1
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Montfort WR. Per-ARNT-Sim Domains in Nitric Oxide Signaling by Soluble Guanylyl Cyclase. J Mol Biol 2024; 436:168235. [PMID: 37572934 PMCID: PMC10858291 DOI: 10.1016/j.jmb.2023.168235] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2023] [Revised: 08/01/2023] [Accepted: 08/04/2023] [Indexed: 08/14/2023]
Abstract
Nitric oxide (NO) regulates large swaths of animal physiology including wound healing, vasodilation, memory formation, odor detection, sexual function, and response to infectious disease. The primary NO receptor is soluble guanyly/guanylate cyclase (sGC), a dimeric protein of ∼150 kDa that detects NO through a ferrous heme, leading to a large change in conformation and enhanced production of cGMP from GTP. In humans, loss of sGC function contributes to multiple disease states, including cardiovascular disease and cancer, and is the target of a new class of drugs, sGC stimulators, now in clinical use. sGC evolved through the fusion of four ancient domains, a heme nitric oxide / oxygen (H-NOX) domain, a Per-ARNT-Sim (PAS) domain, a coiled coil, and a cyclase domain, with catalysis occurring at the interface of the two cyclase domains. In animals, the predominant dimer is the α1β1 heterodimer, with the α1 subunit formed through gene duplication of the β1 subunit. The PAS domain provides an extensive dimer interface that remains unchanged during sGC activation, acting as a core anchor. A large cleft formed at the PAS-PAS dimer interface tightly binds the N-terminal end of the coiled coil, keeping this region intact and unchanged while the rest of the coiled coil repacks, and the other domains reposition. This interface buries ∼3000 Å2 of monomer surface and includes highly conserved apolar and hydrogen bonding residues. Herein, we discuss the evolutionary history of sGC, describe the role of PAS domains in sGC function, and explore the regulatory factors affecting sGC function.
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Affiliation(s)
- William R Montfort
- Department of Chemistry & Biochemistry, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85721, USA.
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2
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Lehnert N, Kim E, Dong HT, Harland JB, Hunt AP, Manickas EC, Oakley KM, Pham J, Reed GC, Alfaro VS. The Biologically Relevant Coordination Chemistry of Iron and Nitric Oxide: Electronic Structure and Reactivity. Chem Rev 2021; 121:14682-14905. [PMID: 34902255 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.1c00253] [Citation(s) in RCA: 101] [Impact Index Per Article: 33.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
Nitric oxide (NO) is an important signaling molecule that is involved in a wide range of physiological and pathological events in biology. Metal coordination chemistry, especially with iron, is at the heart of many biological transformations involving NO. A series of heme proteins, nitric oxide synthases (NOS), soluble guanylate cyclase (sGC), and nitrophorins, are responsible for the biosynthesis, sensing, and transport of NO. Alternatively, NO can be generated from nitrite by heme- and copper-containing nitrite reductases (NIRs). The NO-bearing small molecules such as nitrosothiols and dinitrosyl iron complexes (DNICs) can serve as an alternative vehicle for NO storage and transport. Once NO is formed, the rich reaction chemistry of NO leads to a wide variety of biological activities including reduction of NO by heme or non-heme iron-containing NO reductases and protein post-translational modifications by DNICs. Much of our understanding of the reactivity of metal sites in biology with NO and the mechanisms of these transformations has come from the elucidation of the geometric and electronic structures and chemical reactivity of synthetic model systems, in synergy with biochemical and biophysical studies on the relevant proteins themselves. This review focuses on recent advancements from studies on proteins and model complexes that not only have improved our understanding of the biological roles of NO but also have provided foundations for biomedical research and for bio-inspired catalyst design in energy science.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicolai Lehnert
- Department of Chemistry and Department of Biophysics, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109-1055, United States
| | - Eunsuk Kim
- Department of Chemistry, Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island 02912, United States
| | - Hai T Dong
- Department of Chemistry and Department of Biophysics, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109-1055, United States
| | - Jill B Harland
- Department of Chemistry and Department of Biophysics, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109-1055, United States
| | - Andrew P Hunt
- Department of Chemistry and Department of Biophysics, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109-1055, United States
| | - Elizabeth C Manickas
- Department of Chemistry and Department of Biophysics, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109-1055, United States
| | - Kady M Oakley
- Department of Chemistry, Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island 02912, United States
| | - John Pham
- Department of Chemistry, Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island 02912, United States
| | - Garrett C Reed
- Department of Chemistry and Department of Biophysics, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109-1055, United States
| | - Victor Sosa Alfaro
- Department of Chemistry and Department of Biophysics, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109-1055, United States
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3
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Wittenborn EC, Marletta MA. Structural Perspectives on the Mechanism of Soluble Guanylate Cyclase Activation. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms22115439. [PMID: 34064029 PMCID: PMC8196705 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22115439] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2021] [Revised: 05/17/2021] [Accepted: 05/18/2021] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
The enzyme soluble guanylate cyclase (sGC) is the prototypical nitric oxide (NO) receptor in humans and other higher eukaryotes and is responsible for transducing the initial NO signal to the secondary messenger cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP). Generation of cGMP in turn leads to diverse physiological effects in the cardiopulmonary, vascular, and neurological systems. Given these important downstream effects, sGC has been biochemically characterized in great detail in the four decades since its discovery. Structures of full-length sGC, however, have proven elusive until very recently. In 2019, advances in single particle cryo–electron microscopy (cryo-EM) enabled visualization of full-length sGC for the first time. This review will summarize insights revealed by the structures of sGC in the unactivated and activated states and discuss their implications in the mechanism of sGC activation.
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4
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Alapa M, Cui C, Shu P, Li H, Kholodovych V, Beuve A. Selective cysteines oxidation in soluble guanylyl cyclase catalytic domain is involved in NO activation. Free Radic Biol Med 2021; 162:450-460. [PMID: 33161042 PMCID: PMC7889651 DOI: 10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2020.11.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2020] [Revised: 10/30/2020] [Accepted: 11/01/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Nitric oxide (NO) binds to soluble guanylyl cyclase (GC1) and stimulates its catalytic activity to produce cGMP. Despite the key role of the NO-cGMP signaling in cardiovascular physiology, the mechanisms of GC1 activation remain ill-defined. It is believed that conserved cysteines (Cys) in GC1 modulate the enzyme's activity through thiol-redox modifications. We previously showed that GC1 activity is modulated via mixed-disulfide bond by protein disulfide isomerase and thioredoxin 1. Herein we investigated the novel concept that NO-stimulated GC1 activity is mediated by thiol/disulfide switches and aimed to map the specific Cys that are involved. First, we showed that the dithiol reducing agent Tris (2-carboxyethyl)-phosphine reduces GC1 response to NO, indicating the significance of Cys oxidation in NO activation. Second, using dibromobimane, which fluoresces when crosslinking two vicinal Cys thiols, we demonstrated decreased fluorescence in NO-stimulated GC1 compared to unstimulated conditions. This suggested that NO-stimulated GC1 contained more bound Cys, potentially disulfide bonds. Third, to identify NO-regulated Cys oxidation using mass spectrometry, we compared the redox status of all Cys identified in tryptic peptides, among which, ten were oxidized and two were reduced in NO-stimulated GC1. Fourth, we resorted to computational modeling to narrow down the Cys candidates potentially involved in disulfide bond and identified Cys489 and Cys571. Fifth, our mutational studies showed that Cys489 and Cys571 were involved in GC1'response to NO, potentially as a thiol/disulfide switch. These findings imply that specific GC1 Cys sensitivity to redox environment is critical for NO signaling in cardiovascular physiology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maryam Alapa
- Department of Pharmacology, Physiology, and Neuroscience, New Jersey Medical School-Rutgers, Newark, NJ, 07103, USA
| | - Chuanlong Cui
- Department of Pharmacology, Physiology, and Neuroscience, New Jersey Medical School-Rutgers, Newark, NJ, 07103, USA; Center for Advanced Proteomics Research- New Jersey Medical School- Rutgers, Newark, NJ, 07103, USA
| | - Ping Shu
- Department of Pharmacology, Physiology, and Neuroscience, New Jersey Medical School-Rutgers, Newark, NJ, 07103, USA
| | - Hong Li
- Center for Advanced Proteomics Research- New Jersey Medical School- Rutgers, Newark, NJ, 07103, USA
| | - Vlad Kholodovych
- Office of Advanced Research Computing, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, Piscataway, NJ, 08854, USA
| | - Annie Beuve
- Department of Pharmacology, Physiology, and Neuroscience, New Jersey Medical School-Rutgers, Newark, NJ, 07103, USA.
