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Zhang P, Li J, Li W, Qiao S, Ou Y, Yuan X. Synaptic endocytosis in adult adipose stromal cell-derived neurons. Brain Res 2024; 1827:148746. [PMID: 38184164 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2023.148746] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2023] [Revised: 12/24/2023] [Accepted: 12/30/2023] [Indexed: 01/08/2024]
Abstract
Synapses are essential for facilitating the transmission of information between neurons and for executing neurophysiological processes. Following the exocytosis of neurotransmitters, the synaptic vesicle may quickly undergo endocytosis to preserve the structural integrity of the synapse. When converting adipose-derived stromal cells (ADSCs) into neurons, the ADSCs have already demonstrated comparable morphology, structure, and electrophysiological characteristics to neurons. Nevertheless, there is currently no published study on the endocytotic function of neurons that are produced from ADSCs. This study aimed to examine synaptic endocytosis in neurons derived from ADSCs by qualitatively and quantitatively analyzing the presence of Ap-2, Clathrin, Endophilin, Dynamin, and Hsc70, which are the key proteins involved in clathrin-mediated endocytosis (CME), as well as by using FM1-43 and cadmium selenide quantum dots (CdSe QDs). Additionally, single-cell RNA sequencing (scRNA-seq) was used to look at the levels of both neuronal markers and markers related to CME at the same time. The results of this study provide evidence that synapses in neurons produced from ADSCs have a role in endocytosis, mainly through the CME route.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pingshu Zhang
- Department of Neurology, Kailuan General Hospital, North China University of Science and Technology, Tangshan, China; Neurobiology Key Laboratory of HeBei, Tangshan, China
| | - Jing Li
- Radiology Department of Tangshan Maternal and Child Health Hospital, Tangshan City, Hebei Province, China
| | - Wen Li
- Department of Neurology, Kailuan General Hospital, North China University of Science and Technology, Tangshan, China; Neurobiology Key Laboratory of HeBei, Tangshan, China
| | - Sijia Qiao
- Department of Neurology, Kailuan General Hospital, North China University of Science and Technology, Tangshan, China; Neurobiology Key Laboratory of HeBei, Tangshan, China
| | - Ya Ou
- Department of Neurology, Kailuan General Hospital, North China University of Science and Technology, Tangshan, China; Neurobiology Key Laboratory of HeBei, Tangshan, China
| | - Xiaodong Yuan
- Department of Neurology, Kailuan General Hospital, North China University of Science and Technology, Tangshan, China; Neurobiology Key Laboratory of HeBei, Tangshan, China.
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2
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Galkin M, Topcheva O, Priss A, Borisova T, Shvadchak VV. Dopamine-Induced Oligomers of α-Synuclein Inhibit Amyloid Fibril Growth and Show No Toxicity. ACS Chem Neurosci 2023. [PMID: 37162160 DOI: 10.1021/acschemneuro.2c00815] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Parkinson's disease is characterized by the selective death of dopaminergic neurons in the midbrain and accumulation of amyloid fibrils composed of α-synuclein (αSyn). Current treatment involves approaches that compensate the death of dopaminergic neurons by increasing the dopamine levels in remaining cells. However, dopamine can interact with αSyn and produce oligomeric species which were reported to be toxic in many models. We studied formation of dopamine-induced αSyn oligomers and their effect on the αSyn aggregation. Using the Thioflavin T kinetic assay, we have shown that small oligomers efficiently inhibit αSyn fibrillization by binding to fibril ends and blocking the elongation. Moreover, all the fractions of oligomer species proved to be nontoxic in the differentiated SH-SY5Y cell model and showed negligible neurotoxicity on isolated rat synaptosomes. The observed inhibition is an important insight in understanding of dopamine-enhancing therapy on Parkinson's disease progression and explains the absence of pathology enhancement.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maksym Galkin
- Laboratory of Chemical Biology, Institute of Organic Chemistry and Biochemistry of the Czech Academy of Sciences Flemingovo náměstí 542/2, 160 00 Prague 6, Czech Republic
| | - Oleksandra Topcheva
