Tobacco mosaic virus disassembly by high hydrostatic pressure in combination with urea and low temperature

Biomolecules under Pressure: Phase Diagrams, Volume Changes, and High Pressure Spectroscopic Techniques

Pressure is an equally important thermodynamical parameter as temperature. However, its importance is often overlooked in the biophysical and biochemical investigations of biomolecules and biological systems. This review focuses on the application of high pressure (>100 MPa = 1 kbar) in biology. Studies of high pressure can give insight into the volumetric aspects of various biological systems; this information cannot be obtained otherwise. High-pressure treatment is a potentially useful alternative method to heat-treatment in food science. Elevated pressure (up to 120 MPa) is present in the deep sea, which is a considerable part of the biosphere. From a basic scientific point of view, the application of the gamut of modern spectroscopic techniques provides information about the conformational changes of biomolecules, fluctuations, and flexibility. This paper reviews first the thermodynamic aspects of pressure science, the important parameters affecting the volume of a molecule. The technical aspects of high pressure production are briefly mentioned, and the most common high-pressure-compatible spectroscopic techniques are also discussed. The last part of this paper deals with the main biomolecules, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids: how they are affected by pressure and what information can be gained about them using pressure. I I also briefly mention a few supramolecular structures such as viruses and bacteria. Finally, a subjective view of the most promising directions of high pressure bioscience is outlined.

Hydration properties of a protein at low and high pressures: Physics of pressure denaturation

Using experimentally determined structures of ubiquitin at 1 and 3000 bar, we generate sufficiently large ensembles of model structures in the native and pressure-induced (denatured) states by means of molecular dynamics simulations with explicit water. We calculate the values of a free-energy function (FEF), which comprises the hydration free energy (HFE) and the intramolecular (conformational) energy and entropy, for the two states at 1 and 3000 bar. The HFE and the conformational entropy, respectively, are calculated using our statistical-mechanical method, which has recently been shown to be accurate, and the Boltzmann-quasi-harmonic method. The HFE is decomposed into a variety of physically insightful components. We show that the FEF of the native state is lower than that of the denatured state at 1 bar, whereas the opposite is true at 3000 bar, thus being successful in reproducing the pressure denaturation. We argue that the following two quantities of hydration play essential roles in the denaturation: the WASA-dependent term in the water-entropy loss upon cavity creation for accommodating the protein (WASA is the water-accessible surface area of the cavity) and the protein-water Lennard-Jones interaction energy. At a high pressure, the mitigation of the serious water crowding in the system is the most important, and the WASA needs to be sufficiently enlarged with the increase in the excluded-volume being kept as small as possible. The denatured structure thus induced is characterized by the water penetration into the protein interior. The pressure denaturation is accompanied by a significantly large gain of water entropy.

Porcine parvovirus VP1/VP2 on a time series epitope mapping: exploring the effects of high hydrostatic pressure on the immune recognition of antigens

Porcine parvovirus (PPV) is a DNA virus that causes reproductive failure in gilts and sows, resulting in embryonic and fetal losses worldwide. Epitope mapping of PPV is important for developing new vaccines. In this study, we used spot synthesis analysis for epitope mapping of the capsid proteins of PPV (NADL-2 strain) and correlated the findings with predictive data from immunoinformatics. The virus was exposed to three conditions prior to inoculation in pigs: native (untreated), high hydrostatic pressure (350 MPa for 1 h) at room temperature and high hydrostatic pressure (350 MPa for 1 h) at − 18 °C, and was compared with a commercial vaccine produced using inactivated PPV. The screening of serum samples detected 44 positive spots corresponding to 20 antigenic sites. Each type of inoculated antigen elicited a distinct epitope set. In silico prediction located linear and discontinuous epitopes in B cells that coincided with several epitopes detected in spot synthesis of sera from pigs that received different preparations of inoculum. The conditions tested elicited antibodies against the VP1/VP2 antigen that differed in relation to the response time and the profile of structurally available regions that were recognized.

Foodborne viruses: Detection, risk assessment, and control options in food processing

In a recent report by risk assessment experts on the identification of food safety priorities using the Delphi technique, foodborne viruses were recognized among the top rated food safety priorities and have become a greater concern to the food industry over the past few years. Food safety experts agreed that control measures for viruses throughout the food chain are required. However, much still needs to be understood with regard to the effectiveness of these controls and how to properly validate their performance, whether it is personal hygiene of food handlers or the effects of processing of at risk foods or the interpretation and action required on positive virus test result. This manuscript provides a description of foodborne viruses and their characteristics, their responses to stress and technologies developed for viral detection and control. In addition, the gaps in knowledge and understanding, and future perspectives on the application of viral detection and control strategies for the food industry, along with suggestions on how the food industry could implement effective control strategies for viruses in foods. The current state of the science on epidemiology, public health burden, risk assessment and management options for viruses in food processing environments will be highlighted in this review.