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5
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Chen CY, Lee W, Renhowe PA, Jung J, Montfort WR. Solution structures of the Shewanella woodyi H-NOX protein in the presence and absence of soluble guanylyl cyclase stimulator IWP-051. Protein Sci 2020; 30:448-463. [PMID: 33236796 DOI: 10.1002/pro.4005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2020] [Revised: 11/05/2020] [Accepted: 11/24/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Heme-nitric oxide/oxygen binding (H-NOX) domains bind gaseous ligands for signal transduction in organisms spanning prokaryotic and eukaryotic kingdoms. In the bioluminescent marine bacterium Shewanella woodyi (Sw), H-NOX proteins regulate quorum sensing and biofilm formation. In higher animals, soluble guanylyl cyclase (sGC) binds nitric oxide with an H-NOX domain to induce cyclase activity and regulate vascular tone, wound healing and memory formation. sGC also binds stimulator compounds targeting cardiovascular disease. The molecular details of stimulator binding to sGC remain obscure but involve a binding pocket near an interface between H-NOX and coiled-coil domains. Here, we report the full NMR structure for CO-ligated Sw H-NOX in the presence and absence of stimulator compound IWP-051, and its backbone dynamics. Nonplanar heme geometry was retained using a semi-empirical quantum potential energy approach. Although IWP-051 binding is weak, a single binding conformation was found at the interface of the two H-NOX subdomains, near but not overlapping with sites identified in sGC. Binding leads to rotation of the subdomains and closure of the binding pocket. Backbone dynamics are similar across both domains except for two helix-connecting loops, which display increased dynamics that are further enhanced by compound binding. Structure-based sequence analyses indicate high sequence diversity in the binding pocket, but the pocket itself appears conserved among H-NOX proteins. The largest dynamical loop lies at the interface between Sw H-NOX and its binding partner as well as in the interface with the coiled coil in sGC, suggesting a critical role for the loop in signal transduction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cheng-Yu Chen
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona, USA
| | - Woonghee Lee
- National Magnetic Resonance Facility at Madison, Biochemistry Department, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, USA.,Department of Chemistry, University of Colorado Denver, Denver, Colorado, USA
| | | | - Joon Jung
- Cyclerion Therapeutics, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
| | - William R Montfort
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona, USA
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6
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Tyrosine 135 of the β1 subunit as binding site of BAY-543: Importance of the Y-x-S-x-R motif for binding and activation by sGC activator drugs. Eur J Pharmacol 2020; 881:173203. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ejphar.2020.173203] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2020] [Revised: 05/11/2020] [Accepted: 05/13/2020] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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7
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Négrerie M. Iron transitions during activation of allosteric heme proteins in cell signaling. Metallomics 2020; 11:868-893. [PMID: 30957812 DOI: 10.1039/c8mt00337h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Allosteric heme proteins can fulfill a very large number of different functions thanks to the remarkable chemical versatility of heme through the entire living kingdom. Their efficacy resides in the ability of heme to transmit both iron coordination changes and iron redox state changes to the protein structure. Besides the properties of iron, proteins may impose a particular heme geometry leading to distortion, which allows selection or modulation of the electronic properties of heme. This review focusses on the mechanisms of allosteric protein activation triggered by heme coordination changes following diatomic binding to proteins as diverse as the human NO-receptor, cytochromes, NO-transporters and sensors, and a heme-activated potassium channel. It describes at the molecular level the chemical capabilities of heme to achieve very different tasks and emphasizes how the properties of heme are determined by the protein structure. Particularly, this reviews aims at giving an overview of the exquisite adaptability of heme, from bacteria to mammals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michel Négrerie
- Laboratoire d'Optique et Biosciences, INSERM, CNRS, Ecole Polytechnique, 91120 Palaiseau, France.
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8
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Childers KC, Yao XQ, Giannakoulias S, Amason J, Hamelberg D, Garcin ED. Synergistic mutations in soluble guanylyl cyclase (sGC) reveal a key role for interfacial regions in the sGC activation mechanism. J Biol Chem 2019; 294:18451-18464. [PMID: 31645439 PMCID: PMC6885636 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.ra119.011010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2019] [Revised: 10/17/2019] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
Soluble guanylyl cyclase (sGC) is the main receptor for nitric oxide (NO) and a central component of the NO-cGMP pathway, critical to cardiovascular function. NO binding to the N-terminal sensor domain in sGC enhances the cyclase activity of the C-terminal catalytic domain. Our understanding of the structural elements regulating this signaling cascade is limited, hindering structure-based drug design efforts that target sGC to improve the management of cardiovascular diseases. Conformational changes are thought to propagate the NO-binding signal throughout the entire sGC heterodimer, via its coiled-coil domain, to reorient the catalytic domain into an active conformation. To identify the structural elements involved in this signal transduction cascade, here we optimized a cGMP-based luciferase assay that reports on heterologous sGC activity in Escherichia coli and identified several mutations that activate sGC. These mutations resided in the dorsal flaps, dimer interface, and GTP-binding regions of the catalytic domain. Combinations of mutations from these different elements synergized, resulting in even greater activity and indicating a complex cross-talk among these regions. Molecular dynamics simulations further revealed conformational changes underlying the functional impact of these mutations. We propose that the interfacial residues play a central role in the sGC activation mechanism by coupling the coiled-coil domain to the active site via a series of hot spots. Our results provide new mechanistic insights not only into the molecular pathway for sGC activation but also for other members of the larger nucleotidyl cyclase family.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kenneth C Childers
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Maryland Baltimore County, Baltimore, Maryland 21250
| | - Xin-Qiu Yao
- Department of Chemistry, Georgia State University, Atlanta, Georgia 30302-3965
| | - Sam Giannakoulias
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Maryland Baltimore County, Baltimore, Maryland 21250
| | - Joshua Amason
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Maryland Baltimore County, Baltimore, Maryland 21250.
| | - Donald Hamelberg
- Department of Chemistry, Georgia State University, Atlanta, Georgia 30302-3965
| | - Elsa D Garcin
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Maryland Baltimore County, Baltimore, Maryland 21250.
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9
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Horst BG, Yokom AL, Rosenberg DJ, Morris KL, Hammel M, Hurley JH, Marletta MA. Allosteric activation of the nitric oxide receptor soluble guanylate cyclase mapped by cryo-electron microscopy. eLife 2019; 8:e50634. [PMID: 31566566 PMCID: PMC6839917 DOI: 10.7554/elife.50634] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2019] [Accepted: 09/27/2019] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Soluble guanylate cyclase (sGC) is the primary receptor for nitric oxide (NO) in mammalian nitric oxide signaling. We determined structures of full-length Manduca sexta sGC in both inactive and active states using cryo-electron microscopy. NO and the sGC-specific stimulator YC-1 induce a 71° rotation of the heme-binding β H-NOX and PAS domains. Repositioning of the β H-NOX domain leads to a straightening of the coiled-coil domains, which, in turn, use the motion to move the catalytic domains into an active conformation. YC-1 binds directly between the β H-NOX domain and the two CC domains. The structural elongation of the particle observed in cryo-EM was corroborated in solution using small angle X-ray scattering (SAXS). These structures delineate the endpoints of the allosteric transition responsible for the major cyclic GMP-dependent physiological effects of NO.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin G Horst
- Department of ChemistryUniversity of California, BerkeleyBerkeleyUnited States
| | - Adam L Yokom
- Department of Molecular and Cell BiologyUniversity of California, BerkeleyBerkeleyUnited States
- Graduate Group in BiophysicsUniversity of California, BerkeleyBerkeleyUnited States
| | - Daniel J Rosenberg
- Molecular Biophysics and Integrated BioimagingLawrence Berkeley National LaboratoryBerkeleyUnited States
- California Institute for Quantitative BiosciencesUniversity of California, BerkeleyBerkeleyUnited States
| | - Kyle L Morris
- Department of Molecular and Cell BiologyUniversity of California, BerkeleyBerkeleyUnited States
- Graduate Group in BiophysicsUniversity of California, BerkeleyBerkeleyUnited States
| | - Michal Hammel
- Molecular Biophysics and Integrated BioimagingLawrence Berkeley National LaboratoryBerkeleyUnited States
| | - James H Hurley
- Department of Molecular and Cell BiologyUniversity of California, BerkeleyBerkeleyUnited States
- Graduate Group in BiophysicsUniversity of California, BerkeleyBerkeleyUnited States
- Molecular Biophysics and Integrated BioimagingLawrence Berkeley National LaboratoryBerkeleyUnited States
- California Institute for Quantitative BiosciencesUniversity of California, BerkeleyBerkeleyUnited States
| | - Michael A Marletta
- Department of ChemistryUniversity of California, BerkeleyBerkeleyUnited States
- Department of Molecular and Cell BiologyUniversity of California, BerkeleyBerkeleyUnited States
- Graduate Group in BiophysicsUniversity of California, BerkeleyBerkeleyUnited States
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10
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Dasgupta B, Miyashita O, Tama F. Reconstruction of low-resolution molecular structures from simulated atomic force microscopy images. Biochim Biophys Acta Gen Subj 2019; 1864:129420. [PMID: 31472175 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbagen.2019.129420] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2019] [Revised: 08/22/2019] [Accepted: 08/26/2019] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM) is an experimental technique to study structure-function relationship of biomolecules. AFM provides images of biomolecules at nanometer resolution. High-speed AFM experiments produce a series of images following dynamics of biomolecules. To further understand biomolecular functions, information on three-dimensional (3D) structures is beneficial. METHOD We aim to recover 3D information from an AFM image by computational modeling. The AFM image includes only low-resolution representation of a molecule; therefore we represent the structures by a coarse grained model (Gaussian mixture model). Using Monte-Carlo sampling, candidate models are generated to increase similarity between AFM images simulated from the models and target AFM image. RESULTS The algorithm was tested on two proteins to model their conformational transitions. Using a simulated AFM image as reference, the algorithm can produce a low-resolution 3D model of the target molecule. Effect of molecular orientations captured in AFM images on the 3D modeling performance was also examined and it is shown that similar accuracy can be obtained for many orientations. CONCLUSIONS The proposed algorithm can generate 3D low-resolution protein models, from which conformational transitions observed in AFM images can be interpreted in more detail. GENERAL SIGNIFICANCE High-speed AFM experiments allow us to directly observe biomolecules in action, which provides insights on biomolecular function through dynamics. However, as only partial structural information can be obtained from AFM data, this new AFM based hybrid modeling method would be useful to retrieve 3D information of the entire biomolecule.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bhaskar Dasgupta
- Center for Computational Science, RIKEN, Kobe, Hyogo, 650-0047, Japan.
| | - Osamu Miyashita
- Center for Computational Science, RIKEN, Kobe, Hyogo, 650-0047, Japan.
| | - Florence Tama
- Center for Computational Science, RIKEN, Kobe, Hyogo, 650-0047, Japan; Department of Physics, Graduate School of Science, Nagoya University, Aichi, 464-8602, Japan; Institute of Transformative Bio-Molecules (WPI-ITbM), Nagoya University, Aichi, 464-8601, Japan.
