Biphasic Ca2+-dependent switching in a calmodulin-IQ domain complex

CaM-dependent modulation of human CaV1.3 whole-cell and single-channel currents by C-terminal CaMKII phosphorylation site S1475

Phosphorylation enables rapid modulation of voltage-gated calcium channels (VGCC) in physiological and pathophysiological conditions. How phosphorylation modulates human CaV1.3 VGCC, however, is largely unexplored. We characterized modulation of CaV1.3 gating via S1475, the human equivalent of a phosphorylation site identified in the rat. S1475 is highly conserved in CaV1.3 but absent from all other high-voltage activating calcium channel types co-expressed with CaV1.3 in similar tissues. Further, it is located in the C-terminal EF-hand motif, which binds calmodulin (CaM). This is involved in calcium-dependent channel inactivation (CDI). We used amino acid exchanges that mimic either sustained phosphorylation (S1475D) or phosphorylation resistance (S1475A). Whole-cell and single-channel recordings of phosphorylation state imitating CaV1.3 variants in transiently transfected HEK-293 cells revealed functional relevance of S1475 in human CaV1.3. We obtained three main findings: (1) CaV1.3_S1475D, imitating sustained phosphorylation, displayed decreased current density, reduced CDI and (in-) activation kinetics shifted to more depolarized voltages compared with both wildtype CaV1.3 and the phosphorylation-resistant CaV1.3_S1475A variant. Corresponding to the decreased current density, we find a reduced open probability of CaV1.3_S1475D at the single-channel level. (2) Using CaM overexpression or depletion, we find that CaM is necessary for modulating CaV1.3 through S1475. (3) CaMKII activation led to CaV1.3_WT-current properties similar to those of CaV1.3_S1475D, but did not affect CaV1.3_S1475A, confirming that CaMKII modulates human CaV1.3 via S1475. Given the physiological and pathophysiological importance of CaV1.3, our findings on the S1475-mediated interplay of phosphorylation, CaM interaction and CDI provide hints for approaches on specific CaV1.3 modulation under physiological and pathophysiological conditions. KEY POINTS: Phosphorylation modulates activity of voltage-gated L-type calcium channels for specific cellular needs but is largely unexplored for human CaV1.3 channels. Here we report that S1475, a CaMKII phosphorylation site identified in rats, is functionally relevant in human CaV1.3. Imitating phosphorylation states at S1475 alters current density and inactivation in a calmodulin-dependent manner. In wildtype CaV1.3 but not in the phosphorylation-resistant variant S1475A, CaMKII activation elicits effects similar to constitutively mimicking phosphorylation at S1475. Our findings provide novel insights on the interplay of modulatory mechanisms of human CaV1.3 channels, and present a possible target for CaV1.3-specific gating modulation in physiological and pathophysiological conditions.

NaV1.2 EFL domain allosterically enhances Ca2+ binding to sites I and II of WT and pathogenic calmodulin mutants bound to the channel CTD

Neuronal voltage-gated sodium channel NaV1.2 C-terminal domain (CTD) binds calmodulin (CaM) constitutively at its IQ motif. A solution structure (6BUT) and other NMR evidence showed that the CaM N domain (CaMN) is structurally independent of the C-domain (CaMC) whether CaM is bound to the NaV1.2IQp (1,901-1,927) or NaV1.2CTD (1,777-1,937) with or without calcium. However, in the CaM + NaV1.2CTD complex, the Ca2+ affinity of CaMN was more favorable than in free CaM, while Ca2+ affinity for CaMC was weaker than in the CaM + NaV1.2IQp complex. The CTD EF-like (EFL) domain allosterically widened the energetic gap between CaM domains. Cardiomyopathy-associated CaM mutants (N53I(N54I), D95V(D96V), A102V(A103V), E104A(E105A), D129G(D130G), and F141L(F142L)) all bound the NaV1.2 IQ motif favorably under resting (apo) conditions and bound calcium normally at CaMN sites. However, only N53I and A102V bound calcium at CaMC sites at [Ca2+] < 100 μM. Thus, they are expected to respond like wild-type CaM to Ca2+ spikes in excitable cells.

Are Osteoclasts Mechanosensitive Cells?

Skeleton metabolism is a process in which osteoclasts constantly remove old bone and osteoblasts form new osteoid and induce mineralization; disruption of this balance may cause diseases. Osteoclasts play a key role in bone metabolism, as osteoclastogenesis marks the beginning of each bone remodeling cycle. As the only cell capable of bone resorption, osteoclasts are derived from the monocyte/macrophage hematopoietic precursors that terminally adhere to mineralized extracellular matrix, and they subsequently break down the extracellular compartment. Bone is generally considered the load-burdening tissue, bone homeostasis is critically affected by mechanical conductions, and the bone cells are mechanosensitive. The functions of various bone cells under mechanical forces such as chondrocytes and osteoblasts have been reported; however, the unique bone-resorbing osteoclasts are less studied. The oversuppression of osteoclasts in mechanical studies may be because of its complicated differentiation progress and flexible structure, which increases difficulty in targeting mechanical structures. This paper will focus on recent findings regarding osteoclasts and attempt to uncover proposed candidate mechanosensing structures in osteoclasts including podosome-associated complexes, gap junctions and transient receptor potential family (ion channels). We will additionally describe possible mechanotransduction signaling pathways including GTPase ras homologue family member A (RhoA), Yes-associated protein/transcriptional co-activator with PDZ-binding motif (TAZ), Ca²⁺ signaling and non-canonical Wnt signaling. According to numerous studies, evaluating the possible influence of various physical environments on osteoclastogenesis is conducive to the study of bone homeostasis.