Synergism between high hydrostatic pressure and glutaraldehyde for the inactivation of Staphylococcus aureus at moderate temperature

The sterilization of transplant and medical devices should be effective but not detrimental to the structural properties of the materials used. In this study, we examined the effectiveness of chemical and physical agents for inactivating Staphylococcus aureus, a gram-positive bacterium and important cause of infections and biofilm production. The treatment conditions in this work were chosen to facilitate their subsequent use with sensitive materials. The effects of temperature, high hydrostatic pressure, and glutaraldehyde disinfectant on the growth of two strains of S. aureus (ATCC 25923 and BEC 9393) were investigated individually and/or in combinations. A low concentration of glutaraldehyde (0.5 mM), high hydrostatic pressure (300 MPa for 10 min), and moderate temperature (50 °C), when used in combination, significantly potentiated the inactivation of both bacterial strains by > 8 orders of magnitude. Transmission electron microscopy revealed structural damage and changes in area that correlated with the use of pressure in the presence of glutaraldehyde at room temperature in both strains. Biofilm from strain ATCC 25923 was particularly susceptible to inactivation. The conditions used here provided effective sterilization that can be applied to sensitive surgical devices and biomaterials, with negligible damage. The use of this experimental approach to investigate other pathogens could lead to the adoption of this procedure for sterilizing sensitive materials.

Equilibria of oligomeric proteins under high pressure - A theoretical description

High pressure methods have become a useful tool for studying protein structure and stability. Using them, various physico-chemical processes including protein unfolding, aggregation, oligomer dissociation or enzyme-activity decrease were studied on many different proteins. Oligomeric protein dissociation is a process that can perfectly utilize the potential of high-pressure techniques, as the high pressure shifts the equilibria to higher concentrations making them better observable by spectroscopic methods. This can be especially useful when the oligomeric form is highly stable at atmospheric pressure. These applications may be, however, hindered by less intensive experimental response as well as interference of the oligomerization equilibria with unfolding or aggregation of the subunits, but also by more complex theoretical description. In this study we develop mathematical models describing different kinds of oligomerization equilibria, both closed (equilibrium of monomer and the highest possible oligomer without any intermediates) and consecutive. Closed homooligomer equilibria are discussed for any oligomerization degree, while the more complex heterooligomer equilibria and the consecutive equilibria in both homo- and heterooligomers are taken into account only for dimers and trimers. In all the cases, fractions of all the relevant forms are evaluated as functions of pressure and concentration. Significant points (inflection points and extremes) of the resulting transition curves, that can be determined experimentally, are evaluated as functions of pressure and/or concentration. These functions can be further used in order to evaluate the thermodynamic parameters of the system, i.e. atmospheric-pressure equilibrium constants and volume changes of the individual steps of the oligomer-dissociation processes.

Pressure-Inactivated Virus: A Promising Alternative for Vaccine Production

In recent years, many applications in diverse scientific fields with various purposes have examined pressure as a thermodynamic parameter. Pressure studies on viruses have direct biotechnological applications. Currently, most studies that involve viral inactivation by HHP are found in the area of food engineering and focus on the inactivation of foodborne viruses. Nevertheless, studies of viral inactivation for other purposes have also been conducted. HHP has been shown to be efficient in the inactivation of many viruses of clinical importance and the use of HHP approach has been proposed for the development of animal and human vaccines. Several studies have demonstrated that pressure can result in virus inactivation while preserving immunogenic properties. Viruses contain several components that can be susceptible to the effects of pressure. HHP has been a valuable tool for assessing viral structure function relationships because the viral structure is highly dependent on protein-protein interactions. In the case of small icosahedral viruses, incremental increases in pressure produce a progressive decrease in the folding structure when moving from assembled capsids to ribonucleoprotein intermediates (in RNA viruses), free dissociated units (dimers and/or monomers) and denatured monomers. High pressure inactivates enveloped viruses by trapping their particles in a fusion-like intermediate state. The fusogenic state, which is characterized by a smaller viral volume, is the final conformation promoted by HHP, in contrast with the metastable native state, which is characterized by a larger volume. The combined effects of high pressure with other factors, such as low or subzero temperature, pH and agents in sub-denaturing conditions (urea), have been a formidable tool in the assessment of the component's structure, as well as pathogen inactivation. HHP is a technology for the production of inactivated vaccines that are free of chemicals, safe and capable of inducing strong humoral and cellular immune responses. Here we present a current overview about the pressure-induced viral inactivation and the production of inactivated viral vaccines.

