1
|
Wang W, Hawkridge AM, Ma Y, Zhang B, Mangrum JB, Hassan ZH, He T, Blat S, Guo C, Zhou H, Liu J, Wang XY, Fang X. Ubiquitin-like protein 5 is a novel player in the UPR-PERK arm and ER stress-induced cell death. J Biol Chem 2023; 299:104915. [PMID: 37315790 PMCID: PMC10339194 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbc.2023.104915] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2022] [Revised: 05/24/2023] [Accepted: 05/25/2023] [Indexed: 06/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Biological functions of the highly conserved ubiquitin-like protein 5 (UBL5) are not well understood. In Caenorhabditis elegans, UBL5 is induced under mitochondrial stress to mount the mitochondrial unfolded protein response (UPR). However, the role of UBL5 in the more prevalent endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress-UPR in the mammalian system is unknown. In the present work, we demonstrated that UBL5 was an ER stress-responsive protein, undergoing rapid depletion in mammalian cells and livers of mice. The ER stress-induced UBL5 depletion was mediated by proteasome-dependent yet ubiquitin-independent proteolysis. Activation of the protein kinase R-like ER kinase arm of the UPR was essential and sufficient for inducing UBL5 degradation. RNA-Seq analysis of UBL5-regulated transcriptome revealed that multiple death pathways were activated in UBL5-silenced cells. In agreement with this, UBL5 knockdown induced severe apoptosis in culture and suppressed tumorigenicity of cancer cells in vivo. Furthermore, overexpression of UBL5 protected specifically against ER stress-induced apoptosis. These results identify UBL5 as a physiologically relevant survival regulator that is proteolytically depleted by the UPR-protein kinase R-like ER kinase pathway, linking ER stress to cell death.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Wei Wang
- Department of Biochemistry & Molecular Biology, School of Medicine, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, Virginia, USA
| | - Adam M Hawkridge
- Department of Pharmaceutics, School of Pharmacy, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, Virginia, USA
| | - Yibao Ma
- Department of Biochemistry & Molecular Biology, School of Medicine, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, Virginia, USA
| | - Bei Zhang
- Department of Biostatistics, School of Medicine, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, Virginia, USA
| | - John B Mangrum
- Department of Pharmaceutics, School of Pharmacy, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, Virginia, USA
| | - Zaneera H Hassan
- Department of Pharmaceutics, School of Pharmacy, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, Virginia, USA
| | - Tianhai He
- Department of Biochemistry & Molecular Biology, School of Medicine, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, Virginia, USA
| | - Sofiya Blat
- Department of Biochemistry & Molecular Biology, School of Medicine, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, Virginia, USA
| | - Chunqing Guo
- Department of Human & Molecular Genetics, School of Medicine, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, Virginia, USA
| | - Huiping Zhou
- Department of Microbiology & Immunology, School of Medicine, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, Virginia, USA; Hunter Holmes McGuire VA Medical Center, Richmond, Virginia, USA
| | - Jinze Liu
- Department of Biostatistics, School of Medicine, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, Virginia, USA
| | - Xiang-Yang Wang
- Department of Human & Molecular Genetics, School of Medicine, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, Virginia, USA; Hunter Holmes McGuire VA Medical Center, Richmond, Virginia, USA
| | - Xianjun Fang
- Department of Biochemistry & Molecular Biology, School of Medicine, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, Virginia, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Cai J, Qiong G, Li C, Sun L, Luo Y, Yuan S, Gonzalez FJ, Xu J. Manassantin B attenuates obesity by inhibiting adipogenesis and lipogenesis in an AMPK dependent manner. FASEB J 2021; 35:e21496. [PMID: 33904622 PMCID: PMC9813681 DOI: 10.1096/fj.202002126rr] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2020] [Revised: 02/13/2021] [Accepted: 02/17/2021] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
Saururus chinensis (S chinensis) has been used as an herb to treat edema, jaundice, and gonorrhea. Manassantin B (MNSB), a dineolignan isolated from S chinensis, was identified as a potent adipogenesis/lipogenesis inhibitor (IC50 = 9.3 nM). To explore the underlying mechanism, both adipogenesis and lipogenesis were measured in differentiated 3T3-L1 preadipocytes, murine primary preadipocytes and adipose tissue explants upon MNSB treatment. Key regulators of adipogenesis/lipogenesis were downregulated by MNSB treatment, mainly resulting from increased phosphorylation of AMPK which was identified as a vital regulator of adipogenesis and lipogenesis. Moreover, MNSB did not increase AMPK phosphorylation in 3T3-L1 cells transfected with Prkaa1 (encoding protein kinase AMP-activated catalytic subunit alpha 1) siRNA or adipose tissue explants isolated from adipose-specific Prkaa1-disrupted mice (Prkaa1Δad ). In diet-induced obese C57BL/6N mice, MNSB displayed preventive and therapeutic effects on obesity accompanied by decreased adipocyte size. MNSB was also found to increase AMPK phosphorylation both in subcutaneous white adipose tissue and brown adipose tissue in vivo. These findings suggest that MNSB can be a new therapeutic agent for the prevention and treatment of obesity and other related metabolic disorders.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jie Cai
- Research Center for Drug Discovery, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, China,Laboratory of Metabolism, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Gu Qiong
- Research Center for Drug Discovery, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Chanjuan Li
- Research Center for Drug Discovery, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Lulu Sun
- Laboratory of Metabolism, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Yuhong Luo
- Laboratory of Metabolism, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Shengheng Yuan
- Research Center for Drug Discovery, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Frank J. Gonzalez
- Laboratory of Metabolism, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Jun Xu
- Research Center for Drug Discovery, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, China