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11
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Weichsel A, Kievenaar JA, Curry R, Croft JT, Montfort WR. Instability in a coiled-coil signaling helix is conserved for signal transduction in soluble guanylyl cyclase. Protein Sci 2019; 28:1830-1839. [PMID: 31411784 DOI: 10.1002/pro.3707] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2019] [Revised: 08/10/2019] [Accepted: 08/12/2019] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
How nitric oxide (NO) activates its primary receptor, α1/β1 soluble guanylyl cyclase (sGC or GC-1), remains unknown. Likewise, how stimulatory compounds enhance sGC activity is poorly understood, hampering development of new treatments for cardiovascular disease. NO binding to ferrous heme near the N-terminus in sGC activates cyclase activity near the C-terminus, yielding cGMP production and physiological response. CO binding can also stimulate sGC, but only weakly in the absence of stimulatory small-molecule compounds, which together lead to full activation. How ligand binding enhances catalysis, however, has yet to be discovered. Here, using a truncated version of sGC from Manduca sexta, we demonstrate that the central coiled-coil domain, the most highly conserved region of the ~150,000 Da protein, not only provides stability to the heterodimer but is also conformationally active in signal transduction. Sequence conservation in the coiled coil includes the expected heptad-repeating pattern for coiled-coil motifs, but also invariant positions that disfavor coiled-coil stability. Full-length coiled coil dampens CO affinity for heme, while shortening of the coiled coil leads to enhanced CO binding. Introducing double mutation αE447L/βE377L, predicted to replace two destabilizing glutamates with leucines, lowers CO binding affinity while increasing overall protein stability. Likewise, introduction of a disulfide bond into the coiled coil results in reduced CO affinity. Taken together, we demonstrate that the heme domain is greatly influenced by coiled-coil conformation, suggesting communication between heme and catalytic domains is through the coiled coil. Highly conserved structural imperfections in the coiled coil provide needed flexibility for signal transduction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrzej Weichsel
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona
| | - Jessica A Kievenaar
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona
| | - Roslyn Curry
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona
| | - Jacob T Croft
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona
| | - William R Montfort
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona
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12
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Khalid RR, Maryam A, Fadouloglou VE, Siddiqi AR, Zhang Y. Cryo-EM density map fitting driven in-silico structure of human soluble guanylate cyclase (hsGC) reveals functional aspects of inter-domain cross talk upon NO binding. J Mol Graph Model 2019; 90:109-119. [PMID: 31055154 PMCID: PMC7956049 DOI: 10.1016/j.jmgm.2019.04.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2019] [Revised: 04/05/2019] [Accepted: 04/17/2019] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
The human soluble Guanylate Cyclase (hsGC) is a heterodimeric heme-containing enzyme which regulates many important physiological processes. In eukaryotes, hsGC is the only known receptor for nitric oxide (NO) signaling. Improper NO signaling results in various disease conditions such as neurodegeneration, hypertension, stroke and erectile dysfunction. To understand the mechanisms of these diseases, structure determination of the hsGC dimer complex is crucial. However, so far all the attempts for the experimental structure determination of the protein were unsuccessful. The current study explores the possibility to model the quaternary structure of hsGC using a hybrid approach that combines state-of-the-art protein structure prediction tools with cryo-EM experimental data. The resultant 3D model shows close consistency with structural and functional insights extracted from biochemistry experiment data. Overall, the atomic-level complex structure determination of hsGC helps to unveil the inter-domain communication upon NO binding, which should be of important usefulness for elucidating the biological function of this important enzyme and for developing new treatments against the hsGC associated human diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rana Rehan Khalid
- Department of Biosciences, COMSATS University, Islamabad, 45550, Pakistan; Department of Biostatistics and Medical Informatics, Acibadem Universitesi, Istanbul, 34752, Turkey; Department of Computational Medicine and Bioinformatics, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, 48109-2218, USA.
| | - Arooma Maryam
- Department of Biosciences, COMSATS University, Islamabad, 45550, Pakistan; Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Biruni Universitesi, Istanbul, 34010, Turkey.
| | - Vasiliki E Fadouloglou
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Democritus University of Thrace, University Campus, Alexandroupolis, 68100, Greece.
| | - Abdul Rauf Siddiqi
- Department of Biosciences, COMSATS University, Islamabad, 45550, Pakistan.
| | - Yang Zhang
- Department of Computational Medicine and Bioinformatics, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, 48109-2218, USA.
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13
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Tejero J, Shiva S, Gladwin MT. Sources of Vascular Nitric Oxide and Reactive Oxygen Species and Their Regulation. Physiol Rev 2019; 99:311-379. [PMID: 30379623 DOI: 10.1152/physrev.00036.2017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 290] [Impact Index Per Article: 58.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Nitric oxide (NO) is a small free radical with critical signaling roles in physiology and pathophysiology. The generation of sufficient NO levels to regulate the resistance of the blood vessels and hence the maintenance of adequate blood flow is critical to the healthy performance of the vasculature. A novel paradigm indicates that classical NO synthesis by dedicated NO synthases is supplemented by nitrite reduction pathways under hypoxia. At the same time, reactive oxygen species (ROS), which include superoxide and hydrogen peroxide, are produced in the vascular system for signaling purposes, as effectors of the immune response, or as byproducts of cellular metabolism. NO and ROS can be generated by distinct enzymes or by the same enzyme through alternate reduction and oxidation processes. The latter oxidoreductase systems include NO synthases, molybdopterin enzymes, and hemoglobins, which can form superoxide by reduction of molecular oxygen or NO by reduction of inorganic nitrite. Enzymatic uncoupling, changes in oxygen tension, and the concentration of coenzymes and reductants can modulate the NO/ROS production from these oxidoreductases and determine the redox balance in health and disease. The dysregulation of the mechanisms involved in the generation of NO and ROS is an important cause of cardiovascular disease and target for therapy. In this review we will present the biology of NO and ROS in the cardiovascular system, with special emphasis on their routes of formation and regulation, as well as the therapeutic challenges and opportunities for the management of NO and ROS in cardiovascular disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jesús Tejero
- Pittsburgh Heart, Lung, Blood and Vascular Medicine Institute, University of Pittsburgh , Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania ; Pulmonary, Allergy and Critical Care Medicine, University of Pittsburgh , Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania ; Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, University of Pittsburgh , Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania ; and Department of Medicine, Center for Metabolism and Mitochondrial Medicine, University of Pittsburgh , Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
| | - Sruti Shiva
- Pittsburgh Heart, Lung, Blood and Vascular Medicine Institute, University of Pittsburgh , Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania ; Pulmonary, Allergy and Critical Care Medicine, University of Pittsburgh , Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania ; Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, University of Pittsburgh , Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania ; and Department of Medicine, Center for Metabolism and Mitochondrial Medicine, University of Pittsburgh , Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
| | - Mark T Gladwin
- Pittsburgh Heart, Lung, Blood and Vascular Medicine Institute, University of Pittsburgh , Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania ; Pulmonary, Allergy and Critical Care Medicine, University of Pittsburgh , Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania ; Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, University of Pittsburgh , Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania ; and Department of Medicine, Center for Metabolism and Mitochondrial Medicine, University of Pittsburgh , Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
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14
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Lobão JBDS, Gondim ACS, Guimarães WG, Gilles‐Gonzalez M, Lopes LGDF, Sousa EHS. Oxygen triggers signal transduction in the DevS (DosS) sensor of
Mycobacterium tuberculosis
by modulating the quaternary structure. FEBS J 2019; 286:479-494. [DOI: 10.1111/febs.14734] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2018] [Revised: 11/05/2018] [Accepted: 12/14/2018] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Josiane Bezerra da Silva Lobão
- Laboratory of Bioinorganic Chemistry Department of Organic and Inorganic Chemistry Federal University of Ceara Center for Sciences Fortaleza Brazil
| | - Ana C. S. Gondim
- Laboratory of Bioinorganic Chemistry Department of Organic and Inorganic Chemistry Federal University of Ceara Center for Sciences Fortaleza Brazil
| | - Wellinson G. Guimarães
- Laboratory of Bioinorganic Chemistry Department of Organic and Inorganic Chemistry Federal University of Ceara Center for Sciences Fortaleza Brazil
| | | | - Luiz Gonzaga de França Lopes
- Laboratory of Bioinorganic Chemistry Department of Organic and Inorganic Chemistry Federal University of Ceara Center for Sciences Fortaleza Brazil
| | - Eduardo H. S. Sousa
- Laboratory of Bioinorganic Chemistry Department of Organic and Inorganic Chemistry Federal University of Ceara Center for Sciences Fortaleza Brazil
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15
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Srivastava A, Nagai T, Srivastava A, Miyashita O, Tama F. Role of Computational Methods in Going beyond X-ray Crystallography to Explore Protein Structure and Dynamics. Int J Mol Sci 2018; 19:E3401. [PMID: 30380757 PMCID: PMC6274748 DOI: 10.3390/ijms19113401] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2018] [Revised: 10/20/2018] [Accepted: 10/27/2018] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Protein structural biology came a long way since the determination of the first three-dimensional structure of myoglobin about six decades ago. Across this period, X-ray crystallography was the most important experimental method for gaining atomic-resolution insight into protein structures. However, as the role of dynamics gained importance in the function of proteins, the limitations of X-ray crystallography in not being able to capture dynamics came to the forefront. Computational methods proved to be immensely successful in understanding protein dynamics in solution, and they continue to improve in terms of both the scale and the types of systems that can be studied. In this review, we briefly discuss the limitations of X-ray crystallography in studying protein dynamics, and then provide an overview of different computational methods that are instrumental in understanding the dynamics of proteins and biomacromolecular complexes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ashutosh Srivastava
- Institute of Transformative Bio-Molecules (WPI), Nagoya University, Nagoya, Aichi 464-8601, Japan.
| | - Tetsuro Nagai
- Department of Physics, Graduate School of Science, Nagoya University, Nagoya, Aichi 464-8602, Japan.
| | - Arpita Srivastava
- Department of Physics, Graduate School of Science, Nagoya University, Nagoya, Aichi 464-8602, Japan.
| | - Osamu Miyashita
- RIKEN-Center for Computational Science, Kobe, Hyogo 650-0047, Japan.
| | - Florence Tama
- Institute of Transformative Bio-Molecules (WPI), Nagoya University, Nagoya, Aichi 464-8601, Japan.
- Department of Physics, Graduate School of Science, Nagoya University, Nagoya, Aichi 464-8602, Japan.
- RIKEN-Center for Computational Science, Kobe, Hyogo 650-0047, Japan.
