Biochemical characterization of MmoS, a sensor protein involved in copper-dependent regulation of soluble methane monooxygenase

Direct Methane Oxidation by Copper- and Iron-Dependent Methane Monooxygenases

Methane is a potent greenhouse gas that contributes significantly to climate change and is primarily regulated in Nature by methanotrophic bacteria, which consume methane gas as their source of energy and carbon, first by oxidizing it to methanol. The direct oxidation of methane to methanol is a chemically difficult transformation, accomplished in methanotrophs by complex methane monooxygenase (MMO) enzyme systems. These enzymes use iron or copper metallocofactors and have been the subject of detailed investigation. While the structure, function, and active site architecture of the copper-dependent particulate methane monooxygenase (pMMO) have been investigated extensively, its putative quaternary interactions, regulation, requisite cofactors, and mechanism remain enigmatic. The iron-dependent soluble methane monooxygenase (sMMO) has been characterized biochemically, structurally, spectroscopically, and, for the most part, mechanistically. Here, we review the history of MMO research, focusing on recent developments and providing an outlook for future directions of the field. Engineered biological catalysis systems and bioinspired synthetic catalysts may continue to emerge along with a deeper understanding of the molecular mechanisms of biological methane oxidation. Harnessing the power of these enzymes will necessitate combined efforts in biochemistry, structural biology, inorganic chemistry, microbiology, computational biology, and engineering.

Redox properties and PAS domain structure of the Escherichia coli energy sensor Aer indicate a multistate sensing mechanism

The Per-Arnt-Sim (PAS; named for the representative proteins: Period, Aryl hydrocarbon receptor nuclear translocator protein and Single-minded) domain of the dimeric Escherichia coli aerotaxis receptor Aer monitors cellular respiration through a redox-sensitive flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD) cofactor. Conformational shifts in the PAS domain instigated by the oxidized FAD (FAD_OX)/FAD anionic semiquinone (FAD_ASQ) redox couple traverse the HAMP (histidine kinases, adenylate cyclases, methyl-accepting chemotaxis proteins, and phosphatases) and kinase control domains of the Aer dimer to regulate CheA kinase activity. The PAS domain of Aer is unstable and has not been previously purified. Here, residue substitutions that rescue FAD binding in an FAD binding-deficient full-length Aer variant were used in combination to stabilize the Aer PAS domain. We solved the 2.4 Å resolution crystal structure of this variant, Aer-PAS-GVV, and revealed a PAS fold that contains distinct features associated with FAD-based redox sensing, such as a close contact between the Arg115 side chain and N5 of the isoalloxazine ring and interactions of the flavin with the side chains of His53 and Asn85 that are poised to convey conformational signals from the cofactor to the protein surface. In addition, we determined the FAD_ox/FAD_ASQ formal potentials of Aer-PAS-GVV and full-length Aer reconstituted into nanodiscs. The Aer redox couple is remarkably low at -289.6 ± 0.4 mV. In conclusion, we propose a model for Aer energy sensing based on the low potential of Aer-PAS-FAD_ox/FAD_ASQ couple and the inability of Aer-PAS to bind to the fully reduced FAD hydroquinone.

Diversity in Sensing and Signaling of Bacterial Sensor Histidine Kinases

Two-component signal transduction systems (TCSs) are widely conserved in bacteria to respond to and adapt to the changing environment. Since TCSs are also involved in controlling the expression of virulence, biofilm formation, quorum sensing, and antimicrobial resistance in pathogens, they serve as candidates for novel drug targets. TCSs consist of a sensor histidine kinase (HK) and its cognate response regulator (RR). Upon perception of a signal, HKs autophosphorylate their conserved histidine residues, followed by phosphotransfer to their partner RRs. The phosphorylated RRs mostly function as transcriptional regulators and control the expression of genes necessary for stress response. HKs sense their specific signals not only in their extracytoplasmic sensor domain but also in their cytoplasmic and transmembrane domains. The signals are sensed either directly or indirectly via cofactors and accessory proteins. Accumulating evidence shows that a single HK can sense and respond to multiple signals in different domains. The underlying molecular mechanisms of how HK activity is controlled by these signals have been extensively studied both biochemically and structurally. In this article, we introduce the wide diversity of signal perception in different domains of HKs, together with their recently clarified structures and molecular mechanisms.