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Asai T. Synthetic Biology Based Construction of Fungal Diterpenoid Pyrone Library. J SYN ORG CHEM JPN 2021. [DOI: 10.5059/yukigoseikyokaishi.79.322] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Teigo Asai
- Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Tohoku University
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Cho H, Shen Q, Zhang LH, Okumura M, Kawakami A, Ambrose J, Sigoillot F, Miller HR, Gleim S, Cobos-Correa A, Wang Y, Piechon P, Roma G, Eggimann F, Moore C, Aspesi P, Mapa FA, Burks H, Ross NT, Krastel P, Hild M, Maimone TJ, Fisher DE, Nomura DK, Tallarico JA, Canham SM, Jenkins JL, Forrester WC. CYP27A1-dependent anti-melanoma activity of limonoid natural products targets mitochondrial metabolism. Cell Chem Biol 2021; 28:1407-1419.e6. [PMID: 33794192 DOI: 10.1016/j.chembiol.2021.03.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2020] [Revised: 01/24/2021] [Accepted: 03/09/2021] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
Three limonoid natural products with selective anti-proliferative activity against BRAF(V600E) and NRAS(Q61K)-mutation-dependent melanoma cell lines were identified. Differential transcriptome analysis revealed dependency of compound activity on expression of the mitochondrial cytochrome P450 oxidase CYP27A1, a transcriptional target of melanogenesis-associated transcription factor (MITF). We determined that CYP27A1 activity is necessary for the generation of a reactive metabolite that proceeds to inhibit cellular proliferation. A genome-wide small interfering RNA screen in combination with chemical proteomics experiments revealed gene-drug functional epistasis, suggesting that these compounds target mitochondrial biogenesis and inhibit tumor bioenergetics through a covalent mechanism. Our work suggests a strategy for melanoma-specific targeting by exploiting the expression of MITF target gene CYP27A1 and inhibiting mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation in BRAF mutant melanomas.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Hyelim Cho
- Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, 181 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
| | - Qiong Shen
- Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, 181 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
| | - Lydia H Zhang
- Department of Chemistry, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA; Novartis-Berkeley Center for Proteomics and Chemistry Technologies, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
| | - Mikiko Okumura
- Department of Chemistry, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA; Novartis-Berkeley Center for Proteomics and Chemistry Technologies, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
| | - Akinori Kawakami
- Department of Dermatology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114, USA
| | - Jessi Ambrose
- Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, 181 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
| | - Frederic Sigoillot
- Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, 181 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
| | - Howard R Miller
- Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, 181 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
| | - Scott Gleim
- Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, 181 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
| | - Amanda Cobos-Correa
- Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, Novartis Pharma AG, Forum 1 Novartis Campus, 4056 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Ying Wang
- Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, Novartis Pharma AG, Forum 1 Novartis Campus, 4056 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Philippe Piechon
- Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, Novartis Pharma AG, Forum 1 Novartis Campus, 4056 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Guglielmo Roma
- Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, Novartis Pharma AG, Forum 1 Novartis Campus, 4056 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Fabian Eggimann
- Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, Novartis Pharma AG, Forum 1 Novartis Campus, 4056 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Charles Moore
- Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, Novartis Pharma AG, Forum 1 Novartis Campus, 4056 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Peter Aspesi
- Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, 181 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
| | - Felipa A Mapa
- Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, 181 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
| | - Heather Burks
- Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, 181 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
| | - Nathan T Ross
- Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, 181 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
| | - Philipp Krastel
- Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, Novartis Pharma AG, Forum 1 Novartis Campus, 4056 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Marc Hild
- Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, 181 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
| | - Thomas J Maimone
- Department of Chemistry, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA; Novartis-Berkeley Center for Proteomics and Chemistry Technologies, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
| | - David E Fisher
- Department of Dermatology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114, USA
| | - Daniel K Nomura
- Department of Chemistry, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA; Novartis-Berkeley Center for Proteomics and Chemistry Technologies, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA; Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA; Department of Nutritional Sciences and Toxicology, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA; Innovative Genomics Institute, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
| | - John A Tallarico
- Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, 181 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA; Novartis-Berkeley Center for Proteomics and Chemistry Technologies, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
| | - Stephen M Canham
- Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, 181 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA; Novartis-Berkeley Center for Proteomics and Chemistry Technologies, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
| | - Jeremy L Jenkins
- Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, 181 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA.