Influence of high hydrostatic pressure on epitope mapping of tobacco mosaic virus coat protein

In this study, we investigated the effect of high hydrostatic pressure (HHP) on tobacco mosaic virus (TMV), a model virus in immunology and one of the most studied viruses to date. Exposure to HHP significantly altered the recognition epitopes when compared to sera from mice immunized with native virus. These alterations were studied further by combining HHP with urea or low temperature and then inoculating the altered virions into Balb-C mice. The antibody titers and cross-reactivity of the resulting sera were determined by ELISA. The antigenicity of the viral particles was maintained, as assessed by using polyclonal antibodies against native virus. The antigenicity of canonical epitopes was maintained, although binding intensities varied among the treatments. The patterns of recognition determined by epitope mapping were cross checked with the prediction algorithms for the TMVcp amino acid sequence to infer which alterations had occurred. These findings suggest that different cleavage sites were exposed after the treatments and this was confirmed by epitope mapping using sera from mice immunized with virus previously exposed to HHP.

Lack of correlation between virus barosensitivity and the presence of a viral envelope during inactivation of human rotavirus, vesicular stomatitis virus, and avian metapneumovirus by high-pressure processing

High-pressure processing (HPP) is a nonthermal technology that has been shown to effectively inactivate a wide range of microorganisms. However, the effectiveness of HPP on inactivation of viruses is relatively less well understood. We systematically investigated the effects of intrinsic (pH) and processing (pressure, time, and temperature) parameters on the pressure inactivation of a nonenveloped virus (human rotavirus [HRV]) and two enveloped viruses (vesicular stomatitis virus [VSV] and avian metapneumovirus [aMPV]). We demonstrated that HPP can efficiently inactivate all tested viruses under optimal conditions, although the pressure susceptibilities and the roles of temperature and pH substantially varied among these viruses regardless of the presence of a viral envelope. We found that VSV was much more stable than most food-borne viruses, whereas aMPV was highly susceptible to HPP. When viruses were held for 2 min under 350 MPa at 4°C, 1.1-log, 3.9-log, and 5.0-log virus reductions were achieved for VSV, HRV, and aMPV, respectively. Both VSV and aMPV were more susceptible to HPP at higher temperature and lower pH. In contrast, HRV was more easily inactivated at higher pH, although temperature did not have a significant impact on inactivation. Furthermore, we demonstrated that the damage of virion structure by disruption of the viral envelope and/or capsid is the primary mechanism underlying HPP-induced viral inactivation. In addition, VSV glycoprotein remained antigenic although VSV was completely inactivated. Taken together, our findings suggest that HPP is a promising technology to eliminate viral contaminants in high-risk foods, water, and other fomites.

Inactivation of a human norovirus surrogate by high-pressure processing: effectiveness, mechanism, and potential application in the fresh produce industry

Fresh produce is often a high-risk food for norovirus contamination because it can become contaminated at both preharvest and postharvest stages and it undergoes minimal or no processing. Currently, there is no effective method to eliminate the viruses from fresh produce. This study systematically investigated the effectiveness of high-pressure processing (HPP) on inactivating murine norovirus (MNV-1), a surrogate for human norovirus, in aqueous medium and fresh produce. We demonstrated that MNV-1 was effectively inactivated by HPP. More than a 5-log-PFU/g reduction was achieved in all tested fresh produce when it was pressurized at 400 MPa for 2 min at 4°C. We found that pressure, pH, temperature, and food matrix affected the virus survival in foods. MNV-1 was more effectively inactivated at 4°C than at 20°C in both medium and fresh produce. MNV-1 was also more sensitive to HPP at neutral pH than at acidic pH. We further demonstrated that disruption of viral capsid structure, but not degradation of viral genomic RNA, is the primary mechanism of virus inactivation by HPP. However, HPP does not degrade viral capsid protein, and the pressurized capsid protein was still antigenic. Overall, HPP had a variable effect on the sensorial quality of fresh produce, depending on the pressure level and type of product. Taken together, HPP effectively inactivated a human norovirus surrogate in fresh produce with a minimal impact on food quality and thus can provide a novel intervention for processing fruits intended for frozen storage and related products such as purees, sauces, and juices.

