoing crystallization efforts of the actin/cofilin complex have so far failed. This 3D binary complex structure is derived from a combination of solution footprinting data and computational approaches and outlines a general method for determining the structure of such complexes.

Biochemical implications of a three-dimensional model of monomeric actin bound to magnesium-chelated ATP

Actin structure is of intense interest in biology due to its importance in cell function and motility mediated by the spatial and temporal regulation of actin monomer-filament interconversions in a wide range of developmental and disease states. Despite this interest, the structure of many functionally important actin forms has eluded high-resolution analysis. Due to the propensity of actin monomers to assemble into filaments structural analysis of Mg-bound actin monomers has proven difficult, whereas high-resolution structures of actin with a diverse array of ligands that preclude polymerization have been quite successful. In this work, we provide a high-resolution structural model of the Mg-ATP-actin monomer using a combination of computational methods and experimental footprinting data that we have previously published. The key conclusion of this study is that the structure of the nucleotide binding cleft defined by subdomains 2 and 4 is essentially closed, with specific contacts between two subdomains predicted by the data.

Visualizing Arp2/3 complex activation mediated by binding of ATP and WASp using structural mass spectrometry

Actin-related protein (Arp) 2/3 complex nucleates new branches in actin filaments playing a key role in controlling eukaryotic cell motility. This process is tightly regulated by activating factors: ATP and WASp-family proteins. However, the mechanism of activation remains largely hypothetical. We used radiolytic protein footprinting with mass spectrometry in solution to probe the effects of nucleotide- and WASp-binding on Arp2/3. These results represent two significant advances in such footprinting approaches. First, Arp2/3 is the most complex macromolecular assembly yet examined; second, only a few picomoles of Arp2/3 was required for individual experiments. In terms of structural biology of Arp 2/3, we find that ATP binding induces conformational changes within Arp2/3 complex in Arp3 (localized in peptide segments 5-18, 212-225, and 318-327) and Arp2 (within peptide segment 300-316). These data are consistent with nucleotide docking within the nucleotide clefts of the actin-related proteins promoting closure of the cleft of the Arp3 subunit. However, ATP binding does not induce conformational changes in the other Arp subunits. Arp2/3 complex binds to WASp within the C subdomain at residue Met 474 and within the A subdomain to Trp 500. Our data suggest a bivalent attachment of WASp to Arp3 (within peptides 162-191 and 318-329) and Arp2 (within peptides 66-80 and 87-97). WASp-dependent protections from oxidation within peptides 54-65 and 80-91 of Arp3 and in peptides 300-316 of Arp2 suggest domain rearrangements of Arp2 and Arp3 resulting in a closed conformational state consistent with an "actin-dimer" model for the active state.

Crystal structure of polymerization-competent actin

All actin crystal structures reported to date represent actin complexed or chemically modified with molecules that prevent its polymerization. Actin cleaved with ECP32 protease at a single site between Gly42 and Val43 is virtually non-polymerizable in the Ca-ATP bound form but remains polymerization-competent in the Mg-bound form. Here, a crystal structure of the true uncomplexed ECP32-cleaved actin (ECP-actin) solved to 1.9 A resolution is reported. In contrast to the much more open conformation of the ECP-actin's nucleotide binding cleft in solution, the crystal structure of uncomplexed ECP-actin contains actin in a typical closed conformation similar to the complexed actin structures. This unambiguously demonstrates that the overall structure of monomeric actin is not significantly affected by a multitude of actin-binding proteins and toxins. The invariance of actin crystal structures suggests that the salt and precipitants necessary for crystallization stabilize actin in only one of its possible conformations. The asymmetric unit cell contains a new type of antiparallel actin dimer that may correspond to the "lower dimer" implicated in F-actin nucleation and branching. In addition, symmetry-related actin-actin contacts form a head to tail dimer that is strikingly similar to the longitudinal dimer predicted by the Holmes F-actin model, including a rotation of the monomers relative to each other not observed previously in actin crystal structures.

RADIOLYTIC PROTEIN FOOTPRINTING WITH MASS SPECTROMETRY TO PROBE THE STRUCTURE OF MACROMOLECULAR COMPLEXES

Structural proteomics approaches using mass spectrometry are increasingly used in biology to examine the composition and structure of macromolecules. Hydroxyl radical-mediated protein footprinting using mass spectrometry has recently been developed to define structure, assembly, and conformational changes of macromolecules in solution based on measurements of reactivity of amino acid side chain groups with covalent modification reagents. Accurate measurements of side chain reactivity are achieved using quantitative liquid-chromatography-coupled mass spectrometry, whereas the side chain modification sites are identified using tandem mass spectrometry. In addition, the use of footprinting data in conjunction with computational modeling approaches is a powerful new method for testing and refining structural models of macromolecules and their complexes. In this review, we discuss the basic chemistry of hydroxyl radical reactions with peptides and proteins, highlight various approaches to map protein structure using radical oxidation methods, and describe state-of-the-art approaches to combine computational and footprinting data.