| | - William C Forrester
- Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, 181 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Synthetic biology based construction of biological activity-related library of fungal decalin-containing diterpenoid pyrones. Nat Commun 2020; 11:1830. [PMID: 32286350 PMCID: PMC7156458 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-020-15664-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2019] [Accepted: 03/19/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
A synthetic biology method based on heterologous biosynthesis coupled with genome mining is a promising approach for increasing the opportunities to rationally access natural product with novel structures and biological activities through total biosynthesis and combinatorial biosynthesis. Here, we demonstrate the advantage of the synthetic biology method to explore biological activity-related chemical space through the comprehensive heterologous biosynthesis of fungal decalin-containing diterpenoid pyrones (DDPs). Genome mining reveals putative DDP biosynthetic gene clusters distributed in five fungal genera. In addition, we design extended DDP pathways by combinatorial biosynthesis. In total, ten DDP pathways, including five native pathways, four extended pathways and one shunt pathway, are heterologously reconstituted in a genetically tractable heterologous host, Aspergillus oryzae, resulting in the production of 22 DDPs, including 15 new analogues. We also demonstrate the advantage of expanding the diversity of DDPs to probe various bioactive molecules through a wide range of biological evaluations. Combining genome mining and heterologous expression in a genetically tractable host can lead to bioactive natural products discovery and production. Here, the authors employ this strategy for new decalin-containing diterpenoid pyrenes production by expressing native, extended, and shunt pathways in Aspergillus oryzae.
Collapse
|
6
|
Vliet SM, Dasgupta S, Volz DC. Niclosamide Induces Epiboly Delay During Early Zebrafish Embryogenesis. Toxicol Sci 2019; 166:306-317. [PMID: 30165700 DOI: 10.1093/toxsci/kfy214] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Niclosamide is an antihelminthic drug used worldwide for the treatment of tapeworm infections. Recent drug repurposing screens have revealed that niclosamide exhibits diverse mechanisms of action and, as a result, demonstrates promise for a number of applications, including the treatment of cancer, bacterial infections, and Zika virus. As new applications of niclosamide will require non-oral delivery routes that may lead to exposure in utero, the objective of this study was to investigate the mechanism of niclosamide toxicity during early stages of embryonic development. Using zebrafish as a model, we found that niclosamide induced a concentration-dependent delay in epiboly progression during late-blastula and early-gastrula, an effect that was dependent on exposure during the maternal-to-zygotic transition-a period characterized by degradation of maternally derived transcripts, zygotic genome activation, and initiation of cell motility. Moreover, we found that niclosamide did not affect embryonic oxygen consumption, suggesting that oxidative phosphorylation-a well-established target for niclosamide within intestinal parasites-may not play a role in niclosamide-induced epiboly delay. However, mRNA-sequencing revealed that niclosamide exposure during blastula and early-gastrula significantly impacted the timing of zygotic genome activation as well as the abundance of cytoskeleton- and cell cycle regulation-specific transcripts. In addition, we found that niclosamide inhibited tubulin polymerization in vitro, suggesting that niclosamide-induced delays in epiboly progression may, in part, be driven by disruption of microtubule formation and cell motility within the developing embryo.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sara M Vliet
- Department of Environmental Sciences, University of California, Riverside, California 92521
| | - Subham Dasgupta
- Department of Environmental Sciences, University of California, Riverside, California 92521
| | - David C Volz
- Department of Environmental Sciences, University of California, Riverside, California 92521
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Song JH, Ahn JH, Kim SR, Cho S, Hong EH, Kwon BE, Kim DE, Choi M, Choi HJ, Cha Y, Chang SY, Ko HJ. Manassantin B shows antiviral activity against coxsackievirus B3 infection by activation of the STING/TBK-1/IRF3 signalling pathway. Sci Rep 2019; 9:9413. [PMID: 31253850 PMCID: PMC6599049 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-45868-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2018] [Accepted: 06/04/2019] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Coxsackievirus B3 (CVB3) is an important human pathogen associated with the development of acute pancreatitis, myocarditis, and type 1 diabetes. Currently, no vaccines or antiviral therapeutics are approved for the prevention and treatment of CVB3 infection. We found that Saururus chinensis Baill extract showed critical antiviral activity against CVB3 infection in vitro. Further, manassantin B inhibited replication of CVB3 and suppressed CVB3 VP1 protein expression in vitro. Additionally, oral administration of manassantin B in mice attenuated CVB3 infection-associated symptoms by reducing systemic production of inflammatory cytokines and chemokines including TNF-α, IL-6, IFN-γ, CCL2, and CXCL-1. We found that the antiviral activity of manassantin B is associated with increased levels of mitochondrial ROS (mROS). Inhibition of mROS generation attenuated the antiviral activity of manassantin B in vitro. Interestingly, we found that manassantin B also induced cytosolic release of mitochondrial DNA based on cytochrome C oxidase DNA levels. We further confirmed that STING and IRF-3 expression and STING and TBK-1 phosphorylation were increased by manassantin B treatment in CVB3-infected cells. Collectively, these results suggest that manassantin B exerts antiviral activity against CVB3 through activation of the STING/TKB-1/IRF3 antiviral pathway and increased production of mROS.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jae-Hyoung Song