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16
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Tiwari SP, Tama F, Miyashita O. Searching for 3D structural models from a library of biological shapes using a few 2D experimental images. BMC Bioinformatics 2018; 19:320. [PMID: 30208849 PMCID: PMC6134691 DOI: 10.1186/s12859-018-2358-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2017] [Accepted: 09/03/2018] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Advancements in biophysical experimental techniques have pushed the limits in terms of the types of phenomena that can be characterized, the amount of data that can be produced and the resolution at which we can visualize them. Single particle techniques such as Electron Microscopy (EM) and X-ray free electron laser (XFEL) scattering require a large number of 2D images collected to resolve three-dimensional (3D) structures. In this study, we propose a quick strategy to retrieve potential 3D shapes, as low-resolution models, from a few 2D experimental images by searching a library of 2D projection images generated from existing 3D structures. Results We developed the protocol to assemble a non-redundant set of 3D shapes for generating the 2D image library, and to retrieve potential match 3D shapes for query images, using EM data as a test. In our strategy, we disregard differences in volume size, giving previously unknown structures and conformations a greater number of 3D biological shapes as possible matches. We tested the strategy using images from three EM models as query images for searches against a library of 22750 2D projection images generated from 250 random EM models. We found that our ability to identify 3D shapes that match the query images depends on how complex the outline of the 2D shapes are and whether they are represented in the search image library. Conclusions Through our computational method, we are able to quickly retrieve a 3D shape from a few 2D projection images. Our approach has the potential for exploring other types of 2D single particle structural data such as from XFEL scattering experiments, for providing a tool to interpret low-resolution data that may be insufficient for 3D reconstruction, and for estimating the mixing of states or conformations that could exist in such experimental data. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1186/s12859-018-2358-0) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sandhya P Tiwari
- Computational Structural Biology Unit, RIKEN Center for Computational Science, Kobe, Japan
| | - Florence Tama
- Computational Structural Biology Unit, RIKEN Center for Computational Science, Kobe, Japan. .,Graduate School of Science, Department of Physics & Institute of Transformative Bio-Molecules (WPI-ITbM), Nagoya University, Nagoya, Japan.
| | - Osamu Miyashita
- Computational Structural Biology Unit, RIKEN Center for Computational Science, Kobe, Japan
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17
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Horst BG, Marletta MA. Physiological activation and deactivation of soluble guanylate cyclase. Nitric Oxide 2018; 77:65-74. [PMID: 29704567 PMCID: PMC6919197 DOI: 10.1016/j.niox.2018.04.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2018] [Revised: 04/23/2018] [Accepted: 04/23/2018] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
Soluble guanylate cyclase (sGC) is responsible for transducing the gaseous signaling molecule nitric oxide (NO) into the ubiquitous secondary signaling messenger cyclic guanosine monophosphate in eukaryotic organisms. sGC is exquisitely tuned to respond to low levels of NO, allowing cells to respond to non-toxic levels of NO. In this review, the structure of sGC is discussed in the context of sGC activation and deactivation. The sequence of events in the activation pathway are described into a comprehensive model of in vivo sGC activation as elucidated both from studies with purified enzyme and those done in cells. This model is then used to discuss the deactivation of sGC, as well as the molecular mechanisms of pathophysiological deactivation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin G Horst
- Department of Chemistry, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, USA
| | - Michael A Marletta
- Department of Chemistry, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, USA; Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, USA; California Institute for Quantitative Biosciences, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, USA.
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18
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Sömmer A, Behrends S. Methods to investigate structure and activation dynamics of GC-1/GC-2. Nitric Oxide 2018; 78:S1089-8603(17)30348-8. [PMID: 29705716 DOI: 10.1016/j.niox.2018.04.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2017] [Revised: 04/19/2018] [Accepted: 04/23/2018] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Soluble guanylyl cyclase (sGC) is a heterodimeric enzyme consisting of one α and one β subunit. The α1β1 (GC-1) and α2β1 (GC-2) heterodimers are important for NO signaling in humans and catalyse the conversion from GTP to cGMP. Each sGC subunit consists of four domains. Several crystal structures of the isolated domains are available. However, crystals of full-length sGC have failed to materialise. In consequence, the detailed three dimensional structure of sGC remains unknown to date. Different techniques including stopped-flow spectroscopy, Förster-resonance energy transfer, direct fluorescence, analytical ultracentrifugation, chemical cross-linking, small-angle X-ray scattering, electron microscopy, hydrogen-deuterium exchange and protein thermal shift assays, were used to collect indirect information. Taken together, this circumstantial evidence from different groups brings forth a plausible model of sGC domain arrangement, spatial orientation and dynamic rearrangement upon activation. For analysis of the active conformation the stable binding mode of sGC activators has a significant methodological advantage over the transient, elusive, complex and highly concentration dependent effects of NO in many applications. The methods used and the results obtained are reviewed and discussed in this article.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anne Sömmer
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Clinical Pharmacy, University of Braunschweig - Institute of Technology, Germany.
| | - Sönke Behrends
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Clinical Pharmacy, University of Braunschweig - Institute of Technology, Germany.
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19
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Childers KC, Garcin ED. Structure/function of the soluble guanylyl cyclase catalytic domain. Nitric Oxide 2018; 77:53-64. [PMID: 29702251 PMCID: PMC6005667 DOI: 10.1016/j.niox.2018.04.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2018] [Revised: 04/20/2018] [Accepted: 04/23/2018] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Soluble guanylyl cyclase (GC-1) is the primary receptor of nitric oxide (NO) in smooth muscle cells and maintains vascular function by inducing vasorelaxation in nearby blood vessels. GC-1 converts guanosine 5′-triphosphate (GTP) into cyclic guanosine 3′,5′-monophosphate (cGMP), which acts as a second messenger to improve blood flow. While much work has been done to characterize this pathway, we lack a mechanistic understanding of how NO binding to the heme domain leads to a large increase in activity at the C-terminal catalytic domain. Recent structural evidence and activity measurements from multiple groups have revealed a low-activity cyclase domain that requires additional GC-1 domains to promote a catalytically-competent conformation. How the catalytic domain structurally transitions into the active conformation requires further characterization. This review focuses on structure/function studies of the GC-1 catalytic domain and recent advances various groups have made in understanding how catalytic activity is regulated including small molecules interactions, Cys-S-NO modifications and potential interactions with the NO-sensor domain and other proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kenneth C Childers
- University of Maryland Baltimore County, Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Baltimore, USA
| | - Elsa D Garcin
- University of Maryland Baltimore County, Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Baltimore, USA.
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20
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Sömmer A, Behrends S. Synergistic stabilisation of NOsGC by cinaciguat and non-hydrolysable nucleotides: Evidence for sGC activator-induced communication between the heme-binding and catalytic domains. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-PROTEINS AND PROTEOMICS 2018; 1866:702-711. [PMID: 29653192 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbapap.2018.03.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2018] [Revised: 03/16/2018] [Accepted: 03/31/2018] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Nitric oxide sensitive guanylyl cyclase (NOsGC) is a heterodimeric enzyme consisting of one α and one β subunit. Each subunit consists of four domains: the N-terminal heme-nitric oxide oxygen binding (HNOX) domain, a PAS domain, a coiled-coil domain and the C-terminal catalytic domain. Upon activation by the endogenous ligand NO or activating drugs, NOsGC catalyses the conversion of GTP to cGMP. Although several crystal structures of the isolated domains are known, the structure of the full-length enzyme and the interdomain conformational changes during activation remain unsolved to date. In the current study, we performed protein thermal shift assays of purified NOsGC to identify discrete conformational states amenable to further analysis e.g. by crystallisation. A non-hydrolysable substrate analogue binding to the catalytic domain led to a subtle change in melting temperature. An activator drug binding to the HNOX domain led to a small increase. However, the combination of substrate analogue and activator drug led to a marked synergistic increase from 51 °C to 60 °C. This suggests reciprocal communication between HNOX domain and catalytic domain and formation of a stable activated conformation amenable to further biophysical characterization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anne Sömmer
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Clinical Pharmacy, University of Braunschweig - Institute of Technology, Germany.
| | - Sönke Behrends
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Clinical Pharmacy, University of Braunschweig - Institute of Technology, Germany.
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21
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Shah RC, Sanker S, Wood KC, Durgin BG, Straub AC. Redox regulation of soluble guanylyl cyclase. Nitric Oxide 2018; 76:97-104. [PMID: 29578056 DOI: 10.1016/j.niox.2018.03.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2017] [Revised: 02/28/2018] [Accepted: 03/19/2018] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
The nitric oxide/soluble guanylyl cyclase (NO-sGC) signaling pathway regulates the cardiovascular, neuronal, and gastrointestinal systems. Impaired sGC signaling can result in disease and system-wide organ failure. This review seeks to examine the redox control of sGC through heme and cysteine regulation while discussing therapeutic drugs that target various conditions. Heme regulation involves mechanisms of insertion of the heme moiety into the sGC protein, the molecules and proteins that control switching between the oxidized (Fe3+) and reduced states (Fe2+), and the activity of heme degradation. Modifications to cysteine residues by S-nitrosation on the α1 and β1 subunits of sGC have been shown to be important in sGC signaling. Moreover, redox balance and localization of sGC is thought to control downstream effects. In response to altered sGC activity due to changes in the redox state, many therapeutic drugs have been developed to target decreased NO-sGC signaling. The importance and relevance of sGC continues to grow as sGC dysregulation leads to numerous disease conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rohan C Shah
- Pittsburgh Heart, Lung, Blood and Vascular Medicine Institute, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Subramaniam Sanker
- Pittsburgh Heart, Lung, Blood and Vascular Medicine Institute, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Katherine C Wood
- Pittsburgh Heart, Lung, Blood and Vascular Medicine Institute, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Brittany G Durgin
- Pittsburgh Heart, Lung, Blood and Vascular Medicine Institute, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Adam C Straub
- Pittsburgh Heart, Lung, Blood and Vascular Medicine Institute, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA; Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA.