- Laboratory of Chemical Biology, Institute of Organic Chemistry and Biochemistry of the Czech Academy of Sciences Flemingovo náměstí 542/2, 160 00 Prague 6, Czech Republic
| | - Anastasiia Priss
- Laboratory of Chemical Biology, Institute of Organic Chemistry and Biochemistry of the Czech Academy of Sciences Flemingovo náměstí 542/2, 160 00 Prague 6, Czech Republic
| | - Tatiana Borisova
- Department of Neurochemistry, Palladin Institute of Biochemistry, National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine, 9 Leontovycha Street, Kyiv 01054, Ukraine
| | - Volodymyr V Shvadchak
- Laboratory of Chemical Biology, Institute of Organic Chemistry and Biochemistry of the Czech Academy of Sciences Flemingovo náměstí 542/2, 160 00 Prague 6, Czech Republic
- Department of Biochemistry and Biotechnology, Vasyl Stefanyk Precarpathian National University, 57 Shevchenko Str., Ivano-Frankivsk 76018, Ukraine
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Improvement of synaptic plasticity by nanoparticles and the related mechanisms: Applications and prospects. J Control Release 2022; 347:143-163. [PMID: 35513209 DOI: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2022.04.049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2022] [Revised: 04/27/2022] [Accepted: 04/28/2022] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Synaptic plasticity is an important basis of learning and memory and participates in brain network remodelling after different types of brain injury (such as that caused by neurodegenerative diseases, cerebral ischaemic injury, posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), and psychiatric disorders). Therefore, improving synaptic plasticity is particularly important for the treatment of nervous system-related diseases. With the rapid development of nanotechnology, increasing evidence has shown that nanoparticles (NPs) can cross the blood-brain barrier (BBB) in different ways, directly or indirectly act on nerve cells, regulate synaptic plasticity, and ultimately improve nerve function. Therefore, to better elucidate the effect of NPs on synaptic plasticity, we review evidence showing that NPs can improve synaptic plasticity by regulating different influencing factors, such as neurotransmitters, receptors, presynaptic membrane proteins and postsynaptic membrane proteins, and further discuss the possible mechanism by which NPs improve synaptic plasticity. We conclude that NPs can improve synaptic plasticity and restore the function of damaged nerves by inhibiting neuroinflammation and oxidative stress, inducing autophagy, and regulating ion channels on the cell membrane. By reviewing the mechanism by which NPs regulate synaptic plasticity and the applications of NPs for the treatment of neurological diseases, we also propose directions for future research in this field and provide an important reference for follow-up research.
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Tosat-Bitrián C, Palomo V. CdSe quantum dots evaluation in primary cellular models or tissues derived from patients. NANOMEDICINE-NANOTECHNOLOGY BIOLOGY AND MEDICINE 2020; 30:102299. [PMID: 32931928 DOI: 10.1016/j.nano.2020.102299] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2020] [Revised: 08/29/2020] [Accepted: 09/01/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
In recent years quantum dots (QDs) have risen as useful luminescent nanoparticles with multiple applications ranging from laser, image displays and biomedical applications. Here we review and discuss the studies of these nanoparticles in patient derived cellular samples or tissues, including cellular models from iPSCs from patients, biopsied and post-mortem tissue. QD-based multiplexed imaging has been proved to overcome most of the major drawbacks of conventional techniques, exhibiting higher sensitivity, reliability, accuracy and simultaneous labeling of key biomarkers. In this sense, QDs are very promising tools to be further used in clinical applications including diagnosis and therapy approaches. Analyzing the possibilities of these materials in these biological samples gives an overview of the future applications of the nanoparticles in models closer to patients and their specific disease.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Valle Palomo
- Centro de Investigaciones Biológicas Margarita Salas CSIC, Madrid, Spain; Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas (CIBERNED), Instituto Carlos III, Madrid, Spain.