- College of Pharmacy, Kangwon National University, Chuncheon, South Korea
| | - Jae-Hee Ahn
- College of Pharmacy, Kangwon National University, Chuncheon, South Korea
| | - Seong-Ryeol Kim
- College of Pharmacy, Kangwon National University, Chuncheon, South Korea
| | - Sungchan Cho
- Anticancer Agent Research Center, Korea Research Institute of Bioscience & Biotechnology, Ochang, South Korea
| | - Eun-Hye Hong
- College of Pharmacy, Kangwon National University, Chuncheon, South Korea
| | - Bo-Eun Kwon
- College of Pharmacy, Kangwon National University, Chuncheon, South Korea
| | - Dong-Eun Kim
- Anticancer Agent Research Center, Korea Research Institute of Bioscience & Biotechnology, Ochang, South Korea
| | - Miri Choi
- Anticancer Agent Research Center, Korea Research Institute of Bioscience & Biotechnology, Ochang, South Korea
| | - Hwa-Jung Choi
- Department of Beauty Science, Kwangju Women's University, Gwangju, South Korea
| | - Younggil Cha
- College of Pharmacy, Kangwon National University, Chuncheon, South Korea
| | - Sun-Young Chang
- Research Institute of Pharmaceutical Science and Technology (RIPST), College of Pharmacy, Ajou University, Suwon, South Korea.
| | - Hyun-Jeong Ko
- College of Pharmacy, Kangwon National University, Chuncheon, South Korea.
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Tan P, Lau B, Krishnasamy G, Ng M, Husin L, Ruslan N, Song D, Velaithan V, Okuda K, Patel V. Zebrafish embryonic development-interfering macrolides from Streptomyces californicus impact growth and mitochondrial function in human colorectal cancer cells. Process Biochem 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.procbio.2018.07.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
|
9
|
Ma Y, Min HK, Oh U, Hawkridge AM, Wang W, Mohsin AA, Chen Q, Sanyal A, Lesnefsky EJ, Fang X. The lignan manassantin is a potent and specific inhibitor of mitochondrial complex I and bioenergetic activity in mammals. J Biol Chem 2017; 292:20989-20997. [PMID: 29046352 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m117.812925] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2017] [Revised: 10/05/2017] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Dineolignans manassantin A and B from the plant Saururus cernuus are used in traditional medicine to manage a wide range of ailments such as edema, jaundice, and gonorrhea. Cell-based studies have identified several molecular target candidates of manassantin including NF-κB, MAPK, STAT3, and hypoxia-inducible factor 1α (HIF-1α). It is unclear whether or how these structurally diverse proteins or pathways mediate any of the medical benefits of manassantin in vivo Moreover, it has recently been reported that manassantin causes developmental arrest in zebrafish by inhibiting the mitochondrial complex I, but it is unknown whether manassantin inhibits mitochondrial respiration in intact mammalian cells and live animals. Here, we present direct evidence that manassantin potently and specifically inhibits the mitochondrial complex I and bioenergetic activity in mammalian systems. Manassantin had no effect on complex II- or complex IV-mediated respiration. Of note, it decreased NADH-ubiquinone reductase activity but not the activity of NADH-ferricyanide reductase. Treatment with manassantin reduced cellular ATP levels and concomitantly stimulated AMP-activated protein kinase in vitro and in vivo As an adaptive response to manassantin-induced bioenergetic deficiency, mammalian cells up-regulated aerobic glycolysis, a process mediated by AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) independently of HIF-1α. Together these results demonstrate a biologically important activity of manassantin in the control of complex I-mediated respiration and its profound effects on oxygen utilization, energy homeostasis, and glucose metabolism in mammalian cells.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yibao Ma
- From the Departments of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology
| | | | | | - Adam M Hawkridge
- Department of Pharmaceutics, School of Pharmacy, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, Virginia 23298 and
| | - Wei Wang
- From the Departments of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology
| | | | | | | | - Edward J Lesnefsky
- From the Departments of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology.,Internal Medicine, and.,McGuire Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Richmond, Virginia 23298
| | - Xianjun Fang
- From the Departments of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology,