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22
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Miyashita O, Tama F. Hybrid Methods for Macromolecular Modeling by Molecular Mechanics Simulations with Experimental Data. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2018; 1105:199-217. [PMID: 30617831 DOI: 10.1007/978-981-13-2200-6_13] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Hybrid approaches for the modeling of macromolecular complexes that combine computational molecular mechanics simulations with experimental data are discussed. Experimental data for biological molecular structures are often low-resolution, and thus, do not contain enough information to determine the atomic positions of molecules. This is especially true when the dynamics of large macromolecules are the focus of the study. However, computational modeling can complement missing information. Significant increase in computational power, as well as the development of new modeling algorithms allow us to model structures of biological macromolecules reliably, using experimental data as references. We review the basics of molecular mechanics approaches, such as atomic model force field, and coarse-grained models, molecular dynamics simulation and normal mode analysis and describe how they could be used for flexible fitting hybrid modeling with experimental data, especially from cryo-EM and SAXS.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Florence Tama
- RIKEN R-CCS, Kobe, Hyōgo, Japan. .,Department of Physics and ITbM, Nagoya University, Nagoya, Japan.
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23
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Wales JA, Chen CY, Breci L, Weichsel A, Bernier SG, Sheppeck JE, Solinga R, Nakai T, Renhowe PA, Jung J, Montfort WR. Discovery of stimulator binding to a conserved pocket in the heme domain of soluble guanylyl cyclase. J Biol Chem 2017; 293:1850-1864. [PMID: 29222330 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.ra117.000457] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2017] [Revised: 11/18/2017] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Soluble guanylyl cyclase (sGC) is the receptor for nitric oxide and a highly sought-after therapeutic target for the management of cardiovascular diseases. New compounds that stimulate sGC show clinical promise, but where these stimulator compounds bind and how they function remains unknown. Here, using a photolyzable diazirine derivative of a novel stimulator compound, IWP-051, and MS analysis, we localized drug binding to the β1 heme domain of sGC proteins from the hawkmoth Manduca sexta and from human. Covalent attachments to the stimulator were also identified in bacterial homologs of the sGC heme domain, referred to as H-NOX domains, including those from Nostoc sp. PCC 7120, Shewanella oneidensis, Shewanella woodyi, and Clostridium botulinum, indicating that the binding site is highly conserved. The identification of photoaffinity-labeled peptides was aided by a signature MS fragmentation pattern of general applicability for unequivocal identification of covalently attached compounds. Using NMR, we also examined stimulator binding to sGC from M. sexta and bacterial H-NOX homologs. These data indicated that stimulators bind to a conserved cleft between two subdomains in the sGC heme domain. L12W/T48W substitutions within the binding pocket resulted in a 9-fold decrease in drug response, suggesting that the bulkier tryptophan residues directly block stimulator binding. The localization of stimulator binding to the sGC heme domain reported here resolves the longstanding question of where stimulators bind and provides a path forward for drug discovery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessica A Wales
- From the Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona 85721 and
| | - Cheng-Yu Chen
- From the Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona 85721 and
| | - Linda Breci
- From the Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona 85721 and
| | - Andrzej Weichsel
- From the Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona 85721 and
| | | | | | - Robert Solinga
- Ironwood Pharmaceuticals, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02142
| | - Takashi Nakai
- Ironwood Pharmaceuticals, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02142
| | - Paul A Renhowe
- Ironwood Pharmaceuticals, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02142
| | - Joon Jung
- Ironwood Pharmaceuticals, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02142
| | - William R Montfort
- From the Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona 85721 and
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24
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Probing the Molecular Mechanism of Human Soluble Guanylate Cyclase Activation by NO in vitro and in vivo. Sci Rep 2017; 7:43112. [PMID: 28230071 PMCID: PMC5322342 DOI: 10.1038/srep43112] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2016] [Accepted: 01/19/2017] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Soluble guanylate cyclase (sGC) is a heme-containing metalloprotein in NO-sGC-cGMP signaling. NO binds to the heme of sGC to catalyze the synthesis of the second messenger cGMP, which plays a critical role in several physiological processes. However, the molecular mechanism for sGC to mediate the NO signaling remains unclear. Here fluorophore FlAsH-EDT2 and fluorescent proteins were employed to study the NO-induced sGC activation. FlAsH-EDT2 labeling study revealed that NO binding to the H-NOX domain of sGC increased the distance between H-NOX and PAS domain and the separation between H-NOX and coiled-coil domain. The heme pocket conformation changed from “closed” to “open” upon NO binding. In addition, the NO-induced conformational change of sGC was firstly investigated in vivo through fluorescence lifetime imaging microscopy. The results both in vitro and in vivo indicated the conformational change of the catalytic domain of sGC from “open” to “closed” upon NO binding. NO binding to the heme of H-NOX domain caused breaking of Fe-N coordination bond, initiated the domain moving and conformational change, induced the allosteric effect of sGC to trigger the NO-signaling from H-NOX via PAS & coiled-coil to the catalytic domain, and ultimately stimulates the cyclase activity of sGC.
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25
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Ghosh A, Stuehr DJ. Regulation of sGC via hsp90, Cellular Heme, sGC Agonists, and NO: New Pathways and Clinical Perspectives. Antioxid Redox Signal 2017; 26:182-190. [PMID: 26983679 PMCID: PMC5278824 DOI: 10.1089/ars.2016.6690] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
SIGNIFICANCE Soluble guanylate cyclase (sGC) is an intracellular enzyme that plays a primary role in sensing nitric oxide (NO) and transducing its multiple signaling effects in mammals. Recent Advances: The chaperone heat shock protein 90 (hsp90) associates with signaling proteins in cells, including sGC, where it helps to drive heme insertion into the sGC-β1 subunit. This allows sGC-β1 to associate with a partner sGC-α1 subunit and mature into an NO-responsive active form. CRITICAL ISSUES In this article, we review evidence to date regarding the mechanisms that modulate sGC activity by a pathway where binding of hsp90 or sGC agonist to heme-free sGC dictates the assembly and fate of an active sGC heterodimer, both by NO and heme-dependent or heme-independent pathways. FUTURE DIRECTIONS We discuss some therapeutic implications of the NO-sGC-hsp90 nexus and its potential as a marker of inflammatory disease. Antioxid. Redox Signal. 26, 182-190.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arnab Ghosh
- Department of Pathobiology, Lerner Research Institute , Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, Ohio
| | - Dennis J Stuehr
- Department of Pathobiology, Lerner Research Institute , Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, Ohio
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26
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Montfort WR, Wales JA, Weichsel A. Structure and Activation of Soluble Guanylyl Cyclase, the Nitric Oxide Sensor. Antioxid Redox Signal 2017; 26:107-121. [PMID: 26979942 PMCID: PMC5240008 DOI: 10.1089/ars.2016.6693] [Citation(s) in RCA: 91] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
SIGNIFICANCE Soluble guanylyl/guanylate cyclase (sGC) is the primary receptor for nitric oxide (NO) and is central to the physiology of blood pressure regulation, wound healing, memory formation, and other key physiological activities. sGC is increasingly implicated in disease and is targeted by novel therapeutic compounds. The protein displays a rich evolutionary history and a fascinating signal transduction mechanism, with NO binding to an N-terminal heme-containing domain, which activates the C-terminal cyclase domains. Recent Advances: Crystal structures of individual sGC domains or their bacterial homologues coupled with small-angle x-ray scattering, electron microscopy, chemical cross-linking, and Förster resonance energy transfer measurements are yielding insight into the overall structure for sGC, which is elongated and likely quite dynamic. Transient kinetic measurements reveal a role for individual domains in lowering NO affinity for heme. New sGC stimulatory drugs are now in the clinic and appear to function through binding near or directly to the sGC heme domain, relieving inhibitory contacts with other domains. New sGC-activating drugs show promise for recovering oxidized sGC in diseases with high inflammation by replacing lost heme. CRITICAL ISSUES Despite the many recent advances, sGC regulation, NO activation, and mechanisms of drug binding remain unclear. Here, we describe the molecular evolution of sGC, new molecular models, and the linked equilibria between sGC NO binding, drug binding, and catalytic activity. FUTURE DIRECTIONS Recent results and ongoing studies lay the foundation for a complete understanding of structure and mechanism, and they open the door for new drug discovery targeting sGC. Antioxid. Redox Signal. 26, 107-121.
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Affiliation(s)
- William R Montfort
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Arizona , Tucson, Arizona
| | - Jessica A Wales
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Arizona , Tucson, Arizona
| | - Andrzej Weichsel
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Arizona , Tucson, Arizona
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27
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Vijayaraghavan J, Kramp K, Harris ME, van den Akker F. Inhibition of soluble guanylyl cyclase by small molecules targeting the catalytic domain. FEBS Lett 2016; 590:3669-3680. [PMID: 27654641 DOI: 10.1002/1873-3468.12427] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2016] [Revised: 08/29/2016] [Accepted: 09/09/2016] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Soluble guanylyl cyclase (sGC) plays a crucial role in cyclic nucleotide signaling that regulates numerous important physiological processes. To identify new sGC inhibitors that may prevent the formation of the active catalytic domain conformation, we carried out an in silico docking screen targeting a 'backside pocket' of the inactive sGC catalytic domain structure. Compounds 1 and 2 were discovered to inhibit sGC even at high/saturating nitric oxide concentrations. Both compounds also inhibit the BAY 58-2667-activated sGC as well as BAY 41-2272-stimulated sGC activity. Additional biochemical analyses showed that compound 2 also inhibits the isolated catalytic domain, thus demonstrating functional binding to this domain. Both compounds have micromolar affinity for sGC and are potential leads to develop more potent sGC inhibitors.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Kristopher Kramp
- Department of Biochemistry, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, USA
| | - Michael E Harris
- Department of Biochemistry, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, USA
| | - Focco van den Akker
- Department of Biochemistry, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, USA.