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5
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Zhang M, Vojtech L, Ye Z, Hladik F, Nance E. Quantum Dot Labeling and Visualization of Extracellular Vesicles. ACS APPLIED NANO MATERIALS 2020; 3:7211-7222. [PMID: 34568770 PMCID: PMC8460064 DOI: 10.1021/acsanm.0c01553] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/29/2023]
Abstract
Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are important mediators of intercellular communication. Their role in disease processes, uncovered mostly over the last two decades, makes them potential biomarkers, leading to a need to fundamentally understand EV biology. Direct visualization of EVs can provide insights into EV behavior, but current labeling techniques are often restricted by false-positive signals and rapid photobleaching. Hence, we developed a method of labeling EVs through conjugation with quantum dots (QDs)-high photoluminescent nanosized semi-conductors-using click chemistry. We showed that QD-EV conjugation could be tailored by altering QD to EV ratio or by using a catalyst. This conjugation chemistry was stable in a biological environment and upon storage for up to a week. Using size-exclusion chromatography, QD-EV conjugates could be separated from unconjugated QDs, enabling EV-specific signal detection. We demonstrate that these QD-EV conjugates can be live- and fixed-imaged in high resolution on cells and in tissue sheets, and the conjugates have better photostability compared with the commonly used EV dye DiI. We labeled two distinct EV populations: human semen EVs (sEVs) from fresh semen samples donated by healthy volunteers and brain EVs (bEVs) from excised rat brain tissues. We visualized QD-sEVs in epithelial sheets isolated from human vaginal mucosa and time-lapse imaged QD-bEV interactions with microglial BV-2 cells. The development of the QD-EV conjugate will benefit the study of EV localization, movement, and function and accelerate their potential use as biomarkers, therapeutic agents, or drug-delivery vehicles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mengying Zhang
- Molecular Engineering and Sciences Institute, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195-1652, United States
| | - Lucia Vojtech
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195-6460, United States
| | - Ziming Ye
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195-1750, United States
| | - Florian Hladik
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology and Department of Medicine, Division of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195-6460, United States
| | - Elizabeth Nance
- Molecular Engineering and Sciences Institute, Department of Chemical Engineering, Center on Human Development and Disability, and Department of Radiology, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195-1652, United States
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Kasatkina LA, Gumenyuk VP, Sturm EM, Heinemann A, Bernas T, Trikash IO. Modulation of neurosecretion and approaches for its multistep analysis. Biochim Biophys Acta Gen Subj 2018; 1862:2701-2713. [PMID: 30251660 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbagen.2018.08.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2017] [Revised: 08/01/2018] [Accepted: 08/02/2018] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Neurosecretion is the multistep process occurring in separate spatial and temporal cellular boundaries which complicates its comprehensive analysis. Most of the research are focused on one distinct stage of synaptic vesicle recycling. Here, we describe approaches for complex analysis of synaptic vesicle (SV) endocytosis and separate steps of exocytosis at the level of presynaptic bouton and highly purified SVs. METHODS Proposed fluorescence-based strategies and analysis of neurotransmitter transport provided the advantages in studies of exocytosis steps. We evaluated SV docking/tethering, their Ca2+-dependent fusion and release of neurotransmitters gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) and glutamate in two animal models. RESULTS Approaches enabled us to study: 1) endocytosis/Ca2+-dependent release of fluorescent carbon nanodots (CNDs) during stimulation of nerve terminals; 2) the action of levetiracetam, modulator of SV glycoprotein SV2, on fusion competence of SVs and stimulated release of GABA and glutamate; 3) impairments of several steps of neurosecretion under vitamin D3 deficiency. CONCLUSIONS Our algorithm enabled us to verify the method validity for multidimensional analysis of SV turnover. By increasing SV docking and the size of readily releasable pool (RRP), levetiracetam is able to selectively enhance the stimulated GABA secretion in hippocampal neurons. Findings suggest that SV2 regulates RRP through impact on the number of docked/primed SVs. GENERAL SIGNIFICANCE Methodology can be widely applied to study the stimulated neurosecretion in presynapse, regulation of SV docking, their Ca2+-dependent fusion with target membranes, quantitative analysis of expression of neuron-specific proteins, as well as for testing the efficiency of pre-selected designed neuroactive substances.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ludmila A Kasatkina
- The Department of Neurochemistry, Palladin Institute of Biochemistry, NAS of Ukraine, 9 Leontovycha Street, 01030 Kyiv, Ukraine
| | - Vitaliy P Gumenyuk
- The Department of Neurochemistry, Palladin Institute of Biochemistry, NAS of Ukraine, 9 Leontovycha Street, 01030 Kyiv, Ukraine
| | - Eva M Sturm
- Otto-Loewi Research Center, Pharmacology Section, Medical University of Graz, Universitätsplatz 4, 8010 Graz, Austria
| | - Akos Heinemann
- Otto-Loewi Research Center, Pharmacology Section, Medical University of Graz, Universitätsplatz 4, 8010 Graz, Austria
| | - Tytus Bernas
- Nencki Institute of Experimental Biology, Laboratory of Imaging Tissue Structure and Function, 3 Pasteur Street, 02-093 Warsaw, Poland
| | - Irene O Trikash
- The Department of Neurochemistry, Palladin Institute of Biochemistry, NAS of Ukraine, 9 Leontovycha Street, 01030 Kyiv, Ukraine.