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Effects of Hydroxylated Polybrominated Diphenyl Ethers in Developing Zebrafish Are Indicative of Disruption of Oxidative Phosphorylation. Int J Mol Sci 2017; 18:ijms18050970. [PMID: 28467386 PMCID: PMC5454883 DOI: 10.3390/ijms18050970] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2017] [Revised: 04/10/2017] [Accepted: 04/21/2017] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Hydroxylated polybrominated diphenyl ethers (OH-PBDEs) have been detected in humans and wildlife. Using in vitro models, we recently showed that OH-PBDEs disrupt oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS), an essential process in energy metabolism. The goal of the current study was to determine the in vivo effects of OH-PBDE reported in marine wildlife. To this end, we exposed zebrafish larvae to 17 OH-PBDEs from fertilisation to 6 days of age, and determined developmental toxicity as well as OXPHOS disruption potential with a newly developed assay of oxygen consumption in living embryos. We show here that all OH-PBDEs tested, both individually and as mixtures, resulted in a concentration-dependant delay in development in zebrafish embryos. The most potent substances were 6-OH-BDE47 and 6'-OH-BDE49 (No-Effect-Concentration: 0.1 and 0.05 µM). The first 24 h of development were the most sensitive, resulting in significant and irreversible developmental delay. All substances increased oxygen consumption, an effect indicative of OXPHOS disruption. Our results suggest that the induced developmental delay may be caused by disruption of OXPHOS. Though further studies are needed, our findings suggest that the environmental concentrations of some OH-PBDEs found in Baltic Sea wildlife in the Baltic Sea may be of toxicological concern.
Collapse
|
11
|
Brecht K, Riebel V, Couttet P, Paech F, Wolf A, Chibout SD, Pognan F, Krähenbühl S, Uteng M. Mechanistic insights into selective killing of OXPHOS-dependent cancer cells by arctigenin. Toxicol In Vitro 2016; 40:55-65. [PMID: 27923774 DOI: 10.1016/j.tiv.2016.12.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2016] [Revised: 11/27/2016] [Accepted: 12/01/2016] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
Arctigenin has previously been identified as a potential anti-tumor treatment for advanced pancreatic cancer. However, the mechanism of how arctigenin kills cancer cells is not fully understood. In the present work we studied the mechanism of toxicity by arctigenin in the human pancreatic cell line, Panc-1, with special emphasis on the mitochondria. A comparison of Panc-1 cells cultured in glucose versus galactose medium was applied, allowing assessments of effects in glycolytic versus oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS)-dependent Panc-1 cells. For control purposes, the mitochondrial toxic response to treatment with arctigenin was compared to the anti-cancer drug, sorafenib, which is a tyrosine kinase inhibitor known for mitochondrial toxic off-target effects (Will et al., 2008). In both Panc-1 OXPHOS-dependent and glycolytic cells, arctigenin dissipated the mitochondrial membrane potential, which was demonstrated to be due to inhibition of the mitochondrial complexes II and IV. However, arctigenin selectively killed only the OXPHOS-dependent Panc-1 cells. This selective killing of OXPHOS-dependent Panc-1 cells was accompanied by generation of ER stress, mitochondrial membrane permeabilization and caspase activation leading to apoptosis and aponecrosis.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Karin Brecht
- University Hospital Basel, Department of Biomedicine, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Virginie Riebel
- Novartis Institutes for Biomedical Research, Department of Discovery and Investigative Safety, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Philippe Couttet
- Novartis Institutes for Biomedical Research, Department of Discovery and Investigative Safety, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Franziska Paech
- University Hospital Basel, Department of Biomedicine, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Armin Wolf
- Novartis Institutes for Biomedical Research, Department of Discovery and Investigative Safety, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Salah-Dine Chibout
- Novartis Institutes for Biomedical Research, Department of Discovery and Investigative Safety, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Francois Pognan
- Novartis Institutes for Biomedical Research, Department of Discovery and Investigative Safety, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Stephan Krähenbühl
- University Hospital Basel, Department of Biomedicine, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Marianne Uteng
- Novartis Institutes for Biomedical Research, Department of Discovery and Investigative Safety, Basel, Switzerland.
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Del Gaudio F, Festa C, Mozzicafreddo M, Vasaturo M, Casapullo A, De Marino S, Riccio R, Monti MC. Biomolecular proteomics discloses ATP synthase as the main target of the natural glycoside deglucoruscin. MOLECULAR BIOSYSTEMS 2016; 12:3132-8. [PMID: 27476482 DOI: 10.1039/c6mb00460a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Extracts of Ruscus aculeatus are a rich source of bioactive steroidal glycosides, such as ruscogenins which are reported to act against chronic venous disorders. Nowadays, several preparations of its roots, commonly used in traditional medicine, are on the market as food supplements for health care and maintenance. Although spirostanol deglucoruscin is one of the main metabolites in these extracts, literature reports about its pharmacological profile are scarce. In this paper, a multi-disciplinary approach, based on chemical proteomics, molecular modelling and bio-organic assays, has been used to disclose the whole interactome of deglucoruscin and the F0-F1 ATP synthase complex has been found as its main target.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Federica Del Gaudio
- Department of Pharmacy, University of Salerno, Via Giovanni Paolo II, 132, 84084, Fisciano, Italy.