Importance of translational entropy of water in biological self-assembly processes like protein folding

We briefly review our studies on the folding/unfolding mechanisms of proteins. In biological self-assembly processes such as protein folding, the number of accessible translational configurations of water in the system increases greatly, leading to a large gain in the water entropy. The usual view looking at only the water in the close vicinity of the protein surface is capable of elucidating neither the large entropic gain upon apoplastocyanin folding, which has recently been found in a novel experimental study, nor the pressure and cold denaturation. With the emphasis on the translational entropy of water, we are presently constructing a reliable method for predicting the native structure of a protein from its amino-acid sequence.

Pressure effects on structures formed by entropically driven self-assembly: illustration for denaturation of proteins

We propose a general framework of pressure effects on the structures formed by the self-assembly of solute molecules immersed in solvent. The integral equation theory combined with the morphometric approach is employed for a hard-body model system. Our picture is that protein folding and ordered association of proteins are driven by the solvent entropy: At low pressures, the structures almost minimizing the excluded volume (EV) generated for solvent particles are stabilized. Such structures appear to be even more stabilized at high pressures. However, it is experimentally known that the native structure of a protein is unfolded, and ordered aggregates such as amyloid fibrils and actin filaments are dissociated by applying high pressures. This initially puzzling result can also be elucidated in terms of the solvent entropy. A clue to the basic mechanism is in the phenomenon that, when a large hard-sphere solute is immersed in small hard spheres forming the solvent, the small hard spheres are enriched near the solute and this enrichment becomes greater as the pressure increases. We argue that "attraction" is entropically provided between the solute surface and solvent particles, and the attraction becomes higher with rising pressure. Due to this effect, at high pressures, the structures possessing the largest possible solvent-accessible surface area together with sufficiently small EV become more stable in terms of the solvent entropy. To illustrate this concept, we perform an analysis of pressure denaturation of three different proteins. It is shown that only the structures that have the characteristics described above exhibit interesting behavior. They first become more destabilized relative to the native structure as the pressure increases, but beyond a threshold pressure the relative instability begins to decrease and they eventually become more stable than the native structure.

Probing conformational changes in orphan nuclear receptor: the NGFI-B intermediate is a partially unfolded dimer

Human nerve growth factor-induced B (NGFI-B) is a member of the NR4A subfamily of orphan nuclear receptors (NRs). Lacking identified ligands, orphan NRs show particular co-regulator proteins binding properties, different from other NRs, and they might have a non-classical quaternary organization. A body of evidence suggests that NRs recognition of and binding to ligands, DNA, homo- and heterodimerization partners and co-regulator proteins involve significant conformational changes of the NR ligand-binding domains (LBDs). To shed light on largely unknown biophysical properties of NGFI-B, here we studied structural organization and unfolding properties of NGFI-B ligand (like)-binding domain induced by chemical perturbation. Our results show that NGFI-B LBD undergoes a two-state guanidine hydrochloride (GndHCl) induced denaturation, as judged by changes in the alpha-helical content of the protein monitored by circular dichroism spectroscopy (CD). In contrast, changes in the tertiary structure of NGFI-B LBD, reported by intrinsic fluorescence, reveal a clear intermediate state. Additionally, SAXS results demonstrate that the intermediate observed by intrinsic fluorescence is a partially folded homodimeric structure, which further unfolds without dissociation at higher GndHCl concentrations. This partially unfolded dimeric assembly of NGFI-B LBD might resemble an intermediate that this domain access momentarily in the native state upon interactions with functional partners.

Different urea stoichiometries between the dissociation and denaturation of tobacco mosaic virus as probed by hydrostatic pressure

Viruses are very efficient self-assembly structures, but little is understood about the thermodynamics governing their directed assembly. At higher levels of pressure or when pressure is combined with urea, denaturation occurs. For a better understanding of such processes, we investigated the apparent thermodynamic parameters of dissociation and denaturation by assuming a steady-state condition. These processes can be measured considering the decrease of light scattering of a viral solution due to the dissociation process, and the red shift of the fluorescence emission spectra, that occurs with the denaturation process. We determined the apparent urea stoichiometry considering the equilibrium reaction of TMV dissociation and subunit denaturation, which furnished, respectively, 1.53 and 11.1 mol of urea/mol of TMV subunit. The denaturation and dissociation conditions were arrived in a near reversible pathway, allowing the determination of thermodynamic parameters. Gel filtration HPLC, electron microscopy and circular dichroism confirmed the dissociation and denaturation processes. Based on spectroscopic results from earlier papers, the calculation of the apparent urea stoichiometry of dissociation and denaturation of several other viruses resulted in similar values, suggesting a similar virus-urea interaction among these systems.