Methane monooxygenases: central enzymes in methanotrophy with promising biotechnological applications

Worldwide, the use of methane is limited to generating power, electricity, heating, and for production of chemicals. We believe this valuable gas can be employed more widely. Here we review the possibility of using methane as a feedstock for biotechnological processes based on the application of synthetic methanotrophs. Methane monooxygenase (MMO) enables aerobic methanotrophs to utilize methane as a sole carbon and energy source, in contrast to industrial microorganisms that grow on carbon sources, such as sugar cane, which directly compete with the food market. However, naturally occurring methanotrophs have proven to be difficult to manipulate genetically and their current industrial use is limited to generating animal feed biomass. Shifting the focus from genetic engineering of methanotrophs, towards introducing metabolic pathways for methane utilization in familiar industrial microorganisms, may lead to construction of efficient and economically feasible microbial cell factories. The applications of a technology for MMO production are not limited to methane-based industrial synthesis of fuels and value-added products, but are also of interest in bioremediation where mitigating anthropogenic pollution is an increasingly relevant issue. Published research on successful functional expression of MMO does not exist, but several attempts provide promising future perspectives and a few recent patents indicate that there is an ongoing research in this field. Combining the knowledge on genetics and metabolism of methanotrophy with tools for functional heterologous expression of MMO-encoding genes in non-methanotrophic bacterial species, is a key step for construction of synthetic methanotrophs that holds a great biotechnological potential.

Regulation of Leishmania major PAS domain-containing phosphoglycerate kinase by cofactor Mg2+ ion at neutral pH

Recently, we described the PAS domain-containing phosphoglycerate kinase (PGK) from Leishmania major (LmPAS-PGK) that shows acidic pH (5.5)-dependent optimum catalytic activity. The PAS domain of LmPAS-PGK is expected to regulate PGK activity during catalysis, but the mechanism of regulation by PAS domain at the molecular level is uncharacterized. In this work, we have utilized the full-length, PAS domain-deleted, and mutant enzymes to measure the enzymatic activity in the presence of divalent cation at various pH values. Catalytic activity measurement indicates that Mg²⁺ binding through PAS domain inhibits the PGK activity at pH 7.5, and this inhibition is withdrawn at pH 5.5. To identify the Mg²⁺ binding residues of the PAS domain, we exploited a systematic mutational analysis of all (four) His residues in the PAS domain for potential divalent cation binding. Replacement of His-57 with alanine resulted in depression in the presence of Mg²⁺ at pH 7.5, but H71A, H89A, and H111A showed similar characteristics with respect to the wild-type protein. Fluorescence and isothermal titration calorimetry studies revealed that H57 is responsible for Mg²⁺ binding in the absence of substrates. Thus, the protonated form of His57 at acidic pH 5.5 destabilizes the Mg²⁺ binding in the PAS domain, which is an essential requirement in the wild-type LmPAS-PGK for a conformational alteration in the sensor domain that, sequentially, activates the PGK domain, resulting in the synthesis of higher amounts of ATP.

Redox-Based Transcriptional Regulation in Prokaryotes: Revisiting Model Mechanisms

SIGNIFICANCE

The successful adaptation of microorganisms to ever-changing environments depends, to a great extent, on their ability to maintain redox homeostasis. To effectively maintain the redox balance, cells have developed a variety of strategies mainly coordinated by a battery of transcriptional regulators through diverse mechanisms. Recent Advances: This comprehensive review focuses on the main mechanisms used by major redox-responsive regulators in prokaryotes and their relationship with the different redox signals received by the cell. An overview of the corresponding regulons is also provided.

CRITICAL ISSUES

Some regulators are difficult to classify since they may contain several sensing domains and respond to more than one signal. We propose a classification of redox-sensing regulators into three major groups. The first group contains one-component or direct regulators, whose sensing and regulatory domains are in the same protein. The second group comprises the classical two-component systems involving a sensor kinase that transduces the redox signal to its DNA-binding partner. The third group encompasses a heterogeneous group of flavin-based photosensors whose mechanisms are not always fully understood and are often involved in more complex regulatory networks.

FUTURE DIRECTIONS

Redox-responsive transcriptional regulation is an intricate process as identical signals may be sensed and transduced by different transcription factors, which often interplay with other DNA-binding proteins with or without regulatory activity. Although there is much information about some key regulators, many others remain to be fully characterized due to the instability of their clusters under oxygen. Understanding the mechanisms and the regulatory networks operated by these regulators is essential for the development of future applications in biotechnology and medicine.