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
13
|
Chang J, Kwon HJ. Discovery of novel drug targets and their functions using phenotypic screening of natural products. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2016; 43:221-31. [DOI: 10.1007/s10295-015-1681-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2015] [Accepted: 08/27/2015] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
Natural products are valuable resources that provide a variety of bioactive compounds and natural pharmacophores in modern drug discovery. Discovery of biologically active natural products and unraveling their target proteins to understand their mode of action have always been critical hurdles for their development into clinical drugs. For effective discovery and development of bioactive natural products into novel therapeutic drugs, comprehensive screening and identification of target proteins are indispensable. In this review, a systematic approach to understanding the mode of action of natural products isolated using phenotypic screening involving chemical proteomics-based target identification is introduced. This review highlights three natural products recently discovered via phenotypic screening, namely glucopiericidin A, ecumicin, and terpestacin, as representative case studies to revisit the pivotal role of natural products as powerful tools in discovering the novel functions and druggability of targets in biological systems and pathological diseases of interest.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Junghwa Chang
- grid.15444.30 0000000404705454 Department of Biotechnology, Translational Research Center for Protein Function Control, College of Life Science and Biotechnology Yonsei University 120-749 Seoul Republic of Korea
| | - Ho Jeong Kwon
- grid.15444.30 0000000404705454 Department of Biotechnology, Translational Research Center for Protein Function Control, College of Life Science and Biotechnology Yonsei University 120-749 Seoul Republic of Korea
- grid.15444.30 0000000404705454 Department of Internal Medicine, College of Medicine Yonsei University 120-752 Seoul Republic of Korea
| |
Collapse
|
14
|
Natural products as probes in pharmaceutical research. J Ind Microbiol Biotechnol 2015; 43:249-60. [PMID: 26438431 DOI: 10.1007/s10295-015-1691-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2015] [Accepted: 09/16/2015] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
From the start of the pharmaceutical research natural products played a key role in drug discovery and development. Over time many discoveries of fundamental new biology were triggered by the unique biological activity of natural products. Unprecedented chemical structures, novel chemotypes, often pave the way to investigate new biology and to explore new pathways and targets. This review summarizes the recent results in the area with a focus on research done in the laboratories of Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research. We aim to put the technological advances in target identification techniques in the context to the current revival of phenotypic screening and the increasingly complex biological questions related to drug discovery.
Collapse
|
15
|
Schirle M, Jenkins JL. Identifying compound efficacy targets in phenotypic drug discovery. Drug Discov Today 2015; 21:82-89. [PMID: 26272035 DOI: 10.1016/j.drudis.2015.08.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 102] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2015] [Revised: 07/10/2015] [Accepted: 08/03/2015] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
The identification of the efficacy target(s) for hits from phenotypic compound screens remains a key step to progress compounds into drug development. In addition to efficacy targets, the characterization of epistatic proteins influencing compound activity often facilitates the elucidation of the underlying mechanism of action; and, further, early determination of off-targets that cause potentially unwanted secondary phenotypes helps in assessing potential liabilities. This short review discusses the most important technologies currently available for characterizing the direct and indirect target space of bioactive compounds following phenotypic screening. We present a comprehensive strategy employing complementary approaches to balance individual technology strengths and weaknesses.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Markus Schirle
- Developmental & Molecular Pathways, Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA.