Ca2+-saturated calmodulin binds tightly to the N-terminal domain of A-type fibroblast growth factor homologous factors

Voltage-gated sodium channels (Na_vs) are tightly regulated by multiple conserved auxiliary proteins, including the four fibroblast growth factor homologous factors (FGFs), which bind the Na_v EF-hand like domain (EFL), and calmodulin (CaM), a multifunctional messenger protein that binds the Na_V IQ motif. The EFL domain and IQ motif are contiguous regions of Na_V cytosolic C-terminal domains (CTD), placing CaM and FGF in close proximity. However, whether the FGFs and CaM act independently, directly associate, or operate through allosteric interactions to regulate channel function is unknown. Titrations monitored by steady-state fluorescence spectroscopy, structural studies with solution NMR, and computational modeling demonstrated for the first time that both domains of (Ca²⁺)₄-CaM (but not apo CaM) directly bind two sites in the N-terminal domain (NTD) of A-type FGF splice variants (FGF11A, FGF12A, FGF13A, and FGF14A) with high affinity. The weaker of the (Ca²⁺)₄-CaM-binding sites was known via electrophysiology to have a role in long-term inactivation of the channel but not known to bind CaM. FGF12A binding to a complex of CaM associated with a fragment of the Na_V1.2 CTD increased the Ca²⁺-binding affinity of both CaM domains, consistent with (Ca²⁺)₄-CaM interacting preferentially with its higher-affinity site in the FGF12A NTD. Thus, A-type FGFs can compete with Na_V IQ motifs for (Ca²⁺)₄-CaM. During spikes in the cytosolic Ca²⁺ concentration that accompany an action potential, CaM may translocate from the Na_V IQ motif to the FGF NTD, or the A-type FGF NTD may recruit a second molecule of CaM to the channel.

Evaluating Calmodulin-Protein Interactions by Rapid Photoactivated Cross-Linking in Live Cells Metabolically Labeled with Photo-Methionine

This work addresses the question of how the Ca²⁺ sensor protein calmodulin shapes cellular responses to Ca²⁺ signals. Proteins interacting with affinity tagged calmodulin were captured by rapid (t_1/2 ≈ 7 s) photoactivated cross-linking under basal conditions, after brief removal of extracellular Ca²⁺ and during a cytosolic [Ca²⁺] transient in cells metabolically labeled with a photoreactive methionine analog. Tagged adducts were stringently enriched, and captured proteins were identified and quantified by LC-MS/MS. A set of 489 proteins including 27 known calmodulin interactors was derived. A threshold for fractional capture was applied to define a high specificity group of 170 proteins, including 22 known interactors, and a low specificity group of 319 proteins. Capture of ∼60% of the high specificity group was affected by manipulations of Ca²⁺, compared with ∼20% of the low specificity group. This suggests that the former is likely to contain novel interactors of physiological significance. The capture of 29 proteins, nearly all high specificity, was decreased by the removal of extracellular Ca²⁺, although this does not affect cytosolic [Ca²⁺]. Capture of half of these was unaffected by the cytosolic [Ca²⁺] transient, consistent with high local [Ca²⁺]. These proteins are hypothesized to reside in or near microdomains of high [Ca²⁺] supported by the Ca²⁺ influx.

Single-Channel Resolution of the Interaction between C-Terminal CaV1.3 Isoforms and Calmodulin

Voltage-dependent calcium (Ca_V) 1.3 channels are involved in the control of cellular excitability and pacemaking in neuronal, cardiac, and sensory cells. Various proteins interact with the alternatively spliced channel C-terminus regulating gating of Ca_V1.3 channels. Binding of a regulatory calcium-binding protein calmodulin (CaM) to the proximal C-terminus leads to the boosting of channel activity and promotes calcium-dependent inactivation (CDI). The C-terminal modulator domain (CTM) of Ca_V1.3 channels can interfere with the CaM binding, thereby inhibiting channel activity and CDI. Here, we compared single-channel gating behavior of two natural Ca_V1.3 splice isoforms: the long Ca_V1.3₄₂ with the full-length CTM and the short Ca_V1.3_42A with the C-terminus truncated before the CTM. We found that CaM regulation of Ca_V1.3 channels is dynamic on a minute timescale. We observed that at equilibrium, single Ca_V1.3₄₂ channels occasionally switched from low to high open probability, which perhaps reflects occasional binding of CaM despite the presence of CTM. Similarly, when the amount of the available CaM in the cell was reduced, the short Ca_V1.3_42A isoform showed patterns of the low channel activity. CDI also underwent periodic changes with corresponding kinetics in both isoforms. Our results suggest that the competition between CTM and CaM is influenced by calcium, allowing further fine-tuning of Ca_V1.3 channel activity for particular cellular needs.

Improved calcium sensor GCaMP-X overcomes the calcium channel perturbations induced by the calmodulin in GCaMP

GCaMP, one popular type of genetically-encoded Ca²⁺ indicator, has been associated with various side-effects. Here we unveil the intrinsic problem prevailing over different versions and applications, showing that GCaMP containing CaM (calmodulin) interferes with both gating and signaling of L-type calcium channels (Ca_V1). GCaMP acts as an impaired apoCaM and Ca²⁺/CaM, both critical to Ca_V1, which disrupts Ca²⁺ dynamics and gene expression. We then design and implement GCaMP-X, by incorporating an extra apoCaM-binding motif, effectively protecting Ca_V1-dependent excitation–transcription coupling from perturbations. GCaMP-X resolves the problems of detrimental nuclear accumulation, acute and chronic Ca²⁺ dysregulation, and aberrant transcription signaling and cell morphogenesis, while still demonstrating excellent Ca²⁺-sensing characteristics partly inherited from GCaMP. In summary, CaM/Ca_V1 gating and signaling mechanisms are elucidated for GCaMP side-effects, while allowing the development of GCaMP-X to appropriately monitor cytosolic, submembrane or nuclear Ca²⁺, which is also expected to guide the future design of CaM-based molecular tools.

The popular genetically-encoded Ca²⁺ indicator, GCaMP, has several side-effects. Here the authors show that GCaMP containing CaM interferes with gating and signaling of L-type calcium channels, which disrupts Ca²⁺ dynamics and gene expression, and develop GCaMP-X to overcome these limitations.