pH dependence of the dissociation of multimeric hemoglobin probed by high hydrostatic pressure

We investigated the thermodynamic features of the classic alkaline dissociation of multimeric hemoglobin (3.1 MDa) from Glossoscolex paulistus (Annelidea) using high hydrostatic pressure. Light scattering measurements up to microscopic thermodynamic equilibrium indicated a high pH dependency of dissociation and association. Electron microscopy and gel filtration corroborated these findings. The volume change of dissociation decreased in absolute values from -48.0 mL/mol of subunit at pH 6.0 to -19.2 mL/mol at pH 9.0, suggesting a lack of protein interactions under alkaline conditions. Concomitantly, an increase in pH reduced the Gibbs free energy of dissociation from 37.7 to 27.5 kJ/mol of subunit. The stoichiometry of proton release calculated from the pressure-induced dissociation curves was +0.602 mol of H(+)/mol of subunit. These results provide a direct quantification of proton participation in stabilizing the aggregated state of the hemoglobin, and contribute to our understanding of protein-protein interactions and of the surrounding conditions that modulate the process of aggregation.

Inactivation of hepatitis A virus by high-pressure processing: the role of temperature and pressure oscillation

Inactivation of hepatitis A virus (HAV) in Dulbecco's modified Eagle medium with 10% fetal bovine serum was studied at pressures of 300, 350, and 400 MPa and initial sample temperatures of -10, 0, 5, 10, 20, 30, 40, and 50 degrees C. Sample temperature during pressure application strongly influenced the efficiency of HAV inactivation. Elevated temperature (> 30 degrees C) enhanced pressure inactivation of HAV, while lower temperatures resulted in less inactivation. For example, 1-min treatments of 400 MPa at -10, 20, and 50 degrees C reduced titers of HAV by 1.0, 2.5, and 4.7 log PFU/ml, respectively. Pressure inactivation curves of HAV were obtained at 400 MPa and three temperatures (-10, 20, and 50 degrees C). With increasing treatment time, all three temperatures showed a rapid initial drop in virus titer with a diminishing inactivation rate (or tailing effect). Analysis of inactivation data indicated that the Weibull model more adequately fitted the inactivation curves than the linear model. Oscillatory high-pressure processing for 2, 4, 6, and 8 cycles at 400 MPa and temperatures of 20 and 50 degrees C did not considerably enhance pressure inactivation of HAV as compared with continuous high-pressure application. These results indicate that HAV exhibits, unlike other viruses examined to date, a reduced sensitivity to high pressure observed at cooler treatment temperatures. This work suggested that slightly elevated temperatures are advantageous for pressure inactivation of HAV within foods.

Crucial importance of translational entropy of water in pressure denaturation of proteins

We present statistical thermodynamics of pressure denaturation of proteins, in which the three-dimensional integral equation theory is employed. It is applied to a simple model system focusing on the translational entropy of the solvent. The partial molar volume governing the pressure dependence of the structural stability of a protein is expressed for each structure in terms of the excluded volume for the solvent molecules, the solvent-accessible surface area (ASA), and a parameter related to the solvent-density profile formed near the protein surface. It is argued that the entropic effect originating from the translational movement of water molecules plays critical roles in the pressure-induced denaturation. We also show that the exceptionally small size of water molecules among dense liquids in nature is crucial for pressure denaturation. An unfolded structure, which is only moderately less compact than the native structure but has much larger ASA, is shown to turn more stable than the native one at an elevated pressure. The water entropy for the native structure is higher than that for the unfolded structure in the low-pressure region, whereas the opposite is true in the high-pressure region. Such a structure is characterized by the cleft and/or swelling and the water penetration into the interior. In another solvent whose molecular size is 1.5 times larger than that of water, however, the inversion of the stability does not occur any longer. The random coil becomes relatively more destabilized with rising pressure, irrespective of the molecular size of the solvent. These theoretical predictions are in qualitatively good agreement with the experimental observations.