| | - Jeremy L Jenkins
- Developmental & Molecular Pathways, Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
16
|
Kurita KL, Linington RG. Connecting phenotype and chemotype: high-content discovery strategies for natural products research. JOURNAL OF NATURAL PRODUCTS 2015; 78:587-96. [PMID: 25728167 PMCID: PMC7505086 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jnatprod.5b00017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
In recent years, the field of natural products has seen an explosion in the breadth, resolution, and accuracy of profiling platforms for compound discovery, including many new chemical and biological annotation methods. With these new tools come opportunities to examine extract libraries using systematized profiling approaches that were not previously available to the field and which offer new approaches for the detailed characterization of the chemical and biological attributes of complex natural products mixtures. This review will present a summary of some of these untargeted profiling methods and provide perspective on the future opportunities offered by integrating these tools for novel natural products discovery.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kenji L. Kurita
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California Santa Cruz, 1156 High Street, Santa Cruz, California 95064, United States
| | - Roger G. Linington
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California Santa Cruz, 1156 High Street, Santa Cruz, California 95064, United States
| |
Collapse
|
17
|
Wu RM, Sun YY, Zhou TT, Zhu ZY, Zhuang JJ, Tang X, Chen J, Hu LH, Shen X. Arctigenin enhances swimming endurance of sedentary rats partially by regulation of antioxidant pathways. Acta Pharmacol Sin 2014; 35:1274-84. [PMID: 25152028 PMCID: PMC4186987 DOI: 10.1038/aps.2014.70] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2014] [Accepted: 06/09/2014] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
AIM Arctigenin, a phenylpropanoid dibenzylbutyrolactone lignan found in traditional Chinese herbs, has been determined to exhibit a variety of pharmacological activities, including anti-tumor, anti-inflammation, neuroprotection, and endurance enhancement. In the present study, we investigated the antioxidation and anti-fatigue effects of arctigenin in rats. METHODS Rat L6 skeletal muscle cell line was exposed to H2O2 (700 μmol/L), and ROS level was assayed using DCFH-DA as a probe. Male SD rats were injected with arctigenin (15 mg·kg(-1)·d(-1), ip) for 6 weeks, and then the weight-loaded forced swimming test (WFST) was performed to evaluate their endurance. The levels of antioxidant-related genes in L6 cells and the skeletal muscles of rats were analyzed using real-time RT-PCR and Western blotting. RESULTS Incubation of L6 cells with arctigenin (1, 5, 20 μmol/L) dose-dependently decreased the H2O2-induced ROS production. WFST results demonstrated that chronic administration of arctigenin significantly enhanced the endurance of rats. Furthermore, molecular biology studies on L6 cells and skeletal muscles of the rats showed that arctigenin effectively increased the expression of the antioxidant-related genes, including superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione reductase (Gsr), glutathione peroxidase (GPX1), thioredoxin (Txn) and uncoupling protein 2 (UCP2), through regulation of two potential antioxidant pathways: AMPK/PGC-1α/PPARα in mitochondria and AMPK/p53/Nrf2 in the cell nucleus. CONCLUSION Arctigenin efficiently enhances rat swimming endurance by elevation of the antioxidant capacity of the skeletal muscles, which has thereby highlighted the potential of this natural product as an antioxidant in the treatment of fatigue and related diseases.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ruo-ming Wu
- School of Pharmacy, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai 200237, China
| | - Yan-yan Sun
- School of Pharmacy, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai 200237, China
| | - Ting-ting Zhou
- Key Laboratory of Receptor Research, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 201203, China
| | - Zhi-yuan Zhu
- Key Laboratory of Receptor Research, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 201203, China
| | - Jing-jing Zhuang
- School of Pharmacy, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai 200237, China
| | - Xuan Tang
- Key Laboratory of Receptor Research, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 201203, China
| | - Jing Chen
- Key Laboratory of Receptor Research, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 201203, China
| | - Li-hong Hu
- Key Laboratory of Receptor Research, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 201203, China
| | - Xu Shen
- School of Pharmacy, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai 200237, China
- Key Laboratory of Receptor Research, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 201203, China
| |
Collapse
|
18
|
Grassian AR, Parker SJ, Davidson SM, Divakaruni AS, Green CR, Zhang X, Slocum KL, Pu M, Lin F, Vickers C, Joud-Caldwell C, Chung F, Yin H, Handly ED, Straub C, Growney JD, Vander Heiden MG, Murphy AN, Pagliarini R, Metallo CM. IDH1 mutations alter citric acid cycle metabolism and increase dependence on oxidative mitochondrial metabolism. Cancer Res 2014; 74:3317-31. [PMID: 24755473 PMCID: PMC4885639 DOI: 10.1158/0008-5472.can-14-0772-t] [Citation(s) in RCA: 195] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Oncogenic mutations in isocitrate dehydrogenase 1 and 2 (IDH1/2) occur in several types of cancer, but the metabolic consequences of these genetic changes are not fully understood. In this study, we performed (13)C metabolic flux analysis on a panel of isogenic cell lines containing heterozygous IDH1/2 mutations. We observed that under hypoxic conditions, IDH1-mutant cells exhibited increased oxidative tricarboxylic acid metabolism along with decreased reductive glutamine metabolism, but not IDH2-mutant cells. However, selective inhibition of mutant IDH1 enzyme function could not reverse the defect in reductive carboxylation activity. Furthermore, this metabolic reprogramming increased the sensitivity of IDH1-mutant cells to hypoxia or electron transport chain inhibition in vitro. Lastly, IDH1-mutant cells also grew poorly as subcutaneous xenografts within a hypoxic in vivo microenvironment. Together, our results suggest therapeutic opportunities to exploit the metabolic vulnerabilities specific to IDH1 mutation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Alexandra R Grassian
- Authors' Affiliations: Novartis Institutes for Biomedical Research; Koch Institute for Cancer Research, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts; Departments of Bioengineering and Pharmacology; and Moores Cancer Center, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California