PAS domain-containing phosphoglycerate kinase deficiency in Leishmania major results in increased autophagosome formation and cell death

Per-Arnt-Sim (PAS) domains are structurally conserved and present in numerous proteins throughout all branches of the phylogenetic tree. Although PAS domain-containing proteins are major players for the adaptation to environmental stimuli in both prokaryotic and eukaryotic organisms, these types of proteins are still uncharacterized in the trypanosomatid parasites, Trypanosome and Leishmania In addition, PAS-containing phosphoglycerate kinase (PGK) protein is uncharacterized in the literature. Here, we report a PAS domain-containing PGK (LmPAS-PGK) in the unicellular pathogen Leishmania The modeled structure of N-terminal of this protein exhibits four antiparallel β sheets centrally flanked by α helices, which is similar to the characteristic signature of PAS domain. Activity measurements suggest that acidic pH can directly stimulate PGK activity. Localization studies demonstrate that the protein is highly enriched in the glycosome and its presence can also be seen in the lysosome. Gene knockout, overexpression and complement studies suggest that LmPAS-PGK plays a fundamental role in cell survival through autophagy. Furthermore, the knockout cells display a marked decrease in virulence when host macrophage and BALB/c mice were infected with them. Our work begins to clarify how acidic pH-dependent ATP generation by PGK is likely to function in cellular adaptability of Leishmania.

Solution structure of the PAS domain of a thermophilic YybT protein homolog reveals a potential ligand-binding site

The Bacillus subtilis protein YybT (or GdpP) and its homologs were recently established as stress signaling proteins that exert their biological effect by degrading the bacterial messenger cyclic di-AMP. YybT homologs contain a small Per-ARNT-Sim (PAS) domain (~80 amino acids) that can bind b-type heme with 1:1 stoichiometry despite the small size of the domain and the lack of a conserved heme iron-coordinating residue. We determined the solution structure of the PAS domain of GtYybT from Geobacillus thermodenitrificans by NMR spectroscopy to further probe its function. The solution structure confirms that PASGtYybT adopts the characteristic PAS fold composed of a five-stranded antiparallel β sheet and a few short α-helices. One α-helix and three central β-strands of PASGtYybT are noticeably shorter than those of the typical PAS domains. Despite the small size of the protein domain, a hydrophobic pocket is formed by the side chains of nonpolar residues stemming from the β-strands and α-helices. A set of residues in the vicinity of the pocket and in the C-terminal region at the dimeric interface exhibits perturbed NMR parameters in the presence of heme or zinc protoporphyrin. Together, the results unveil a compact PAS domain with a potential ligand-binding pocket and reinforce the view that the PASYybT domains function as regulatory domains in the modulation of cellular cyclic di-AMP concentration.

Architecture and active site of particulate methane monooxygenase

Particulate methane monooxygenase (pMMO) is an integral membrane metalloenzyme that oxidizes methane to methanol in methanotrophic bacteria, organisms that live on methane gas as their sole carbon source. Understanding pMMO function has important implications for bioremediation applications and for the development of new, environmentally friendly catalysts for the direct conversion of methane to methanol. Crystal structures of pMMOs from three different methanotrophs reveal a trimeric architecture, consisting of three copies each of the pmoB, pmoA, and pmoC subunits. There are three distinct metal centers in each protomer of the trimer, mononuclear and dinuclear copper sites in the periplasmic regions of pmoB and a mononuclear site within the membrane that can be occupied by copper or zinc. Various models for the pMMO active site have been proposed within these structural constraints, including dicopper, tricopper, and diiron centers. Biochemical and spectroscopic data on pMMO and recombinant soluble fragments, denoted spmoB proteins, indicate that the active site involves copper and is located at the site of the dicopper center in the pmoB subunit. Initial spectroscopic evidence for O(2) binding at this site has been obtained. Despite these findings, questions remain about the active site identity and nuclearity and will be the focus of future studies.

Ligand-binding PAS domains in a genomic, cellular, and structural context

Per-Arnt-Sim (PAS) domains occur in proteins from all kingdoms of life. In the bacterial kingdom, PAS domains are commonly positioned at the amino terminus of signaling proteins such as sensor histidine kinases, cyclic-di-GMP synthases/hydrolases, and methyl-accepting chemotaxis proteins. Although these domains are highly divergent at the primary sequence level, the structures of dozens of PAS domains across a broad section of sequence space have been solved, revealing a conserved three-dimensional architecture. An all-versus-all alignment of 63 PAS structures demonstrates that the PAS domain family forms structural clades on the basis of two principal variables: (a) topological location inside or outside the plasma membrane and (b) the class of small molecule that they bind. The binding of a chemically diverse range of small-molecule metabolites is a hallmark of the PAS domain family. PAS ligand binding either functions as a primary cue to initiate a cellular signaling response or provides the domain with the capacity to respond to secondary physical or chemical signals such as gas molecules, redox potential, or photons. This review synthesizes the current state of knowledge of the structural foundations and evolution of ligand recognition and binding by PAS domains.