Inactivation of foodborne viruses of significance by high pressure and other processes

The overall safety of a food product is an important component in the mix of considerations for processing, distribution, and sale. With constant commercial demand for superior food products to sustain consumer interest, nonthermal processing technologies have drawn considerable attention for their ability to assist development of new products with improved quality attributes for the marketplace. This review focuses primarily on the nonthermal processing technology high-pressure processing (HPP) and examines current status of its use in the control and elimination of pathogenic human viruses in food products. There is particular emphasis on noroviruses and hepatitis A virus with regard to the consumption of raw oysters, because noroviruses and hepatitis A virus are the two predominant types of viruses that cause foodborne illness. Also, application of HPP to whole-shell oysters carries multiple benefits that increase the popularity of HPP usage for these foods. Viruses have demonstrated a wide range of sensitivities in response to high hydrostatic pressure. Viral inactivation by pressure has not always been predictable based on nomenclature and morphology of the virus. Studies have been complicated in part from the inherent difficulties of working with human infectious viruses. Consequently, continued study of viral inactivation by HPP is warranted.

Temperature and treatment time influence high hydrostatic pressure inactivation of feline calicivirus, a norovirus surrogate

Interest in high hydrostatic pressure processing as a nonthermal pasteurization process for foods continues to increase. Feline calicivirus (FCV), a propagable virus that is genetically related to the nonpropagable human noroviruses, was used for detailed evaluation of the high pressure processing parameters necessary for virus inactivation. Pressure inactivation curves of FCV strain KCD in Dulbecco's modified Eagle medium with 10% fetal bovine serum were obtained at 200 and 250 MPa as a function of time at room temperature. Pressure inactivation curves at 200 and 250 MPa also were determined as a function of temperature ranging from --10 to 50 degrees C at treatment times of 4 and 2 min, respectively. Tailing was observed for inactivation as a function of treatment time, indicating that the linear model was not adequate for describing these curves. The two nonlinear models, the log logistic and Weibull functions, consistently produced better fit to inactivation curves than did the linear model. The mean square errors were 0.381 for the log logistic model, 0.425 for the Weibull model, and 1.546 for the linear model. For inactivation as a function of temperature, FCV was most resistant to pressure at 20 degrees C. Temperatures above and below 20 degrees C significantly increased pressure inactivation of FCV. A 4-min treatment of 200 MPa at --10 and 50 degrees C reduced the titer of FCV by 5.0 and 4.0 log units, respectively; whereas at 20 degrees C the same treatment only reduced the titer by 0.3 log units. These novel results point to the potential for using temperatures above and particularly below room temperature to lower the pressure needed to cause the desired level of virus inactivation.

Tendency for oxidation of annelid hemoglobin at alkaline pH and dissociated states probed by redox titration

The redox titration of extracellular hemoglobin of Glossoscolex paulistus (Annelidea) was investigated in different pH conditions and after dissociation induced by pressure. Oxidation increased with increasing pH, as shown by the reduced amount of ferricyanide necessary for the oxidation of hemoglobin. This behavior was the opposite of that of vertebrate hemoglobins. The potential of half oxidation (E1/2) changed from -65.3 to +146.8 mV when the pH increased from 4.50 to 8.75. The functional properties indicated a reduction in the log P50 from 1.28 to 0.28 in this pH range. The dissociation at alkaline pH or induced by high pressure, confirmed by HPLC gel filtration, suggested that disassembly of the hemoglobin could be involved in the increased potential for oxidation. These results suggest that the high stability and prolonged lifetime common to invertebrate hemoglobins is related to their low tendency to oxidize at acidic pH, in contrast to vertebrate hemoglobins.

Activation parameters for the spontaneous and pressure-induced phases of the dissociation of single-ring GroEL (SR1) chaperonin

We investigated the dissociation of single-ring heptameric GroEL (SR1) by high hydrostatic pressure in the range 0.5-3.0 kbar. The kinetics were studied as a function of temperature in the range 15-35 degrees C. The dissociation processes at each pressure and temperature showed biphasic behavior. The slower rate (k1,obs) was confirmed to be the self-dissociation of SR1 at any specific temperature at atmospheric pressure. This dissociation was pressure independent and followed concentration-dependent first-order kinetics. The self-dissociation rates followed normal Eyring plots (In k1,obs/T vs. 1/T) from which the free energy of activation (deltaG++ = 22 +/- 0.3 kcal mol(-1)), enthalpy of activation (deltaH++ = 18 +/- 0.5 kcal mol(-1)), and entropy of activation (deltaS++ = -15 +/- 1 kcal mol(-1)) were evaluated. The effect of pressure on the dissociation rates resulted in nonlinear behavior (ln k2,obs vs. pressure) at all the temperatures studied indicating that the activation volumes were pressure dependent. Activation volumes at zero pressure (V++o) and compressibility factors (beta++) for the dissociation rates at the specific temperatures were calculated. This is the first systematic study where the self-dissociation of an oligomeric chaperonin as well as its activation parameters are reported.