| | - Seth J Parker
- Authors' Affiliations: Novartis Institutes for Biomedical Research; Koch Institute for Cancer Research, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts; Departments of Bioengineering and Pharmacology; and Moores Cancer Center, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California
| | - Shawn M Davidson
- Authors' Affiliations: Novartis Institutes for Biomedical Research; Koch Institute for Cancer Research, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts; Departments of Bioengineering and Pharmacology; and Moores Cancer Center, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California
| | - Ajit S Divakaruni
- Authors' Affiliations: Novartis Institutes for Biomedical Research; Koch Institute for Cancer Research, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts; Departments of Bioengineering and Pharmacology; and Moores Cancer Center, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California
| | - Courtney R Green
- Authors' Affiliations: Novartis Institutes for Biomedical Research; Koch Institute for Cancer Research, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts; Departments of Bioengineering and Pharmacology; and Moores Cancer Center, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California
| | - Xiamei Zhang
- Authors' Affiliations: Novartis Institutes for Biomedical Research; Koch Institute for Cancer Research, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts; Departments of Bioengineering and Pharmacology; and Moores Cancer Center, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California
| | - Kelly L Slocum
- Authors' Affiliations: Novartis Institutes for Biomedical Research; Koch Institute for Cancer Research, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts; Departments of Bioengineering and Pharmacology; and Moores Cancer Center, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California
| | - Minying Pu
- Authors' Affiliations: Novartis Institutes for Biomedical Research; Koch Institute for Cancer Research, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts; Departments of Bioengineering and Pharmacology; and Moores Cancer Center, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California
| | - Fallon Lin
- Authors' Affiliations: Novartis Institutes for Biomedical Research; Koch Institute for Cancer Research, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts; Departments of Bioengineering and Pharmacology; and Moores Cancer Center, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California
| | - Chad Vickers
- Authors' Affiliations: Novartis Institutes for Biomedical Research; Koch Institute for Cancer Research, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts; Departments of Bioengineering and Pharmacology; and Moores Cancer Center, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California
| | - Carol Joud-Caldwell
- Authors' Affiliations: Novartis Institutes for Biomedical Research; Koch Institute for Cancer Research, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts; Departments of Bioengineering and Pharmacology; and Moores Cancer Center, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California
| | - Franklin Chung
- Authors' Affiliations: Novartis Institutes for Biomedical Research; Koch Institute for Cancer Research, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts; Departments of Bioengineering and Pharmacology; and Moores Cancer Center, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California
| | - Hong Yin
- Authors' Affiliations: Novartis Institutes for Biomedical Research; Koch Institute for Cancer Research, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts; Departments of Bioengineering and Pharmacology; and Moores Cancer Center, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California
| | - Erika D Handly
- Authors' Affiliations: Novartis Institutes for Biomedical Research; Koch Institute for Cancer Research, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts; Departments of Bioengineering and Pharmacology; and Moores Cancer Center, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California
| | - Christopher Straub
- Authors' Affiliations: Novartis Institutes for Biomedical Research; Koch Institute for Cancer Research, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts; Departments of Bioengineering and Pharmacology; and Moores Cancer Center, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California
| | - Joseph D Growney
- Authors' Affiliations: Novartis Institutes for Biomedical Research; Koch Institute for Cancer Research, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts; Departments of Bioengineering and Pharmacology; and Moores Cancer Center, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California
| | - Matthew G Vander Heiden
- Authors' Affiliations: Novartis Institutes for Biomedical Research; Koch Institute for Cancer Research, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts; Departments of Bioengineering and Pharmacology; and Moores Cancer Center, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CaliforniaAuthors' Affiliations: Novartis Institutes for Biomedical Research; Koch Institute for Cancer Research, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts; Departments of Bioengineering and Pharmacology; and Moores Cancer Center, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California
| | - Anne N Murphy
- Authors' Affiliations: Novartis Institutes for Biomedical Research; Koch Institute for Cancer Research, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts; Departments of Bioengineering and Pharmacology; and Moores Cancer Center, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California
| | - Raymond Pagliarini
- Authors' Affiliations: Novartis Institutes for Biomedical Research; Koch Institute for Cancer Research, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts; Departments of Bioengineering and Pharmacology; and Moores Cancer Center, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California
| | - Christian M Metallo
- Authors' Affiliations: Novartis Institutes for Biomedical Research; Koch Institute for Cancer Research, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts; Departments of Bioengineering and Pharmacology; and Moores Cancer Center, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CaliforniaAuthors' Affiliations: Novartis Institutes for Biomedical Research; Koch Institute for Cancer Research, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts; Departments of Bioengineering and Pharmacology; and Moores Cancer Center, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California
| |
Collapse
|