Direct visualization of interaction between calmodulin and connexin45

Calmodulin (CaM) is an intracellular Ca²⁺ transducer involved in numerous activities in a broad Ca²⁺ signaling network. Previous studies have suggested that the Ca²⁺/CaM complex may participate in gap junction regulation via interaction with putative CaM-binding motifs in connexins; however, evidence of direct interactions between CaM and connexins has remained elusive to date due to challenges related to the study of membrane proteins. Here, we report the first direct interaction of CaM with Cx45 (connexin45) of γ-family in living cells under physiological conditions by monitoring bioluminescence resonance energy transfer. The interaction between CaM and Cx45 in cells is strongly dependent on intracellular Ca²⁺ concentration and can be blocked by the CaM inhibitor, N-(6-aminohexyl)-5-chloro-1-naphthalenesulfonamide hydrochloride (W7). We further reveal a CaM-binding site at the cytosolic loop (residues 164-186) of Cx45 using a peptide model. The strong binding (K_d ∼ 5 nM) observed between CaM and Cx45 peptide, monitored by fluorescence-labeled CaM, is found to be Ca²⁺-dependent. Furthermore, high-resolution nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy reveals that CaM and Cx45 peptide binding leads to global chemical shift changes of ¹⁵N-labeled CaM, but does not alter the size of the structure. Observations involving both N- and C-domains of CaM to interact with the Cx45 peptide differ from the embraced interaction with Cx50 from another connexin family. Such interaction further increases Ca²⁺ sensitivity of CaM, especially at the N-terminal domain. Results of the present study suggest that both helicity and the interaction mode of the cytosolic loop are likely to contribute to CaM's modulation of connexins.

Calcium triggers reversal of calmodulin on nested anti-parallel sites in the IQ motif of the neuronal voltage-dependent sodium channel NaV1.2

Several members of the voltage-gated sodium channel family are regulated by calmodulin (CaM) and ionic calcium. The neuronal voltage-gated sodium channel NaV1.2 contains binding sites for both apo (calcium-depleted) and calcium-saturated CaM. We have determined equilibrium dissociation constants for rat NaV1.2 IQ motif [IQRAYRRYLLK] binding to apo CaM (~3nM) and (Ca2+)4-CaM (~85nM), showing that apo CaM binding is favored by 30-fold. For both apo and (Ca2+)4-CaM, NMR demonstrated that NaV1.2 IQ motif peptide (NaV1.2IQp) exclusively made contacts with C-domain residues of CaM (CaMC). To understand how calcium triggers conformational change at the CaM-IQ interface, we determined a solution structure (2M5E.pdb) of (Ca2+)2-CaMC bound to NaV1.2IQp. The polarity of (Ca2+)2-CaMC relative to the IQ motif was opposite to that seen in apo CaMC-Nav1.2IQp (2KXW), revealing that CaMC recognizes nested, anti-parallel sites in Nav1.2IQp. Reversal of CaM may require transient release from the IQ motif during calcium binding, and facilitate a re-orientation of CaMN allowing interactions with non-IQ NaV1.2 residues or auxiliary regulatory proteins interacting in the vicinity of the IQ motif.

Cooperative and acute inhibition by multiple C-terminal motifs of L-type Ca2+ channels

Inhibitions and antagonists of L-type Ca²⁺ channels are important to both research and therapeutics. Here, we report C-terminus mediated inhibition (CMI) for Ca_V1.3 that multiple motifs coordinate to tune down Ca²⁺ current and Ca²⁺ influx toward the lower limits determined by end-stage CDI (Ca²⁺-dependent inactivation). Among IQ_V (preIQ₃-IQ domain), PCRD and DCRD (proximal or distal C-terminal regulatory domain), spatial closeness of any two modules, e.g., by constitutive fusion, facilitates the trio to form the complex, compete against calmodulin, and alter the gating. Acute CMI by rapamycin-inducible heterodimerization helps reconcile the concurrent activation/inactivation attenuations to ensure Ca²⁺ influx is reduced, in that Ca²⁺ current activated by depolarization is potently (~65%) inhibited at the peak (full activation), but not later on (end-stage inactivation, ~300 ms). Meanwhile, CMI provides a new paradigm to develop Ca_V1 inhibitors, the therapeutic potential of which is implied by computational modeling of Ca_V1.3 dysregulations related to Parkinson’s disease.

DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.21989.001

All cells need calcium ions to stay healthy, but having too many calcium ions can interfere with important processes in the cell and cause severe problems. Proteins known as calcium channels on the cell surface allow calcium ions to flow into the cell from the surrounding environment. Cells carefully control the opening and closing of these channels to prevent too many calcium ions entering the cell at once. Ca_V1.3 channels are a type of calcium channel that are important for the heart and brain to work properly. Defects in Ca_V1.3 channels can lead to irregular heart rhythms and neurodegenerative diseases such as Parkinson’s disease.

Studies have shown that part of the Ca_V1.3 channel that sits inside the cell – known as the “tail” – responds to increases in the levels of calcium ions inside the cell by closing the channel. The tail region of Ca_V1.3 contains three modules, but how these modules work together to regulate channel activity is not clear.

Liu, Yang et al. investigated whether the three modules need to be physically connected to each other in the channel protein. For the experiments, several versions of the protein were constructed with different combinations of tail modules being directly linked as part of the same molecule or present as separate molecules. When any two modules were directly linked, the third module could bind to them and this was enough to close the Ca_V1.3 channel. However, the channel did not close if the modules were totally isolated from each other as three separate molecules.

Certain types of neurons in the brain produce electrical signals in a rhythmic fashion that depends on Ca_V1.3 channels. In Parkinson’s disease, increased movement of calcium ions into these neurons via Ca_V1.3 channels interferes with the rhythms of the signals and can cause these cells to die. Liu, Yang et al. performed computer simulations to analyse the effects of closing Ca_V1.3 channels in these neurons. The results suggest that this can restore normal rhythms of electrical activity and prevent these cells from dying.