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7
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Chen L, Wu L, Yu J, Kuo CT, Jian T, Wu IC, Rong Y, Chiu DT. Highly photostable wide-dynamic-range pH sensitive semiconducting polymer dots enabled by dendronizing the near-IR emitters. Chem Sci 2017; 8:7236-7245. [PMID: 29081956 PMCID: PMC5633788 DOI: 10.1039/c7sc03448b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2017] [Accepted: 09/02/2017] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
One constraint of semiconducting polymer dots (Pdots), especially those with near-IR emission, is their low effective emitter ratio (∼1.5 mole percent), which limits their pH sensing performance. The other critical issue of existing Pdot-based pH sensors is their poor photostability. To address these issues, we developed a series of Pdots by dendronizing the squaraine-based pH responsive near-IR emitter, which is covalently incorporated into the polyfluorene (PFO) backbone. The fluorescence self-quenching of the NIR squaraine emitter was effectively suppressed at a high emitter concentration of 5 mole percent. Through controlling the individually incomplete energy transfer from the amorphous PFO donor to the blue β-phase PFO and NIR squaraine emitter, we obtained a ratiometric pH sensor with simultaneously improved pH sensitivity, brightness, and photostability. The Pdots showed a fast and reversible pH response over the whole biological pH range of 4.7 to 8.5. Intracellular pH mapping was successfully demonstrated using this ultra-bright and photostable Pdot-based pH indicator.
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Affiliation(s)
- L Chen
- Department of Chemistry , University of Washington , Seattle , Washington 98195 , USA .
| | - L Wu
- Department of Chemistry , University of Washington , Seattle , Washington 98195 , USA .
| | - J Yu
- Department of Chemistry , University of Washington , Seattle , Washington 98195 , USA .
| | - C-T Kuo
- Department of Chemistry , University of Washington , Seattle , Washington 98195 , USA .
| | - T Jian
- Department of Chemistry , University of Washington , Seattle , Washington 98195 , USA .
| | - I-C Wu
- Department of Chemistry , University of Washington , Seattle , Washington 98195 , USA .
| | - Y Rong
- Department of Chemistry , University of Washington , Seattle , Washington 98195 , USA .
| | - D T Chiu
- Department of Chemistry , University of Washington , Seattle , Washington 98195 , USA .
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Roman-Vendrell C, Chevalier M, Acevedo-Canabal AM, Delgado-Peraza F, Flores-Otero J, Yudowski GA. Imaging of kiss-and-run exocytosis of surface receptors in neuronal cultures. Front Cell Neurosci 2014; 8:363. [PMID: 25404895 PMCID: PMC4217495 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2014.00363] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2014] [Accepted: 10/14/2014] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Transmembrane proteins are continuously shuttled from the endosomal compartment to the neuronal plasma membrane by highly regulated and complex trafficking steps. These events are involved in many homeostatic and physiological processes such as neuronal growth, signaling, learning and memory among others. We have previously shown that endosomal exocytosis of the B2 adrenergic receptor (B2AR) and the GluR1-containing AMPA receptor to the neuronal plasma membrane is mediated by two different types of vesicular fusion. A rapid type of exocytosis in which receptors are delivered to the plasma membrane in a single kinetic step, and a persistent mode in which receptors remain clustered at the insertion site for a variable period of time before delivery to the cell surface. Here, by comparing the exocytosis of multiple receptors in dissociated hippocampal and striatal cultures, we show that persistent events are a general mechanism of vesicular delivery. Persistent events were only observed after 10 days in vitro, and their frequency increased with use of the calcium ionophore A23187 and with depolarization induced by KCl. Finally, we determined that vesicles producing persistent events remain at the plasma membrane, closing and reopening their fusion pore for a consecutive release of cargo in a mechanism reminiscent of synaptic kiss-and-run. These results indicate that the delivery of transmembrane receptors to the cell surface can be dynamically regulated by kiss-and-run exocytosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cristina Roman-Vendrell
- Institute of Neurobiology, University of Puerto Rico Medical Sciences Campus San Juan, PR, USA ; Department of Physiology, School of Medicine, University of Puerto Rico San Juan, PR, USA
| | - Michael Chevalier
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, California Institute for Quantitative Biosciences, University of California San Francisco San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Agnes M Acevedo-Canabal