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28
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Tokuhisa A, Jonic S, Tama F, Miyashita O. Hybrid approach for structural modeling of biological systems from X-ray free electron laser diffraction patterns. J Struct Biol 2016; 194:325-36. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jsb.2016.03.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2015] [Revised: 03/09/2016] [Accepted: 03/09/2016] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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29
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Kang Y, Kim J, Lee YM, Im S, Park H, Kim WJ. Nitric oxide-releasing polymer incorporated ointment for cutaneous wound healing. J Control Release 2015; 220:624-30. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2015.08.057] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2015] [Revised: 08/10/2015] [Accepted: 08/31/2015] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
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30
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Heckler EJ, Kholodovych V, Jain M, Liu T, Li H, Beuve A. Mapping Soluble Guanylyl Cyclase and Protein Disulfide Isomerase Regions of Interaction. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0143523. [PMID: 26618351 PMCID: PMC4664405 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0143523] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2015] [Accepted: 11/05/2015] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Soluble guanylyl cyclase (sGC) is a heterodimeric nitric oxide (NO) receptor that produces cyclic GMP. This signaling mechanism is a key component in the cardiovascular system. NO binds to heme in the β subunit and stimulates the catalytic conversion of GTP to cGMP several hundred fold. Several endogenous factors have been identified that modulate sGC function in vitro and in vivo. In previous work, we determined that protein disulfide isomerase (PDI) interacts with sGC in a redox-dependent manner in vitro and that PDI inhibited NO-stimulated activity in cells. To our knowledge, this was the first report of a physical interaction between sGC and a thiol-redox protein. To characterize this interaction between sGC and PDI, we first identified peptide linkages between sGC and PDI, using a lysine cross-linking reagent and recently developed mass spectrometry analysis. Together with Flag-immunoprecipitation using sGC domain deletions, wild-type (WT) and mutated PDI, regions of sGC involved in this interaction were identified. The observed data were further explored with computational modeling to gain insight into the interaction mechanism between sGC and oxidized PDI. Our results indicate that PDI interacts preferentially with the catalytic domain of sGC, thus providing a mechanism for PDI inhibition of sGC. A model in which PDI interacts with either the α or the β catalytic domain is proposed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erin J. Heckler
- Department of Pharmacology and Physiology and Neuroscience, New Jersey Medical School, Rutgers University, Newark, NJ, United States of America
| | - Vladyslav Kholodovych
- High Performance and Research Computing, OIRT, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, NJ, United States of America
- Department of Pharmacology, Robert Wood Johnson Medical School, Rutgers University, Piscataway, NJ, United States of America
| | - Mohit Jain
- Proteomics Core, New Jersey Medical School, Rutgers University, Newark, NJ, United States of America
| | - Tong Liu
- Proteomics Core, New Jersey Medical School, Rutgers University, Newark, NJ, United States of America
| | - Hong Li
- Proteomics Core, New Jersey Medical School, Rutgers University, Newark, NJ, United States of America
| | - Annie Beuve
- Department of Pharmacology and Physiology and Neuroscience, New Jersey Medical School, Rutgers University, Newark, NJ, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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31
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Shimizu T, Huang D, Yan F, Stranava M, Bartosova M, Fojtíková V, Martínková M. Gaseous O2, NO, and CO in signal transduction: structure and function relationships of heme-based gas sensors and heme-redox sensors. Chem Rev 2015; 115:6491-533. [PMID: 26021768 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.5b00018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 131] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Toru Shimizu
- †Department of Cell Biology and Genetics and Key Laboratory of Molecular Biology in High Cancer Incidence Coastal Chaoshan Area of Guangdong Higher Education Institutes, Shantou University Medical College, Shantou, Guangdong 515041, China
- ‡Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, Charles University in Prague, Prague 2 128 43, Czech Republic
- §Research Center for Compact Chemical System, National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST), Sendai 983-8551, Japan
| | - Dongyang Huang
- †Department of Cell Biology and Genetics and Key Laboratory of Molecular Biology in High Cancer Incidence Coastal Chaoshan Area of Guangdong Higher Education Institutes, Shantou University Medical College, Shantou, Guangdong 515041, China
| | - Fang Yan
- †Department of Cell Biology and Genetics and Key Laboratory of Molecular Biology in High Cancer Incidence Coastal Chaoshan Area of Guangdong Higher Education Institutes, Shantou University Medical College, Shantou, Guangdong 515041, China
| | - Martin Stranava
- ‡Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, Charles University in Prague, Prague 2 128 43, Czech Republic
| | - Martina Bartosova
- ‡Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, Charles University in Prague, Prague 2 128 43, Czech Republic
| | - Veronika Fojtíková
- ‡Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, Charles University in Prague, Prague 2 128 43, Czech Republic
| | - Markéta Martínková
- ‡Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, Charles University in Prague, Prague 2 128 43, Czech Republic
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32
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Sarkar A, Dai Y, Haque MM, Seeger F, Ghosh A, Garcin ED, Montfort WR, Hazen SL, Misra S, Stuehr DJ. Heat Shock Protein 90 Associates with the Per-Arnt-Sim Domain of Heme-free Soluble Guanylate Cyclase: IMplications for Enzyme Maturation. J Biol Chem 2015; 290:21615-28. [PMID: 26134567 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m115.645515] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2015] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Heat shock protein 90 (hsp90) drives heme insertion into the β1 subunit of soluble guanylate cyclase (sGC) β1, which enables it to associate with a partner sGCα1 subunit and mature into a nitric oxide (NO)-responsive active form. We utilized fluorescence polarization measurements and hydrogen-deuterium exchange mass spectrometry to define molecular interactions between the specific human isoforms hsp90β and apo-sGCβ1. hsp90β and its isolated M domain, but not its isolated N and C domains, bind with low micromolar affinity to a heme-free, truncated version of sGCβ1 (sGCβ1(1-359)-H105F). Surprisingly, hsp90β and its M domain bound to the Per-Arnt-Sim (PAS) domain of apo-sGC-β1(1-359), which lies adjacent to its heme-binding (H-NOX) domain. The interaction specifically involved solvent-exposed regions in the hsp90β M domain that are largely distinct from sites utilized by other hsp90 clients. The interaction strongly protected two regions of the sGCβ1 PAS domain and caused local structural relaxation in other regions, including a PAS dimerization interface and a segment in the H-NOX domain. Our results suggest a means by which the hsp90β interaction could prevent apo-sGCβ1 from associating with its partner sGCα1 subunit while enabling structural changes to assist heme insertion into the H-NOX domain. This mechanism would parallel that in other clients like the aryl hydrocarbon receptor and HIF1α, which also interact with hsp90 through their PAS domains to control protein partner and small ligand binding interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Yue Dai
- From the Departments of Pathobiology
| | | | - Franziska Seeger
- the Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Maryland at Baltimore County, Baltimore, Maryland 21250, and
| | | | - Elsa D Garcin
- the Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Maryland at Baltimore County, Baltimore, Maryland 21250, and
| | - William R Montfort
- the Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona 85721
| | | | - Saurav Misra
- Molecular Cardiology, Lerner Research Institute, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, Ohio 44195
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33
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Wobst J, Rumpf PM, Dang TA, Segura-Puimedon M, Erdmann J, Schunkert H. Molecular variants of soluble guanylyl cyclase affecting cardiovascular risk. Circ J 2015; 79:463-9. [PMID: 25746521 DOI: 10.1253/circj.cj-15-0025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Soluble guanylyl cyclase (sGC) is the physiological receptor for nitric oxide (NO) and NO-releasing drugs, and is a key enzyme in several cardiovascular signaling pathways. Its activation induces the synthesis of the second messenger cGMP. cGMP regulates the activity of various downstream proteins, including cGMP-dependent protein kinase G, cGMP-dependent phosphodiesterases and cyclic nucleotide gated ion channels leading to vascular relaxation, inhibition of platelet aggregation, and modified neurotransmission. Diminished sGC function contributes to a number of disorders, including cardiovascular diseases. Knowledge of its regulation is a prerequisite for understanding the pathophysiology of deficient sGC signaling. In this review we consolidate the available information on sGC signaling, including the molecular biology and genetics of sGC transcription, translation and function, including the effect of rare variants, and present possible new targets for the development of personalized medicine in vascular diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jana Wobst
- Department of Cardiovascular Diseases, German Heart Center Munich, Technical University Munich
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34
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Lowe A, Bills J, Verma R, Lavery L, Davis K, Balkus K. Electrospun nitric oxide releasing bandage with enhanced wound healing. Acta Biomater 2015; 13:121-30. [PMID: 25463501 DOI: 10.1016/j.actbio.2014.11.032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2014] [Revised: 10/25/2014] [Accepted: 11/17/2014] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Research has shown that nitric oxide (NO) enhances wound healing. The incorporation of NO into polymers for medical materials and surgical devices has potential benefits for many wound healing applications. In this work, acrylonitrile (AN)-based terpolymers were electrospun to form non-woven sheets of bandage or wound dressing type materials. NO is bound to the polymer backbone via the formation of a diazeniumdiolate group. In a 14 day NO release study, the dressings released 79 μmol NO g(-1) polymer. The NO-loaded dressings were tested for NO release in vivo, which demonstrate upregulation of NO-inducible genes with dressing application compared to empty dressings. Studies were also conducted to evaluate healing progression in wounds with dressing application performed weekly and daily. In two separate studies, excisional wounds were created on the dorsa of 10 mice. Dressings with NO loaded on the fibers or empty controls were applied to the wounds and measurements of the wound area were taken at each dressing change. The data show significantly enhanced healing progression in the wounds with weekly NO application, which is more dramatic with daily application. Further, the application of daily NO bandages results in improved wound vascularity. These data demonstrate the potential for this novel NO-releasing dressing as a valid wound healing therapy.