The next step is to understand the molecular details of how the tail region closes Ca_V1.3 channels and its role in healthy and diseased cells. This may lead to new ways to block Ca_V1.3 channels in different types of diseases.

DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.21989.002

Control of cell mechanics by RhoA and calcium fluxes during epithelial scattering

Epithelial tissues use adherens junctions to maintain tight interactions and coordinate cellular activities. Adherens junctions are remodeled during epithelial morphogenesis, including instances of epithelial-mesenchymal transition, or EMT, wherein individual cells detach from the tissue and migrate as individual cells. EMT has been recapitulated by growth factor induction of epithelial scattering in cell culture. In culture systems, cells undergo a highly reproducible series of cell morphology changes, most notably cell spreading followed by cellular compaction and cell migration. These morphology changes are accompanied by striking actin rearrangements. The current evidence suggests that global changes in actomyosin-based cellular contractility, first a loss of contractility during spreading and its activation during cell compaction, are the main drivers of epithelial scattering. In this review, we focus on how spreading and contractility might be controlled during epithelial scattering. While we propose a central role for RhoA, which is well known to control cellular contractility in multiple systems and whose role in epithelial scattering is well accepted, we suggest potential roles for additional cellular systems whose role in epithelial cell biology has been less well documented. In particular, we propose critical roles for vesicle recycling, calcium channels, and calcium-dependent kinases.

Preassociated apocalmodulin mediates Ca2+-dependent sensitization of activation and inactivation of TMEM16A/16B Ca2+-gated Cl- channels

Ca(2+)-activated chloride currents carried via transmembrane proteins TMEM16A and TMEM16B regulate diverse processes including mucus secretion, neuronal excitability, smooth muscle contraction, olfactory signal transduction, and cell proliferation. Understanding how TMEM16A/16B are regulated by Ca(2+) is critical for defining their (patho)/physiological roles and for rationally targeting them therapeutically. Here, using a bioengineering approach--channel inactivation induced by membrane-tethering of an associated protein (ChIMP)--we discovered that Ca(2+)-free calmodulin (apoCaM) is preassociated with TMEM16A/16B channel complexes. The resident apoCaM mediates two distinct Ca(2+)-dependent effects on TMEM16A, as revealed by expression of dominant-negative CaM1234. These effects are Ca(2+)-dependent sensitization of activation (CDSA) and Ca(2+)-dependent inactivation (CDI). CDI and CDSA are independently mediated by the N and C lobes of CaM, respectively. TMEM16A alternative splicing provides a mechanism for tuning apoCaM effects. Channels lacking splice segment b selectively lost CDI, and segment a is necessary for apoCaM preassociation with TMEM16A. The results reveal multidimensional regulation of TMEM16A/16B by preassociated apoCaM and introduce ChIMP as a versatile tool to probe the macromolecular complex and function of Ca(2+)-activated chloride channels.

Calcineurin determines toxic versus beneficial responses to α-synuclein

Calcineurin (CN) is a highly conserved Ca(2+)-calmodulin (CaM)-dependent phosphatase that senses Ca(2+) concentrations and transduces that information into cellular responses. Ca(2+) homeostasis is disrupted by α-synuclein (α-syn), a small lipid binding protein whose misfolding and accumulation is a pathological hallmark of several neurodegenerative diseases. We report that α-syn, from yeast to neurons, leads to sustained highly elevated levels of cytoplasmic Ca(2+), thereby activating a CaM-CN cascade that engages substrates that result in toxicity. Surprisingly, complete inhibition of CN also results in toxicity. Limiting the availability of CaM shifts CN's spectrum of substrates toward protective pathways. Modulating CN or CN's substrates with highly selective genetic and pharmacological tools (FK506) does the same. FK506 crosses the blood brain barrier, is well tolerated in humans, and is active in neurons and glia. Thus, a tunable response to CN, which has been conserved for a billion years, can be targeted to rebalance the phosphatase's activities from toxic toward beneficial substrates. These findings have immediate therapeutic implications for synucleinopathies.

Selective modulation of coupled ryanodine receptors during microdomain activation of calcium/calmodulin-dependent kinase II in the dyadic cleft

RATIONALE

In ventricular myocytes of large mammals with low T-tubule density, a significant number of ryanodine receptors (RyRs) are not coupled to the sarcolemma; cardiac remodeling increases noncoupled RyRs.

OBJECTIVE

Our aim was to test the hypothesis that coupled and noncoupled RyRs have distinct microdomain-dependent modulation.

METHODS AND RESULTS

We studied single myocytes from pig left ventricle. The T-tubule network was analyzed in 3-dimension (3D) to measure distance to membrane of release sites. The rising phase of the Ca(2+) transient was correlated with proximity to the membrane (confocal imaging, whole-cell voltage-clamp, K5fluo-4 as Ca(2+) indicator). Ca(2+) sparks after stimulation were thus identified as resulting from coupled or noncoupled RyRs. We used high-frequency stimulation as a known activator of Ca(2+)/calmodulin-dependent kinase II. Spark frequency increased significantly more in coupled than in noncoupled RyRs. This specific modulation of coupled RyRs was abolished by the Ca(2+)/calmodulin-dependent kinase II blockers autocamtide-2-related inhibitory peptide and KN-93, but not by KN-92. Colocalization of Ca(2+)/calmodulin-dependent kinase II and RyR was not detectably different for coupled and noncoupled sites, but the F-actin disruptor cytochalasin D prevented the specific modulation of coupled RyRs. NADPH oxidase 2 inhibition by diphenyleneiodonium or apocynin, or global reactive oxygen species scavenging, also prevented coupled RyR modulation. During stimulated Ca(2+) transients, frequency-dependent increase of the rate of Ca(2+) rise was seen in coupled RyR regions only and abolished by autocamtide-2-related inhibitory peptide. After myocardial infarction, selective modulation of coupled RyR was lost.