- Institute of Neurobiology, University of Puerto Rico Medical Sciences Campus San Juan, PR, USA ; Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, School of Medicine, University of Puerto Rico San Juan, PR, USA
| | - Francheska Delgado-Peraza
- Institute of Neurobiology, University of Puerto Rico Medical Sciences Campus San Juan, PR, USA ; Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, School of Medicine, University of Puerto Rico San Juan, PR, USA
| | - Jacqueline Flores-Otero
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, School of Medicine, University of Puerto Rico San Juan, PR, USA
| | - Guillermo A Yudowski
- Institute of Neurobiology, University of Puerto Rico Medical Sciences Campus San Juan, PR, USA ; Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, School of Medicine, University of Puerto Rico San Juan, PR, USA
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Targeting, endocytosis, and lysosomal delivery of active enzymes to model human neurons by ICAM-1-targeted nanocarriers. Pharm Res 2014; 32:1264-78. [PMID: 25319100 DOI: 10.1007/s11095-014-1531-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2014] [Accepted: 09/24/2014] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE Delivery of therapeutics to neurons is paramount to treat neurological conditions, including many lysosomal storage disorders. However, key aspects of drug-carrier behavior in neurons are relatively unknown: the occurrence of non-canonical endocytic pathways (present in other cells); whether carriers that traverse the blood-brain barrier are, contrarily, retained within neurons; if neuron-surface receptors are accessible to bulky carriers compared to small ligands; or if there are differences regarding neuronal compartments (neuron body vs. neurites) pertaining said parameters. We have explored these questions using model polymer nanocarriers targeting intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1). METHODS Differentiated human neuroblastoma cells were incubated with anti-ICAM-coated polystyrene nanocarriers and analyzed by fluorescence microscopy. RESULTS ICAM-1 expression and nanocarrier binding was enhanced in altered (TNFα) vs. control conditions. While small ICAM-1 ligands (anti-ICAM) preferentially accessed the cell body, anti-ICAM nanocarriers bound with faster kinetics to neurites, yet reached similar saturation over time. Anti-ICAM nanocarriers were also endocytosed with faster kinetics and lower saturation levels in neurites. Non-classical cell adhesion molecule (CAM) endocytosis ruled uptake, and neurite-to-cell body transport was inferred. Nanocarriers trafficked to lysosomes, delivering active enzymes (dextranase) with substrate reduction in a lysosomal-storage disease model. CONCLUSION ICAM-1-targeting holds potential for intracellular delivery of therapeutics to neurons.
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Gadd JC, Budzinski KL, Chan YH, Ye F, Chiu DT. Probing the interior of synaptic vesicles with internalized nanoparticles. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2012; 8232. [PMID: 31693003 DOI: 10.1117/12.905091] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022]
Abstract
Synaptic vesicles are subcellular organelles that are found in the synaptic bouton and are responsible for the propagation of signals between neurons. Synaptic vesicles undergo endo- and exocytosis with the neuronal membrane to load and release neurotransmitters. Here we discuss how we utilize this property to load nanoparticles as a means of probing the interior of synaptic vesicles. To probe the intravesicular region of synaptic vesicles, we have developed a highly sensitive pH-sensing polymer dot. We feel the robust nature of the pH-sensing polymer dot will provide insight into the dynamics of proton loading into synaptic vesicles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer C Gadd
- Department of Chemistry, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195-1700, USA
| | - Kristi L Budzinski
- Department of Chemistry, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195-1700, USA
| | - Yang-Hsiang Chan
- Department of Chemistry, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195-1700, USA
| | - Fangmao Ye
- Department of Chemistry, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195-1700, USA
| | - Daniel T Chiu
- Department of Chemistry, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195-1700, USA
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Keighron JD, Ewing AG, Cans AS. Analytical tools to monitor exocytosis: a focus on new fluorescent probes and methods. Analyst 2012; 137:1755-63. [DOI: 10.1039/c2an15901e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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