Pressure denaturation of staphylococcal nuclease studied by neutron small-angle scattering and molecular simulation

We studied the pressure-induced folding/unfolding transition of staphylococcal nuclease (SN) over a pressure range of approximately 1-3 kilobars at 25 degrees C by small-angle neutron scattering and molecular dynamics simulations. We find that applying pressure leads to a twofold increase in the radius of gyration derived from the small-angle neutron scattering spectra, and P(r), the pair distance distribution function, broadens and shows a transition from a unimodal to a bimodal distribution as the protein unfolds. The results indicate that the globular structure of SN is retained across the folding/unfolding transition although this structure is less compact and elongated relative to the native structure. Pressure-induced unfolding is initiated in the molecular dynamics simulations by inserting water molecules into the protein interior and applying pressure. The P(r) calculated from these simulations likewise broadens and shows a similar unimodal-to-bimodal transition with increasing pressure. The simulations also reveal that the bimodal P(r) for the pressure-unfolded state arises as the protein expands and forms two subdomains that effectively diffuse apart during initial stages of unfolding. Hydrophobic contact maps derived from the simulations show that water insertions into the protein interior and the application of pressure together destabilize hydrophobic contacts between these two subdomains. The findings support a mechanism for the pressure-induced unfolding of SN in which water penetration into the hydrophobic core plays a central role.

Proton dependence of tobacco mosaic virus dissociation by pressure

Tobacco mosaic virus (TMV) is an intensely studied model of viruses. This paper reports an investigation into the dissociation of TMV by pH and pressure up to 220 MPa. The viral solution (0.25 mg/ml) incubated at 277 K showed a significant decrease in light scattering with increasing pH, suggesting dissociation. This observation was confirmed by HPLC gel filtration and electron microscopy. The calculated volume change of dissociation (DeltaV) decreased (absolute value) from -49.7 ml/mol of subunit at pH 3.8 to -21.7 ml/mol of subunit at pH 9.0. The decrease from pH 9.0 to 3.8 caused a stabilization of 14.1 kJ/mol of TMV subunit. The estimated proton release calculated from pressure-induced dissociation curves was 0.584 mol H(+)/mol of TMV subunit. These results suggest that the degree of virus inactivation by pressure and the immunogenicity of the inactivated structures can be optimized by modulating the surrounding pH.

Effect of chaotropic agents on reversible unfolding of a soybean (Glycine max) seed acid phosphatase

In this work we examined the effect of urea and guanidinium chloride on the structural stability of a single isoform of soybean seed acid phosphatase, based on the intensity of tryptophan fluorescence as a function of denaturant concentration. The free energy of unfolding, DeltaGu, was calculated at 25 degrees C as a function of the concentrations of both chaotropic agents; the conformational stability, DeltaG (H2O), was determined to be 2.48 kcal mol(-1). Center of mass, determined from analysis of fluorescence data, was used as a parameter to assess conformational changes. Our results indicate that complete enzyme inactivation occurred before full enzyme unfolding in both cases, and suggest that there are differences between the conformational flexibility of the active-site and that of the macromolecule as a whole.

Expanding the pressure technique: insights into protein folding from combined use of pressure and chemical denaturants

The fundamental principles derived from in vitro protein folding experiments have practical application in understanding the pathology of diseases of protein misfolding and for the development of industrial processes to produce proteins as pharmaceuticals and biotechnological reagents. High pressure as a tool to denature or disaggregate proteins offers a number of unique advantages. The emphasis of this review is on how low concentrations of chemical denaturants can be used in combination with high pressure to extend the range and scope of this useful technique. This approach has already been used in a number of studies, which are discussed here in the context of the questions they address. These include: the origin of the volume change observed on protein unfolding, pressure-induced formation of partially structured intermediates, pressure-induced dissociation of oligomeric and aggregated proteins, and the use of volume changes to probe the structure of the transition state. Wider use of hydrostatic pressure as a denaturation tool, facilitated by combination with chemical denaturants, is likely to bring significant advances to our understanding of protein structure, stability and folding, particularly in relation to proteins associated with the amyloid and prion diseases.