CONCLUSIONS

Coupled RyRs have a distinct modulation by Ca(2+)/calmodulin-dependent kinase II and reactive oxygen species, dependent on an intact cytoskeleton and consistent with a local Ca(2+)/reactive oxygen species microdomain, and subject to modification with disease.

Visualizing CaMKII and CaM activity: a paradigm of compartmentalized signaling

Calcium (Ca(2+)) has long been recognized as a crucial intracellular messenger attaining stimuli-specific cellular outcomes via localized signaling. Ca(2+)-binding proteins, such as calmodulin (CaM), and its target proteins are key to the segregation and refinement of these Ca(2+)-dependent signaling events. This review not only summarizes the recent technological advances enabling the study of subcellular Ca(2+)-CaM and Ca(2+)-CaM-dependent protein kinase (CaMKII) signaling events but also highlights the outstanding challenges in the field.

NMR studies of the interaction of calmodulin with IQ motif peptides

Calmodulin (CaM) is a ubiquitous EF-hand calcium sensor protein that transduces calcium signals in a wide range of signaling pathways. Structural analysis of complexes with peptides has provided valuable insights into the remarkable variety in the way in which CaM interacts with and activates its targets. Among these various targets, CaM has been shown to be an essential component of a calcium-sensing regulatory apparatus for a number of voltage-gated ion channels. NMR spectroscopy has proven to be a powerful tool for the structural characterization of CaM-peptide complexes, in particular for the study of IQ motifs, which bind CaM at the basal level of calcium in cells and thereby serve to localize CaM to its sites of action. We describe here methods for the robust expression and purification of CaM isotopically enriched for NMR analysis, as well as for the complex of CaM with a peptide derived from the IQ motif sequence of the human cardiac sodium channel Na(V)1.5. We also describe methods for NMR analysis of titrations of CaM with IQ motif peptides to determine the stoichiometry of the complex and to identify the residues at the binding interface.

In calmodulin-IQ domain complexes, the Ca(2+)-free and Ca(2+)-bound forms of the calmodulin C-lobe direct the N-lobe to different binding sites

We have investigated the roles played by the calmodulin (CaM) N- and C-lobes in establishing the conformations of CaM-IQ domain complexes in different Ca(2+)-free and Ca(2+)-bound states. Our results indicate a dominant role for the C-lobe in these complexes. When the C-lobe is Ca(2+)-free, it directs the N-lobe to a binding site within the IQ domain consensus sequence. It appears that the N-lobe must be Ca(2+)-free to interact productively with this site. When the C-lobe is Ca(2+)-bound, it directs the N-lobe to a site upstream of the consensus sequence, and it appears that the N-lobe must be Ca(2+)-bound to interact productively with this site. A model for switching in CaM-IQ domain complexes is presented in which the N-lobe adopts bound and extended positions that depend on the status of the Ca(2+)-binding sites in each CaM lobe and the compositions of the two N-lobe binding sites. Ca(2+)-dependent changes in the conformation of the bound C-lobe that appear to be responsible for directed N-lobe binding are also identified. Changes in the equilibria between extended and bound N-lobe positions may control bridging interactions in which the extended N-lobe is bound to another CaM-binding domain. Ca(2+)-dependent control of bridging interactions with CaM has been implicated in the regulation of ion channel and unconventional myosin activities.

Calmodulin binding proteins provide domains of local Ca2+ signaling in cardiac myocytes

Calmodulin (CaM) acts as a common Ca(2+) sensor for many signaling pathways, transducing local Ca(2+) signals into specific cellular outcomes. Many of CaM's signaling functions can be explained by its unique biochemical properties, including high and low affinity Ca(2+)-binding sites with slow and fast kinetics, respectively. CaM is expected to have a limited spatial range of action, emphasizing its role in local Ca(2+) signaling. Interactions with target proteins further fine-tune CaM signal transduction. Here, we focus on only three specific cellular targets for CaM signaling in cardiac myocytes: the L-type Ca(2+) channel, the ryanodine receptor, and the IP(3) receptor. We elaborate a working hypothesis that each channel is regulated by two distinct functional populations of CaM: dedicated CaM and promiscuous CaM. Dedicated CaM is typically tethered to each channel and directly regulates channel activity. In addition, a local pool of promiscuous CaM appears poised to sense local Ca(2+) signals and trigger downstream pathways such as Ca(2+)/CaM dependent-protein kinase II and calcineurin. Understanding how promiscuous CaM coordinates multiple distinct signaling pathways remains a challenge, but is aided by the use of mathematical modeling and a new generation of fluorescent biosensors. This article is part of a special issue entitled "Local Signaling in Myocytes."

Insights into modulation of calcium signaling by magnesium in calmodulin, troponin C and related EF-hand proteins

The Ca(2+)-binding helix-loop-helix structural motif called "EF-hand" is a common building block of a large family of proteins that function as intracellular Ca(2+)-receptors. These proteins respond specifically to micromolar concentrations of Ca(2+) in the presence of ~1000-fold excess of the chemically similar divalent cation Mg(2+). The intracellular free Mg(2+) concentration is tightly controlled in a narrow range of 0.5-1.0mM, which at the resting Ca(2+) levels is sufficient to fully or partially saturate the Ca(2+)-binding sites of many EF-hand proteins. Thus, to convey Ca(2+) signals, EF-hand proteins must respond differently to Ca(2+) than to Mg(2+). In this review the structural aspects of Mg(2+) binding to EF-hand proteins are considered and interpreted in light of the recently proposed two-step Ca(2+)-binding mechanism (Grabarek, Z., J. Mol. Biol., 2005, 346, 1351). It is proposed that, due to stereochemical constraints imposed by the two-EF-hand domain structure, the smaller Mg(2+) ion cannot engage the ligands of an EF-hand in the same way as Ca(2+) and defaults to stabilizing the apo-like conformation of the EF-hand. It is proposed that Mg(2+) plays an active role in the Ca(2+)-dependent regulation of cellular processes by stabilizing the "off state" of some EF-hand proteins, thereby facilitating switching off their respective target enzymes at the resting Ca(2+) levels. Therefore, some pathological conditions attributed to Mg(2+) deficiency might be related to excessive activation of underlying Ca(2+)-regulated cellular processes. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: 11th European Symposium on Calcium.