A flavin cofactor-binding PAS domain regulates c-di-GMP synthesis in AxDGC2 from Acetobacter xylinum

The cytoplasmic protein AxDGC2 regulates cellulose synthesis in the obligate aerobe Acetobacter xylinum by controlling the cellular concentration of the cyclic dinucleotide messenger c-di-GMP. AxDGC2 contains a Per-Arnt-Sim (PAS) domain and two putative catalytic domains (GGDEF and EAL) for c-di-GMP metabolism. We found that the PAS domain of AxDGC2 binds a flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD) cofactor noncovalently. The redox status of the FAD cofactor modulates the catalytic activity of the GGDEF domain for c-di-GMP synthesis, with the oxidized form exhibiting higher catalytic activity and stronger substrate inhibition. The results suggest that AxDGC2 is a signaling protein that regulates the cellular c-di-GMP level in response to the change in cellular redox status or oxygen concentration. Moreover, several residues predicated to be involved in FAD binding and signal transduction were mutated to examine the impact on redox potential and catalytic activity. Despite the minor perturbation of redox potential and unexpected modification of FAD in one of the mutants, none of the single mutations was able to completely disrupt the transmission of the signal to the GGDEF domain, indicating that the change in the FAD redox state can still trigger structural changes in the PAS domain probably by using substituted hydrogen-bonded water networks. Meanwhile, although the EAL domain of AxDGC2 was found to be catalytically inactive toward c-di-GMP, it was capable of hydrolyzing some phosphodiester bond-containing nonphysiological substrates. Together with the previously reported oxygen-dependent activity of the homologous AxPDEA1, the results provided new insight into relationships among oxygen level, c-di-GMP concentration, and cellulose synthesis in A. xylinum.

What's in a covalent bond? On the role and formation of covalently bound flavin cofactors

Many enzymes use one or more cofactors, such as biotin, heme, or flavin. These cofactors may be bound to the enzyme in a noncovalent or covalent manner. Although most flavoproteins contain a noncovalently bound flavin cofactor (FMN or FAD), a large number have these cofactors covalently linked to the polypeptide chain. Most covalent flavin-protein linkages involve a single cofactor attachment via a histidyl, tyrosyl, cysteinyl or threonyl linkage. However, some flavoproteins contain a flavin that is tethered to two amino acids. In the last decade, many studies have focused on elucidating the mechanism(s) of covalent flavin incorporation (flavinylation) and the possible role(s) of covalent protein-flavin bonds. These endeavors have revealed that covalent flavinylation is a post-translational and self-catalytic process. This review presents an overview of the known types of covalent flavin bonds and the proposed mechanisms and roles of covalent flavinylation.

Structure of the redox sensor domain of Methylococcus capsulatus (Bath) MmoS

MmoS from Methylococcus capsulatus (Bath) is the multidomain sensor protein of a two-component signaling system proposed to play a role in the copper-mediated regulation of soluble methane monooxygenase (sMMO). MmoS binds an FAD cofactor within its N-terminal tandem Per-Arnt-Sim (PAS) domains, suggesting that it functions as a redox sensor. The crystal structure of the MmoS tandem PAS domains, designated PAS-A and PAS-B, has been determined to 2.34 A resolution. Both domains adopt the typical PAS domain alpha/beta topology and are structurally similar. The two domains are linked by a long alpha helix and do not interact with one another. The FAD cofactor is housed solely within PAS-A and is stabilized by an extended hydrogen bonding network. The overall fold of PAS-A is similar to those of other flavin-containing PAS domains, but homodimeric interactions in other structures are not observed in the MmoS sensor, which crystallized as a monomer. The structure both provides new insight into the architecture of tandem PAS domains and suggests specific residues that may play a role in MmoS FAD redox chemistry and subsequent signal transduction.