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35
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Cheguru P, Majumder A, Yadav R, Gopalakrishna KN, Gakhar L, Artemyev NO. The solution structure of the transducin-α-uncoordinated 119 protein complex suggests occlusion of the Gβ₁γ₁-binding sites. FEBS J 2014; 282:550-61. [PMID: 25425538 DOI: 10.1111/febs.13161] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2014] [Revised: 11/17/2014] [Accepted: 11/24/2014] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Uncoordinated 119 protein (UNC119) is a partner of transducin-α subunit (Gαt ) that is essential for transducin trafficking in rod photoreceptors. The interaction is known to involve binding of the acylated N terminus of Gαt to the hydrophobic pocket of UNC119. To gain insights into the mechanism of transducin trafficking, we isolated a highly pure protein complex between myristoylated chimeric Gαt (Gαt *) and UNC119₅₀₋₂₄₀, and examined the solution structure by small angle X-ray scattering and chemical crosslinking. The solution structure of the Gαt -UNC119₅₀₋₂₄₀ complex was derived with rigid body/ab initio modeling against the small angle X-ray scattering data by use of known atomic structures of Gαt and UNC119, and a distance constraint based on the protein crosslinking with p-phenyldimaleimide. The model of the Gαt -UNC119₅₀₋₂₄₀ complex indicates rotation and bending of the N-terminal α-helix of Gαt from its position in the structure of the heterotrimeric G-protein transducin (Gt ). This allows a considerably more compact complex conformation, which also suggests a novel interface involving the switch II/α3-β5 surface of Gαt . Supporting a novel interface, UNC119 was found to bind full-length Gαt * more strongly than the Gαt N-terminal peptide. Furthermore, UNC119 competed with the effector molecule phosphodiesterase-6 γ-subunit, which is known to bind to the same surface of Gαt . The solution structure of the Gαt -UNC119 complex suggests that the ability of UNC119 to dissociate Gt subunits and release Gαt from the membrane is attributable to disruption and sterical occlusion of the Gβ₁γ₁-binding sites on Gαt .
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Affiliation(s)
- Pallavi Cheguru
- Department of Molecular Physiology and Biophysics, University of Iowa, IA, USA
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36
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Hunter SC, Smith BA, Hoffmann CM, Wang X, Chen YS, McIntyre GJ, Xue ZL. Intermolecular Interactions in Solid-State Metalloporphyrins and Their Impacts on Crystal and Molecular Structures. Inorg Chem 2014; 53:11552-62. [DOI: 10.1021/ic5015835] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Seth C. Hunter
- Department of Chemistry, The University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tennessee 37996, United States
| | - Brenda A. Smith
- Department of Chemistry, The University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tennessee 37996, United States
| | - Christina M. Hoffmann
- Chemical and Engineering Materials Division, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tennessee 37830, United States
| | - Xiaoping Wang
- Chemical and Engineering Materials Division, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tennessee 37830, United States
| | - Yu-Sheng Chen
- ChemMatCARS,
Center for Advanced Radiation Sources, The University of Chicago, Argonne, Illinois 60439, United States
| | | | - Zi-Ling Xue
- Department of Chemistry, The University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tennessee 37996, United States
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37
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Structures of soluble guanylate cyclase: implications for regulatory mechanisms and drug development. Biochem Soc Trans 2014; 42:108-13. [PMID: 24450636 PMCID: PMC3901396 DOI: 10.1042/bst20130228] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Activation of cGMP synthesis leads to vasodilation, and is an important mechanism in clinical treatment of angina, heart failure, and severe peripheral and pulmonary hypertension. The nitric oxide-responsive sGC (soluble guanylate cyclase) has been the target of recent drug discovery efforts. The present review surveys recent data on the structure and regulation of sGC, and the prospects of new avenues for therapeutic intervention.
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38
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Ghosh A, Stasch JP, Papapetropoulos A, Stuehr DJ. Nitric oxide and heat shock protein 90 activate soluble guanylate cyclase by driving rapid change in its subunit interactions and heme content. J Biol Chem 2014; 289:15259-71. [PMID: 24733395 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m114.559393] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The chaperone heat shock protein 90 (hsp90) associates with signaling proteins in cells including soluble guanylate cyclase (sGC). hsp90 associates with the heme-free (apo) sGC-β1 subunit and helps to drive heme insertion during maturation of sGC to its NO-responsive active form. Here, we found that NO caused apo-sGC-β1 to rapidly and transiently dissociate from hsp90 and associate with sGC-α1 in cells. This NO response (i) required that hsp90 be active and that cellular heme be available and be capable of inserting into apo-sGC-β1; (ii) was associated with an increase in sGC-β1 heme content; (iii) could be mimicked by the heme-independent sGC activator BAY 60-2770; and (iv) was followed by desensitization of sGC toward NO, sGC-α1 disassociation, and reassociation with hsp90. Thus, NO promoted a rapid, transient, and hsp90-dependent heme insertion into the apo-sGC-β1 subpopulation in cells, which enabled it to combine with the sGC-α1 subunit to form the mature enzyme. The driving mechanism likely involves conformational changes near the heme site in sGC-β1 that can be mimicked by the pharmacologic sGC activator. Such dynamic interplay between hsp90, apo-sGC-β1, and sGC-α1 in response to NO is unprecedented and represent new steps by which cells can modulate the heme content and activity of sGC for signaling cascades.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arnab Ghosh
- From the Department of Pathobiology, Lerner Research Institute, The Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, Ohio 44195
| | | | | | - Dennis J Stuehr
- From the Department of Pathobiology, Lerner Research Institute, The Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, Ohio 44195,
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39
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Rogers NM, Seeger F, Garcin ED, Roberts DD, Isenberg JS. Regulation of soluble guanylate cyclase by matricellular thrombospondins: implications for blood flow. Front Physiol 2014; 5:134. [PMID: 24772092 PMCID: PMC3983488 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2014.00134] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2014] [Accepted: 03/18/2014] [Indexed: 01/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Nitric oxide (NO) maintains cardiovascular health by activating soluble guanylate cyclase (sGC) to increase cellular cGMP levels. Cardiovascular disease is characterized by decreased NO-sGC-cGMP signaling. Pharmacological activators and stimulators of sGC are being actively pursued as therapies for acute heart failure and pulmonary hypertension. Here we review molecular mechanisms that modulate sGC activity while emphasizing a novel biochemical pathway in which binding of the matricellular protein thrombospondin-1 (TSP1) to the cell surface receptor CD47 causes inhibition of sGC. We discuss the therapeutic implications of this pathway for blood flow, tissue perfusion, and cell survival under physiologic and disease conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Natasha M Rogers
- Department of Medicine, Vascular Medicine Institute, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Franziska Seeger
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Maryland Baltimore County Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Elsa D Garcin
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Maryland Baltimore County Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - David D Roberts
- Laboratory of Pathology, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, NIH Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Jeffrey S Isenberg
- Department of Medicine, Vascular Medicine Institute, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine Pittsburgh, PA, USA ; Department of Medicine, Division of Pulmonary, Allergy and Critical Care Medicine, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine Pittsburgh, PA, USA
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40
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Seeger F, Quintyn R, Tanimoto A, Williams GJ, Tainer JA, Wysocki VH, Garcin ED. Interfacial residues promote an optimal alignment of the catalytic center in human soluble guanylate cyclase: heterodimerization is required but not sufficient for activity. Biochemistry 2014; 53:2153-65. [PMID: 24669844 PMCID: PMC3985721 DOI: 10.1021/bi500129k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
![]()
Soluble guanylate cyclase (sGC) plays
a central role in the cardiovascular
system and is a drug target for the treatment of pulmonary hypertension.
While the three-dimensional structure of sGC is unknown, studies suggest
that binding of the regulatory domain to the catalytic domain maintains
sGC in an autoinhibited basal state. The activation signal, binding
of NO to heme, is thought to be transmitted via the regulatory and
dimerization domains to the cyclase domain and unleashes the full
catalytic potential of sGC. Consequently, isolated catalytic domains
should show catalytic turnover comparable to that of activated sGC.
Using X-ray crystallography, activity measurements, and native mass
spectrometry, we show unambiguously that human isolated catalytic
domains are much less active than basal sGC, while still forming heterodimers.
We identified key structural elements regulating the dimer interface
and propose a novel role for residues located in an interfacial flap
and a hydrogen bond network as key modulators of the orientation of
the catalytic subunits. We demonstrate that even in the absence of
the regulatory domain, additional sGC domains are required to guide
the appropriate conformation of the catalytic subunits associated
with high activity. Our data support a novel regulatory mechanism
whereby sGC activity is tuned by distinct domain interactions that
either promote or inhibit catalytic activity. These results further
our understanding of heterodimerization and activation of sGC and
open additional drug discovery routes for targeting the NO–sGC–cGMP
pathway via the design of small molecules that promote a productive
conformation of the catalytic subunits or disrupt inhibitory domain
interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Franziska Seeger
- University of Maryland Baltimore County , Baltimore, Maryland 21250, United States
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41
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Underbakke ES, Iavarone AT, Chalmers MJ, Pascal BD, Novick S, Griffin PR, Marletta MA. Nitric oxide-induced conformational changes in soluble guanylate cyclase. Structure 2014; 22:602-11. [PMID: 24560804 DOI: 10.1016/j.str.2014.01.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2013] [Revised: 01/07/2014] [Accepted: 01/13/2014] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
Soluble guanylate cyclase (sGC) is the primary mediator of nitric oxide (NO) signaling. NO binds the sGC heme cofactor stimulating synthesis of the second messenger cyclic-GMP (cGMP). As the central hub of NO/cGMP signaling pathways, sGC is important in diverse physiological processes such as vasodilation and neurotransmission. Nevertheless, the mechanisms underlying NO-induced cyclase activation in sGC remain unclear. Here, hydrogen/deuterium exchange mass spectrometry (HDX-MS) was employed to probe the NO-induced conformational changes of sGC. HDX-MS revealed NO-induced effects in several discrete regions. NO binding to the heme-NO/O2-binding (H-NOX) domain perturbs a signaling surface implicated in Per/Arnt/Sim (PAS) domain interactions. Furthermore, NO elicits striking conformational changes in the junction between the PAS and helical domains that propagate as perturbations throughout the adjoining helices. Ultimately, NO binding stimulates the catalytic domain by contracting the active site pocket. Together, these conformational changes delineate an allosteric pathway linking NO binding to activation of the catalytic domain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eric S Underbakke
- Department of Chemistry, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
| | - Anthony T Iavarone
- Department of Chemistry and California Institute for Quantitative Biosciences, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
| | - Michael J Chalmers
- Department of Molecular Therapeutics, The Scripps Research Institute, Jupiter, FL 33458, USA
| | - Bruce D Pascal
- Department of Molecular Therapeutics, The Scripps Research Institute, Jupiter, FL 33458, USA
| | - Scott Novick
- Department of Molecular Therapeutics, The Scripps Research Institute, Jupiter, FL 33458, USA
| | - Patrick R Griffin
- Department of Molecular Therapeutics, The Scripps Research Institute, Jupiter, FL 33458, USA
| | - Michael A Marletta
- Department of Chemistry, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA.