Pressure induces folding intermediates that are crucial for protein-DNA recognition and virus assembly

Protein-nucleic acid interactions are crucial for a variety of fundamental biological processes such as replication, transcription, restriction, translation and virus assembly. The molecular basis of protein-DNA and protein-RNA recognition is deeply related to the thermodynamics of the systems. We review here how protein-nucleic acid interactions can be approached in the same way as protein-protein interactions involved in protein folding and protein assembly, using hydrostatic pressure as the primary tool and employing several spectroscopic techniques, especially fluorescence, circular dichroism and high-resolution nuclear magnetic resonance. High pressure has the unique property of stabilizing partially folded states or molten-globule states of a protein. The competition between correct folding and misfolding, which in many proteins leads to formation of insoluble aggregates is an important problem in the biotechnology industry and in human diseases such as amyloidosis, Alzheimer's, prion and tumor diseases. The pressure studies reveal that a gradient of partially folded (molten globule) conformations is present between the unfolded and fully folded structure of several bacteria, plant and mammalian viruses. Using pressure, we have detected the presence of a ribonucleoprotein intermediate, where the coat protein is partially unfolded but bound to RNA. These intermediates are potential targets for antiviral compounds. Pressure studies on viruses have direct biotechnological applications. The ability of pressure to inactivate viruses has been evaluated with a view toward the applications of vaccine development and virus sterilization. Recent studies demonstrate that pressure causes virus inactivation while preserving the immunogenic properties. There is substantial evidence that a high-pressure cycle traps a virus in the 'fusion intermediate state', not infectious but highly immunogenic.

Pressure-induced formation of inactive triple-shelled rotavirus particles is associated with changes in the spike protein Vp4

Rotaviruses are non-enveloped, triple-shelled particles that cause enteritis in animals and humans. The interactions among the different viral proteins located in the three concentric layers make the rotavirus particle an excellent model for physico-chemical and biological studies of viral assemblage. SA11-4S rotaviruses subjected to high pressure were inactivated by more than five log units. After pressure treatment, the particles were recovered with slight structural changes when compared to the control. Electron microscopy suggested subtle changes in the viral outer layer in some pressurised particles. Fluorescence spectroscopy showed that much more dramatic changes were produced by urea denaturation than by pressure. Based on the fluorescence spectrum, the genome resistance to ribonuclease, and the absence of changes in hydrodynamic properties, there was little or no disruption of the capsid under pressure. On the other hand, hemagglutination assays indicated that the main component affected by pressure was the spike protein VP4, thus accounting for changes in interaction with host cells and greatly reduced infectivity. The changes leading to inactivation did not cause removal of VP4 from the outer capsid, as verified by size-exclusion chromatography. Antibodies raised against pressurised material were as effective as antibodies raised against the intact virus, based on their neutralisation titre in plaque reduction assays, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays and direct interaction with the particle, as measured by gel-filtration chromatography. Therefore, the new conformation of the pressurised particle did not result in loss of immunogenicity. We propose that pressure alters the receptor-binding protein VP4 by triggering changes similar to those produced when the virus interacts with target cells. As the changes in VP4 conformation caused by pressure occur prior to virus exposure to target cells, it leads to non-infectious particles and may lead to the exposure of previously occult epitopes, important for vaccine development.

Virus inactivation by anilinonaphthalene sulfonate compounds and comparison with other ligands

Bis-(8-anilinonaphthalene-1-sulfonate) (bis-ANS) causes inactivation of vesicular stomatitis virus (VSV) at micromolar concentrations while butyl-ANS and ANS are effective at concentrations one and two orders of magnitude higher, respectively. VSV fully inactivated by the combined effects of 10 microM bis-ANS and 2.5 kbar hydrostatic pressure elicited a high titer of neutralizing antibodies. Incubation of VSV with >/=2 M urea at atmospheric pressure caused very little virus inactivation, whereas at a pressure of 2.5 kbar, 1 M urea caused inactivation that exceeded by more than two orders of magnitude the sum of the inactivating effects produced by urea and pressure separately. Measurements of bis-ANS fluorescence showed that increasing the urea concentration reduces the pressure required to disrupt the structure. We conclude that anilinonaphthalene sulfonate compounds inactivate VSV by a mechanism similar to that produced by pressure. The most effective antiviral compound was bis-ANS which can be used for the preparation of safe viral vaccines or as an antiviral drug eventually.