Evidence for involvement of copper ions and redox state in regulation of butane monooxygenase in Pseudomonas butanovora

Pseudomonas butanovora possesses an alcohol-inducible alkane monooxygenase, butane monooxygenase (BMO), that initiates growth on C(2)-C(9) alkanes. A lacZ transcriptional reporter strain, P. butanovora bmoX::lacZ, in which the BMO promoter controls the expression of beta-galactosidase activity, was used to show that 1-butanol induced the BMO promoter in the presence or absence of O(2) when lactate-grown, BMO-repressed cells were washed free of lactate and incubated in NH(4)Cl-KNa phosphate buffer. In contrast, when lactate-grown cells of the reporter strain were incubated in phosphate buffer containing the mineral salts of standard growth medium, 1-butanol-dependent induction was significantly repressed at low O(2) (1 to 2% [vol/vol]) and totally repressed under anoxic conditions. The repressive effect of the mineral salts was traced to its copper content. In cells exposed to 1% (vol/vol) O(2), CuSO(4) (0.5 microM) repressed 1-butanol-dependent induction of beta-galactosidase activity. Under oxic conditions (20% O(2) [vol/vol]), significantly higher concentrations of CuSO(4) (2 microM) were required for almost complete repression of induction in lactate-grown cells. A combination of the Cu(2+) reducing agent Na ascorbate (100 microM) and CuSO(4) (0.5 microM) repressed the induction of beta-galactosidase activity under oxic conditions to the same extent that 0.5 microM CuSO(4) alone repressed it under anoxic conditions. Under oxic conditions, 2 microM CuSO(4) repressed induction of the BMO promoter less effectively in butyrate-grown cells of the bmoX::lacZ strain and of an R8-bmoX::lacZ mutant reporter strain with a putative BMO regulator, BmoR, inactivated. Under anoxic conditions, CuSO(4) repression remained highly effective, regardless of the growth substrate, in both BmoR-positive and -negative reporter strains.

Soluble and particulate methane monooxygenase gene clusters in the marine methanotroph Methylomicrobium sp. strain NI

Soluble methane monooxygenase (sMMO) and particulate methane monooxygenase (pMMO) gene clusters in the marine methanotroph Methylomicrobium sp. strain NI were completely sequenced and analysed. Degenerated primers were newly designed and used to amplify the gene fragments containing intergenic mmoX-Y and mmoD-C regions and a partial pmoC region. Phylogenetic analysis of amino acid sequences deduced from mmoX and pmoA, as well as of 16S rRNA gene sequences, indicated that this strain was most closely related to the halotolerant methanotroph Methylomicrobium buryatense. There were putative sigma(54)- and sigma(70)-dependent promoter sequences upstream of the sMMO and pMMO genes, respectively, and mmoG, which is known to be related to the expression and assembly of sMMO, existed downstream of the sMMO genes. These findings suggest that the major components and regulation of MMOs in this marine methanotroph are quite similar to those in freshwater methane oxidizers, despite the difference in their habitats.

The biochemistry of methane oxidation

Methanotrophic bacteria oxidize methane to methanol in the first step of their metabolic pathway. Two forms of methane monooxygenase (MMO) enzymes catalyze this reaction: soluble MMO (sMMO) and membrane-bound or particulate MMO (pMMO). pMMO is expressed when copper is available, and its active site is believed to contain copper. Whereas sMMO is well characterized, most aspects of pMMO biochemistry remain unknown and somewhat controversial. This review emphasizes advances in the past two to three years related to pMMO and to copper uptake and copper-dependent regulation in methanotrophs. The pMMO metal centers have been characterized spectroscopically, and the first pMMO crystal structure has been determined. Significant effort has been devoted to improving in vitro pMMO activity. Proteins involved in sMMO regulation and additional copper-regulated proteins have been identified, and the Methylococcus capsulatus (Bath) genome has been sequenced. Finally, methanobactin (mb), a small copper chelator proposed to facilitate copper uptake, has been characterized.

Metal sensor proteins: nature's metalloregulated allosteric switches

Metalloregulatory proteins control the expression of genes that allow organisms to quickly adapt to chronic toxicity or deprivation of both biologically essential metal ions and heavy metal pollutants found in their microenvironment. Emerging evidence suggests that metal ion homeostasis and resistance defines an important tug-of-war in human host-bacterial pathogen interactions. This adaptive response originates with the formation of "metal receptor" complexes of exquisite selectivity. In this perspective, we summarize consensus structural features of metal sensing coordination complexes and the evolution of distinct metal selectivities within seven characterized metal sensor protein families. In addition, we place recent efforts to understand the structural basis of metal-induced allosteric switching of these metalloregulatory proteins in a thermodynamic framework, and review the degree to which coordination chemistry drives changes in protein structure and dynamics in selected metal sensor systems. New insights into how metal sensor proteins function in the complex intracellular milieu of the cytoplasm of cells will require a more sophisticated understanding of the "metallome" and will benefit greatly from ongoing collaborative efforts in bioinorganic, biophysical and analytical chemistry, structural biology and microbiology.