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42
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Single-particle EM reveals the higher-order domain architecture of soluble guanylate cyclase. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2014; 111:2960-5. [PMID: 24516165 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1400711111] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Soluble guanylate cyclase (sGC) is the primary nitric oxide (NO) receptor in mammals and a central component of the NO-signaling pathway. The NO-signaling pathways mediate diverse physiological processes, including vasodilation, neurotransmission, and myocardial functions. sGC is a heterodimer assembled from two homologous subunits, each comprised of four domains. Although crystal structures of isolated domains have been reported, no structure is available for full-length sGC. We used single-particle electron microscopy to obtain the structure of the complete sGC heterodimer and determine its higher-order domain architecture. Overall, the protein is formed of two rigid modules: the catalytic dimer and the clustered Per/Art/Sim and heme-NO/O2-binding domains, connected by a parallel coiled coil at two hinge points. The quaternary assembly demonstrates a very high degree of flexibility. We captured hundreds of individual conformational snapshots of free sGC, NO-bound sGC, and guanosine-5'-[(α,β)-methylene]triphosphate-bound sGC. The molecular architecture and pronounced flexibility observed provides a significant step forward in understanding the mechanism of NO signaling.
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43
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Purohit R, Fritz BG, The J, Issaian A, Weichsel A, David CL, Campbell E, Hausrath AC, Rassouli-Taylor L, Garcin ED, Gage MJ, Montfort WR. YC-1 binding to the β subunit of soluble guanylyl cyclase overcomes allosteric inhibition by the α subunit. Biochemistry 2013; 53:101-14. [PMID: 24328155 DOI: 10.1021/bi4015133] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Soluble guanylate cyclase (sGC) is a heterodimeric heme protein and the primary nitric oxide receptor. NO binding stimulates cyclase activity, leading to regulation of cardiovascular physiology and making sGC an attractive target for drug discovery. YC-1 and related compounds stimulate sGC both independently and synergistically with NO and CO binding; however, where the compounds bind and how they work remain unknown. Using linked equilibrium binding measurements, surface plasmon resonance, and domain truncations in Manduca sexta and bovine sGC, we demonstrate that YC-1 binds near or directly to the heme-containing domain of the β subunit. In the absence of CO, YC-1 binds with a Kd of 9-21 μM, depending on the construct. In the presence of CO, these values decrease to 0.6-1.1 μM. Pfizer compound 25 bound ∼10-fold weaker than YC-1 in the absence of CO, whereas compound BAY 41-2272 bound particularly tightly in the presence of CO (Kd = 30-90 nM). Additionally, we found that CO binds much more weakly to heterodimeric sGC proteins (Kd = 50-100 μM) than to the isolated heme domain (Kd = 0.2 μM for Manduca β H-NOX/PAS). YC-1 greatly enhanced binding of CO to heterodimeric sGC, as expected (Kd ∼ 1 μM). These data indicate the α subunit induces a heme pocket conformation with a lower affinity for CO and NO. YC-1 family compounds bind near the heme domain, overcoming the α subunit effect and inducing a heme pocket conformation with high affinity. We propose this high-affinity conformation is required for the full-length protein to achieve high catalytic activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rahul Purohit
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, The University of Arizona , Tucson, Arizona 85721, United States
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44
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Soluble guanylate cyclase in NO signaling transduction. REV INORG CHEM 2013. [DOI: 10.1515/revic-2013-0011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
AbstractNitric oxide (NO), a signaling molecule in the cardiovascular system, has been receiving increasing attention since Furchgott, Ignarro, and Murad were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology and Medicine for the discovery in 1998. Soluble guanylate cyclase (sGC), as an NO receptor, is a key metalloprotein in mediating NO signaling transduction. sGC is activated by NO to catalyze the conversion of guanosine 5′-triphosphate (GTP) to cyclic guanylate monophosphate (cGMP). The dysfunction of NO signaling results in many pathological disorders, including several cardiovascular diseases, such as arterial hypertension, pulmonary hypertension, heart failure and so on. Significant advances in its structure, function, mechanism, and physiological and pathological roles have been made throughout the past 15 years. We herein review the progress of sGC on structural, functional investigations, as well as the proposed activation/deactivation mechanism. The heme-dependent sGC stimulators and heme-independent sGC activators have also been summarized briefly.
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45
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Busker M, Neidhardt I, Behrends S. Nitric oxide activation of guanylate cyclase pushes the α1 signaling helix and the β1 heme-binding domain closer to the substrate-binding site. J Biol Chem 2013; 289:476-84. [PMID: 24220034 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m113.504472] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
The complete structure of the assembled domains of nitric oxide-sensitive guanylate cyclase (NOsGC) remains to be determined. It is also unknown how binding of NO to heme in guanylate cyclase is communicated to the catalytic domain. In the current study the conformational change of guanylate cyclase on activation by NO was studied using FRET. Endogenous tryptophan residues were used as donors, the substrate analog 2'-Mant-3'-dGTP as acceptor. The enzyme contains five tryptophan residues distributed evenly over all four functional domains. This provides a unique opportunity to detect the movement of the functional domains relative to the substrate-binding catalytic region. FRET measurements indicate that NO brings tryptophan 22 in the αB helix of the β1 heme NO binding domain and tryptophan 466 in the second short helix of the α1 coiled-coil domain closer to the catalytic domain. We propose that the respective domains act as a pair of tongs forcing the catalytic domain into the nitric oxide-activated conformation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mareike Busker
- From the Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Clinical Pharmacy, University of Braunschweig-Institute of Technology, D-38106 Braunschweig, Germany
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Chromiński M, Banach Ł, Karczewski M, ó Proinsias K, Sharina I, Gryko D, Martin E. Synthesis and evaluation of bifunctional sGC regulators: optimization of a connecting linker. J Med Chem 2013; 56:7260-77. [PMID: 23961771 DOI: 10.1021/jm400715h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Hybrid molecules composed of PpIX and cobyrinic acid derivatives conjugated through linkers of varying length and composition were prepared via 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition (CuAAC) or amidation/esteryfication reactions. They were tested for activation of soluble guanylyl cyclase (sGC), a key enzyme in the NO/cGMP signaling pathway, by an in vitro GTP→cGMP conversion assay. Using purified heme-deficient sGC and truncated sGC variants lacking a heme-binding domain, we demonstrated that such hybrid molecules may activate sGC by targeting heme-binding and/or catalytic domain. While all conjugates activated sGC, only selected compounds served as bifunctional regulators and were capable of simultaneous targeting both heme and catalytic domains of sGC. The length and type of a linker connecting both components had a profound effect on the extent of sGC activation, indicating that the linker's type is crucial for their binding affinities with regulatory and catalytic domains. Only hybrids with the conjugated linker of 13-16 atom length synergistically target both domains and displayed the lowest EC50 and highest activating potency. Compounds with shorter connecting linkers were much less potent and were no more active than the cobyrinic acid component alone. The most active conjugate, which showed a 60-fold activation of sGC, was compound 11, in which PpIX and cobyrinic acid components are separated by 11 atoms chain with the triazole moiety in between.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mikołaj Chromiński
- Institute of Organic Chemistry, Polish Academy of Sciences , Kasprzaka 44/52, 01-224 Warsaw, Poland
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Purohit R, Weichsel A, Montfort WR. Crystal structure of the Alpha subunit PAS domain from soluble guanylyl cyclase. Protein Sci 2013; 22:1439-44. [PMID: 23934793 DOI: 10.1002/pro.2331] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2013] [Revised: 03/31/2013] [Accepted: 08/05/2013] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Soluble guanylate cyclase (sGC) is a heterodimeric heme protein of ≈ 150 kDa and the primary nitric oxide receptor. Binding of NO stimulates cyclase activity, leading to regulation of cardiovascular physiology and providing attractive opportunities for drug discovery. How sGC is stimulated and where candidate drugs bind remains unknown. The α and β sGC chains are each composed of Heme-Nitric Oxide Oxygen (H-NOX), Per-ARNT-Sim (PAS), coiled-coil and cyclase domains. Here, we present the crystal structure of the α1 PAS domain to 1.8 Å resolution. The structure reveals the binding surfaces of importance to heterodimer function, particularly with respect to regulating NO binding to heme in the β1 H-NOX domain. It also reveals a small internal cavity that may serve to bind ligands or participate in signal transduction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rahul Purohit
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona, 85721
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Follmann M, Griebenow N, Hahn MG, Hartung I, Mais FJ, Mittendorf J, Schäfer M, Schirok H, Stasch JP, Stoll F, Straub A. The chemistry and biology of soluble guanylate cyclase stimulators and activators. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2013; 52:9442-62. [PMID: 23963798 DOI: 10.1002/anie.201302588] [Citation(s) in RCA: 153] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2013] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
The vasodilatory properties of nitric oxide (NO) have been utilized in pharmacotherapy for more than 130 years. Still today, NO-donor drugs are important in the management of cardiovascular diseases. However, inhaled NO or drugs releasing NO and organic nitrates are associated with noteworthy therapeutic shortcomings, including resistance to NO in some disease states, the development of tolerance during long-term treatment, and nonspecific effects, such as post-translational modification of proteins. The beneficial actions of NO are mediated by stimulation of soluble guanylate cyclase (sGC), a heme-containing enzyme which produces the intracellular signaling molecule cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP). Recently, two classes of compounds have been discovered that amplify the function of sGC in a NO-independent manner, the so-called sGC stimulators and sGC activators. The most advanced drug, the sGC stimulator riociguat, has successfully undergone Phase III clinical trials for different forms of pulmonary hypertension.
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Affiliation(s)
- Markus Follmann
- Bayer Pharma Aktiengesellschaft, Global Drug Discovery, Aprather Weg 18a, 42113 Wuppertal, Germany.
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Follmann M, Griebenow N, Hahn MG, Hartung I, Mais FJ, Mittendorf J, Schäfer M, Schirok H, Stasch JP, Stoll F, Straub A. Chemie und Biologie der Stimulatoren und Aktivatoren der löslichen Guanylatcyclase. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2013. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.201302588] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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