Photochemical surface mapping of C14S-Sml1p for constrained computational modeling of protein structure

Photochemically generated hydroxyl radicals were used to map solvent-exposed regions in the C14S mutant of the protein Sml1p, a regulator of the ribonuclease reductase enzyme Rnr1p in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. By using high-performance mass spectrometry to characterize the oxidized peptides created by the hydroxyl radical reactions, amino acid solvent-accessibility data for native and denatured C14S Sml1p that revealed a solvent-excluding tertiary structure in the native state were obtained. The data on solvent accessibilities of various amino acids within the protein were then utilized to evaluate the de novo computational models generated by the HMMSTR/Rosetta server. The top five models initially generated by the server all disagreed with both published nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) data and the solvent-accessibility data obtained in this study. A structural model adjusted to fit the previously reported NMR data satisfied most of the solvent-accessibility constraints. Through minor adjustment of the rotamers of two amino acid side chains for this latter structure, a model that not only provided a lower energy conformation but also completely satisfied previously reported data from NMR and tryptophan fluorescence measurements, in addition to the solvent-accessibility data presented here, was generated.

A structural perspective on protein-protein interactions

Structures of macromolecular complexes are necessary for a mechanistic description of biochemical and cellular processes. They can be solved by experimental methods, such as X-ray crystallography, NMR spectroscopy and electron microscopy, as well as by computational protein structure prediction, docking and bioinformatics. Recent advances and applications of these methods emphasize the need for hybrid approaches that combine a variety of data to achieve better efficiency, accuracy, resolution and completeness.

Data-driven docking for the study of biomolecular complexes

With the amount of genetic information available, a lot of attention has focused on systems biology, in particular biomolecular interactions. Considering the huge number of such interactions, and their often weak and transient nature, conventional experimental methods such as X-ray crystallography and NMR spectroscopy are not sufficient to gain structural insight into these. A wealth of biochemical and/or biophysical data can, however, readily be obtained for biomolecular complexes. Combining these data with docking (the process of modeling the 3D structure of a complex from its known constituents) should provide valuable structural information and complement the classical structural methods. In this review we discuss and illustrate the various sources of data that can be used to map interactions and their combination with docking methods to generate structural models of the complexes. Finally a perspective on the future of this kind of approach is given.

DNA Binding Provides a Molecular Strap Activating the Adenovirus Proteinase

Human adenovirus proteinase (AVP) requires two cofactors for maximal activity: pVIc, a peptide derived from the C terminus of adenovirus precursor protein pVI, and the viral DNA. Synchrotron protein footprinting was used to map the solvent accessible cofactor binding sites and to identify conformational changes associated with the binding of cofactors to AVP. The binding of pVIc alone or pVIc and DNA together to AVP triggered significant conformational changes adjacent to the active site cleft sandwiched between the two AVP subdomains. In addition, upon binding of DNA to AVP, it was observed that specific residues on each of the two major subdomains were significantly protected from hydroxyl radicals. Based on the locations of these protected side-chain residues and conserved aromatic and positively charged residues within AVP, a three-dimensional model of DNA binding was constructed. The model indicated that DNA binding can alter the relative orientation of the two AVP domains leading to the partial activation of AVP by DNA. In addition, both pVIc and DNA may independently alter the active site conformation as well as drive it cooperatively to fully activate AVP.

Radiolytic Modification of Basic Amino Acid Residues in Peptides: Probes for Examining Protein−Protein Interactions

Protein footprinting utilizing hydroxyl radicals coupled with mass spectrometry has become a powerful technique for mapping the solvent accessible surface of proteins and examining protein-protein interactions in solution. Hydroxyl radicals generated by radiolysis or chemical methods efficiently react with many amino acid residue side chains, including the aromatic and sulfur-containing residues along with proline and leucine, generating stable oxidation products that are valuable probes for examining protein structure. In this study, we examine the radiolytic oxidation chemistry of histidine, lysine, and arginine for comparison with their metal-catalyzed oxidation products. Model peptides containing arginine, histidine, and lysine were irradiated using white light from a synchrotron X-ray source or a cesium-137 gamma-ray source. The rates of oxidation and the radiolysis products were primarily characterized by electrospray mass spectrometry including tandem mass spectrometry. Arginine is very sensitive to radiolytic oxidation, giving rise to a characteristic product with a 43 Da mass reduction as a result of the loss of guanidino group and conversion to gamma-glutamyl semialdehyde, consistent with previous metal-catalyzed oxidation studies. Histidine was oxidized to generate a mixture of products with characteristic mass changes primarily involving rupture of and addition to the imidazole ring. Lysine was converted to hydroxylysine or carbonylysine by radiolysis. The development of methods to probe these residues due to their high frequency of occurrence, their typical presence on the protein surface, and their frequent participation in protein-protein interactions considerably extends the utility of protein footprinting.