Allosteric effects of the antipsychotic drug trifluoperazine on the energetics of calcium binding by calmodulin

Trifluoperazine (TFP; Stelazine) is an antagonist of calmodulin (CaM), an essential regulator of calcium-dependent signal transduction. Reports differ regarding whether, or where, TFP binds to apo CaM. Three crystallographic structures (1CTR, 1A29, and 1LIN) show TFP bound to (Ca(2+))(4)-CaM in ratios of 1, 2, or 4 TFP per CaM. In all of these, CaM domains adopt the "open" conformation seen in CaM-kinase complexes having increased calcium affinity. Most reports suggest TFP also increases calcium affinity of CaM. To compare TFP binding to apo CaM and (Ca(2+))(4)-CaM and explore differential effects on the N- and C-domains of CaM, stoichiometric TFP titrations of CaM were monitored by (15)N-HSQC NMR. Two TFP bound to apo CaM, whereas four bound to (Ca(2+))(4)-CaM. In both cases, the preferred site was in the C-domain. During the titrations, biphasic responses for some resonances suggested intersite interactions. TFP-binding sites in apo CaM appeared distinct from those in (Ca(2+))(4)-CaM. In equilibrium calcium titrations at defined ratios of TFP:CaM, TFP reduced calcium affinity at most levels tested; this is similar to the effect of many IQ-motifs on CaM. However, at the highest level tested, TFP raised the calcium affinity of the N-domain of CaM. A model of conformational switching is proposed to explain how TFP can exert opposing allosteric effects on calcium affinity by binding to different sites in the "closed," "semi-open," and "open" domains of CaM. In physiological processes, apo CaM, as well as (Ca(2+))(4)-CaM, needs to be considered a potential target of drug action.

Enzyme-inhibitor-like tuning of Ca(2+) channel connectivity with calmodulin

Ca²⁺ channels and calmodulin are two prominent signaling hubs¹ that synergistically impact functions as diverse as cardiac excitability², synaptic plasticity³, and gene transcription⁴. It is thereby fitting that these hubs are in some sense coordinated, as the opening of Ca_V1-2 Ca²⁺ channels are regulated by a single calmodulin (CaM) constitutively complexed with channels⁵. The Ca²⁺-free form of CaM (apoCaM) is already preassociated with the IQ domain on the channel carboxy terminus, and subsequent Ca²⁺ binding to this ‘resident’ CaM drives conformational changes that then trigger regulation of channel opening⁶. Another potential avenue for channel-CaM coordination could arise from the absence of Ca²⁺ regulation in channels lacking a preassociated CaM^6,7. Natural fluctuations in CaM levels might then influence the fraction of regulatable channels, and thereby the overall strength of Ca²⁺ feedback. However, the prevailing view has been that the ultra-strong affinity of channels for apoCaM ensures their saturation with CaM⁸, yielding a significant form of concentration independence between Ca²⁺ channels and CaM. Here, we reveal significant exceptions to this autonomy, by combining electrophysiology to characterize channel regulation, with optical FRET sensor determination of free apoCaM concentration in live cells⁹. This approach translates quantitative CaM biochemistry from the traditional test-tube context, into the realm of functioning holochannels within intact cells. From this perspective, we find that long splice forms of Ca_V1.3 and Ca_V1.4 channels include a distal carboxy tail^10-12 that resembles an enzyme competitive inhibitor, which retunes channel affinity for apoCaM so that natural CaM variations affect the strength of Ca²⁺ feedback modulation. Given the ubiquity of these channels^13,14, the connection between ambient CaM levels and Ca²⁺ entry via channels is broadly significant for Ca²⁺ homeostasis. Strategies like ours promise key advances for the in situ analysis of signaling molecules resistant to in vitro reconstitution, such as Ca²⁺ channels.

Oligomeric structure of brain abundant proteins GAP-43 and BASP1

Brain abundant proteins GAP-43 and BASP1 participate in the regulation of actin cytoskeleton dynamics in neuronal axon terminals. The proposed mechanism suggests that the proteins sequester phosphatidylinositol-4,5-diphosphate (PIP(2)) in the inner leaflet of the plasma membrane. We found that model anionic phospholipid membranes in the form of liposomes induce rapid oligomerization of GAP-43 and BASP1 proteins. Multiply charged phosphoinositides produced the most potent effect. Anionic detergent sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) at submicellar concentration stimulated formation of similar oligomers in solution. BASP1, but not GAP-43, also formed oligomers at sufficiently high concentration in the absence of lipids and SDS. Electron microscopy study demonstrated that the oligomers have disk-shaped or annular structure of 10-30nm in diameter. BASP1 also formed higher aggregates of linear rod-like structure, with average length of about 100nm. In outward appearance, the oligomers and linear aggregates are reminiscent of oligomers and protofibrils of amyloid proteins. Both the synthetic N-terminal peptide GAP-43(1-40) and the brain-derived fragment GAP-43-3 preserved the ability to oligomerize under the action of acidic phospholipids and SDS. On the contrary, BASP1 fragment truncated by the short N-terminal myristoylated peptide was unable to form oligomers. GAP-43 and BASP1 oligomerization can be regulated by calmodulin, which disrupts the oligomers and displaces the proteins from the membrane. We suggest that in vivo, the role of membrane-bound GAP-43 and BASP1 oligomers consists in accumulation of PIP(2) in functional clusters, which become accessible for other PIP(2)-binding proteins after dissociation of the oligomers.

Variations at the semiconserved glycine in the IQ domain consensus sequence have a major impact on Ca2+-dependent switching in calmodulin-IQ domain complexes

We have replaced the semiconserved Gly in the IQ domain consensus sequence with Ala, Arg, or Met in a reference sequence and determined how this affects its complexes with calmodulin. The K(d) for the Ca(2+)-free reference complex is 2.4 +/- 0.3 microM. The Ala and Arg replacements increase this to 5.4 +/- 0.4 and 6.2 +/- 0.5 microM, while the Met increases it to 26.4 +/- 2.5 microM. When Ca(2+) is bound to both calmodulin lobes, the K(d) for the reference complex is not significantly affected, but the K(d) for the Ala variant decreases to 0.9 +/- 0.04 microM, and the values for the Arg and Met variants decrease to 0.4 +/- 0.03 microM. Using mutant calmodulins, we defined the effect of Ca(2+) binding to each lobe, with the C-terminal preceding the N-terminal (C-->N) or vice versa (N-->C). In the C-->N order the first step increases the reference K(d) approximately 5-fold, while it decreases the values for the variants approximately 2- to approximately 10-fold. The second step decreases the K(d) values for the all of the complexes approximately 5-fold, suggesting that the N-terminal lobe does not interact with the semiconserved position after the first step. In the N-->C order the first step increases the K(d) values for the reference complex and Met and Ala variants approximately 15- to approximately 200-fold but does not affect the value for the Arg variant. The second step decreases the K(d) values for the reference and Arg variant approximately 10- and approximately 15-fold and the Ala and Met variants approximately 2000-fold. Thus, both steps in the N-->C order are sensitive to variations at the semiconserved position, while only the first is in the C-->N order. Due to energy coupling, this order is followed under equilibrium conditions.

The IQ domains in neuromodulin and PEP19 represent two major functional classes

The affinities of Ca(2+)-saturated and Ca(2+)-free calmodulin for a fluorescent reporter construct containing the PEP19 IQ domain differ by a factor of approximately 100, with K(d) values of 11.0 +/- 1.2 and 1128.4 +/- 176.5 muM, respectively, while the affinities of a reporter containing the neuromodulin IQ domain are essentially identical, with K(d) values of 2.9 +/- 0.3 and 2.4 +/- 0.3 muM, respectively. When Ca(2+) is bound only to the C-terminal pair of Ca(2+)-binding sites in calmodulin, the K(d) value for the PEP19 reporter complex is decreased approximately 5-fold, while the value for the neuromodulin reporter complex is increased by the same factor. When Ca(2+) is bound only to the N-terminal pair of Ca(2+)-binding sites, the K(d) value for the PEP19 reporter complex is unaffected, but the value for the complex with the neuromodulin reporter is increased approximately 12-fold. These functional differences are largely ascribed to three differences in the CaM-binding sequences of the two reporters. Replacement of a central Gly in the neuromodulin IQ domain with a Lys at this position in PEP19 almost entirely accounts for the distinctive patterns of Ca(2+)-dependent stability changes exhibited by the two complexes. Replacement of a Lys immediately before the "IQ" amino acid pair in the neuromodulin sequence with the Ala in PEP19 accounts for the remaining Ca(2+)-dependent differences. Replacement of an Ala in the N-terminal half of the neuromodulin sequence with the Gln in PEP19 accounts for approximately half of the Ca(2+)-independent difference in the stabilities of the two reporter complexes, with the Ca(2+)-independent effect of the Lys replacement accounting for most of the remainder. Since the central Gly in the neuromodulin sequence is conserved in half of all known IQ domains, these results suggest that the presence or absence of this residue defines two major functional classes.

Dissecting cooperative calmodulin binding to CaM kinase II: a detailed stochastic model

Calmodulin (CaM) is a major Ca(2+) binding protein involved in two opposing processes of synaptic plasticity of CA1 pyramidal neurons: long-term potentiation (LTP) and depression (LTD). The N- and C-terminal lobes of CaM bind to its target separately but cooperatively and introduce complex dynamics that cannot be well understood by experimental measurement. Using a detailed stochastic model constructed upon experimental data, we have studied the interaction between CaM and Ca(2+)-CaM-dependent protein kinase II (CaMKII), a key enzyme underlying LTP. The model suggests that the accelerated binding of one lobe of CaM to CaMKII, when the opposing lobe is already bound to CaMKII, is a critical determinant of the cooperative interaction between Ca(2+), CaM, and CaMKII. The model indicates that the target-bound Ca(2+) free N-lobe has an extended lifetime and may regulate the Ca(2+) response of CaMKII during LTP induction. The model also reveals multiple kinetic pathways which have not been previously predicted for CaM-dissociation from CaMKII.

Calmodulin mediates differential sensitivity of CaMKII and calcineurin to local Ca2+ in cardiac myocytes

Calmodulin (CaM) mediates Ca-dependent regulation of numerous pathways in the heart, including CaM-dependent kinase (CaMKII) and calcineurin (CaN), yet the local Ca(2+) signals responsible for their selective activation are unclear. To assess when and where CaM, CaMKII, and CaN may be activated in the cardiac myocyte, we integrated new mechanistic computational models of CaM, CaMKII, and CaN with the Shannon-Bers model of excitation-contraction coupling in the rabbit ventricular myocyte. These models are validated with independent in vitro data. In the intact myocyte, model simulations predict that CaM is highly activated in the dyadic cleft during each beat, but not appreciably in the cytosol. CaMKII-delta(C) was almost insensitive to cytosolic Ca due to relatively low CaM affinity. Dyadic cleft CaMKII exhibits dynamic frequency-dependent responses to Ca, yet autophosphorylates only when local phosphatases are suppressed. In contrast, dyadic cleft CaN in beating myocytes is predicted to be constitutively active, whereas the extremely high affinity of CaN for CaM allows gradual integration of small cytosolic CaM signals. Reversing CaM affinities for CaMKII and CaN also reverses their characteristic local responses. Deactivation of both CaMKII and CaN seems dominated by Ca dissociation from the complex (versus Ca-CaM dissociation from the target). In summary, the different affinities of CaM for CaMKII and CaN determine their sensitivity to local Ca signals in cardiac myocytes.

Phosphorylation within an autoinhibitory domain in endothelial nitric oxide synthase reduces the Ca(2+) concentrations required for calmodulin to bind and activate the enzyme

We have investigated the effects of phosphorylation at Ser-617 and Ser-635 within an autoinhibitory domain (residues 595-639) in bovine endothelial nitric oxide synthase on enzyme activity and the Ca (2+) dependencies for calmodulin binding and enzyme activation. A phosphomimetic S617D substitution doubles the maximum calmodulin-dependent enzyme activity and decreases the EC 50(Ca (2+)) values for calmodulin binding and enzyme activation from the wild-type values of 180 +/- 2 and 397 +/- 23 nM to values of 109 +/- 2 and 258 +/- 11 nM, respectively. Deletion of the autoinhibitory domain also doubles the maximum calmodulin-dependent enzyme activity and decreases the EC 50(Ca (2+)) values for calmodulin binding and calmodulin-dependent enzyme activation to 65 +/- 4 and 118 +/- 4 nM, respectively. An S635D substitution has little or no effect on enzyme activity or EC 50(Ca (2+)) values, either alone or when combined with the S617D substitution. These results suggest that phosphorylation at Ser-617 partially reverses suppression by the autoinhibitory domain. Associated effects on the EC 50(Ca (2+)) values and maximum calmodulin-dependent enzyme activity are predicted to contribute equally to phosphorylation-dependent enhancement of NO production during a typical agonist-evoked Ca (2+) transient, while the reduction in EC 50(Ca (2+)) values is predicted to be the major contributor to enhancement at resting free Ca (2+) concentrations.

Crystal structure of the CaV2 IQ domain in complex with Ca2+/calmodulin: high-resolution mechanistic implications for channel regulation by Ca2+

Calmodulin (CaM) regulation of Ca(2+) channels is central to Ca(2+) signaling. Ca(V)1 versus Ca(V)2 classes of these channels exhibit divergent forms of regulation, potentially relating to customized CaM/IQ interactions among different channels. Here we report the crystal structures for the Ca(2+)/CaM IQ domains of both Ca(V)2.1 and Ca(V)2.3 channels. These highly similar structures emphasize that major CaM contacts with the IQ domain extend well upstream of traditional consensus residues. Surprisingly, upstream mutations strongly diminished Ca(V)2.1 regulation, whereas downstream perturbations had limited effects. Furthermore, our Ca(V)2 structures closely resemble published Ca(2+)/CaM-Ca(V)1.2 IQ structures, arguing against Ca(V)1/2 regulatory differences based solely on contrasting CaM/IQ conformations. Instead, alanine scanning of the Ca(V)2.1 IQ domain, combined with structure-based molecular simulation of corresponding CaM/IQ binding energy perturbations, suggests that the C lobe of CaM partially dislodges from the IQ element during channel regulation, allowing exposed IQ residues to trigger regulation via isoform-specific interactions with alternative channel regions.

Centrins in retinal photoreceptor cells: regulators in the connecting cilium

Changes in the intracellular Ca2+ concentration regulate the visual signal transduction cascade directly or more often indirectly through Ca2+-binding proteins. Here we focus on centrins, which are members of a highly conserved subgroup of the EF-hand superfamily of Ca2+-binding proteins in photoreceptor cells of the vertebrate retina. Centrins are commonly associated with centrosome-related structures. In mammalian retinal photoreceptor cells, four centrin isoforms are expressed as prominent components in the connecting cilium linking the light-sensitive outer segment compartment with the metabolically active inner segment compartment. Our data indicate that Ca2+-activated centrin isoforms assemble into protein complexes with the visual heterotrimeric G-protein transducin. This interaction of centrins with transducin is mediated by binding to the betagamma-dimer of the heterotrimeric G-protein. More recent findings show that these interactions of centrins with transducin are reciprocally regulated via site-specific phosphorylations mediated by the protein kinase CK2. The assembly of centrin/G-protein complexes is a novel aspect of translocation regulation of signalling proteins in sensory cells, and represents a potential link between molecular trafficking and signal transduction in general.

The kinetics of Ca(2+)-dependent switching in a calmodulin-IQ domain complex

We have performed a kinetic analysis of Ca2+-dependent switching in the complex between calmodulin (CaM) and the IQ domain from neuromodulin, and have developed detailed kinetic models for this process. Our results indicate that the affinity of the C-ter Ca2+-binding sites in bound CaM is reduced due to a approximately 10-fold decrease in the Ca2+ association rate, while the affinity of the N-ter Ca2+-binding sites is increased due to a approximately 3-fold decrease in the Ca2+ dissociation rate. Although the Ca2+-free and Ca2+-saturated forms of the CaM-IQ domain complex have identical affinities, CaM dissociates approximately 100 times faster in the presence of Ca2+. Furthermore, under these conditions CaM can be transferred to the CaM-binding domain from CaM kinase II via a ternary complex. These properties are consistent with the hypothesis that CaM bound to neuromodulin comprises a localized store that can be efficiently delivered to neuronal proteins in its Ca2+-bound form in response to a Ca2+ signal.

Crystal structure of apo-calmodulin bound to the first two IQ motifs of myosin V reveals essential recognition features

A 2.5-A resolution structure of calcium-free calmodulin (CaM) bound to the first two IQ motifs of the murine myosin V heavy chain reveals an unusual CaM conformation. The C-terminal lobe of each CaM adopts a semi-open conformation that grips the first part of the IQ motif (IQxxxR), whereas the N-terminal lobe adopts a closed conformation that interacts more weakly with the second part of the motif (GxxxR). Variable residues in the IQ motif play a critical role in determining the precise structure of the bound CaM, such that even the consensus residues of different motifs show unique interactions with CaM. This complex serves as a model for the lever arm region of many classes of unconventional myosins, as well as other IQ motif-containing proteins such as neuromodulin and IQGAPs.