Competitive reduction of pertechnetate (99TcO4-) by dissimilatory metal reducing bacteria and biogenic Fe(II)

Pyrite-stimulated bio-reductive immobilization of perrhenate: Insights from integrated biotic and abiotic perspectives

Microbes possessing electron transfer capabilities hold great promise for remediating subsurface contaminated by redox-active radionuclides such as technetium-99 (99TcO4-) through bio-transformation of soluble contaminants into their sparingly soluble forms. However, the practical application of this concept has been impeded due to the low electron transfer efficiency and long-term product stability under various biogeochemical conditions. Herein, we proposed and tested a pyrite-stimulated bio-immobilization strategy for immobilizing ReO4- (a nonradioactive analogue of 99TcO4-) using sulfate-reducing bacteria (SRB), with a focus on pure-cultured Desulfovibrio vulgaris. Pyrite acted as an effective stimulant for the bio-transformation of ReO4-, boosting the removal rate of ReO4- (50 mg/L) in a solution from 2.8 % (without pyrite) to 100 %. Moreover, the immobilized products showed almost no signs of remobilization during 168 days of monitoring. Dual lines of evidence were presented to elucidate the underlying mechanisms for the pyrite-enhanced bio-activity. Transcriptomic analysis revealed a global upregulation of genes associated with electron conductive cytochromes c network, extracellular tryptophan, and intracellular electron transfer units, leading to enhanced ReO4- bio-reduction. Spectroscopic analysis confirmed the long-term stability of the bio-immobilized products, wherein ReO4- is reduced to stable Re(IV) oxides and Re(IV) sulfides. This work provides a novel green strategy for remediation of radionuclides- or heavy metals-contaminated sites.

Removal of radionuclide 99Tc from aqueous solution by various adsorbents: A review

Technetium isotope 99Tc is a main radioactive waste produced in the process of nuclear reaction, which has the characteristics of long half-life and strong environmental mobility, and can be bio-accumulated in organisms, resulting in serious threat to human health and ecosystem. Adsorption method is widely used in the field of removing radionuclides from water due to the advantages of high treatment rate, simple and mature industrial application. In this review paper, the recent advances in research and application of various adsorption materials for 99Tc pollution treatment were summarized and analyzed for the first time, including inorganic adsorbents, such as activated carbon, zero-valent iron, metallic minerals, clay minerals, layered double hydroxides (LDHs), tin-based materials, and sulfur-based materials; organic adsorbents, such as porous organic polymers (POPs), covalent-organic frameworks (COFs), metal-organic frameworks (MOFs), and ion exchange resin; and biological adsorbents, such as biopolymers (chitosan, cellulose, alginate), and microbial cells. The performance characteristics and the adsorption kinetics and isotherms of various adsorption materials were discussed. This review could deepen the understanding of the adsorptive removal of 99Tc from aqueous solution, and provide a reference for the future research in this field.

99TcO4- Separation through Selective Crystallization Assisted by Polydentate Benzene-Aminoguanidinium Ligands

⁹⁹Tc is one of the most abundant radiotoxic isotopes in used nuclear fuel with a high fission yield and a long half-life. Effective removal of pertechnetate (TcO₄^-) from an aqueous solution is important for nuclear waste separation and remediation. Herein, we report a series of facilely obtained benzene-linked guanidiniums that could precipitate TcO₄^- and its nonradioactive surrogate ReO₄^- from a high-concentration acidic solution through self-assembly crystallization. The resulting perrhenate and pertechnetate solids exhibit exceptionally low aqueous solubility. The benzene-linked guanidiniums hold one of the highest TcO₄^- removal capacities (1279 mg g^-1) among previously reported materials and possess a removal percentage of 59% for ReO₄^- in the presence of Cl^- over 50 times. The crystallization mechanism was clearly illustrated by the single-crystal structures and density functional theory calculations, indicating that TcO₄^- is captured through a charge-assisted hydrogen bonding interaction and stabilized by π-π stacking layers. In addition, the removal process is easily recycled and no toxic organic reagents are introduced. This work provides a green approach to preliminarily separate TcO₄^- from high-level nuclear wastes.

Anion-exchanged and quaternary ammonium functionalized MIL-101-Cr metal-organic framework (MOF) for ReO4-/TcO4- sequestration from groundwater

There are few effective technologies for the sequestration of highly water-soluble pertechnetate (TcO₄^-) from contaminated water despite the urgency of environmental and public health concerns. In this work, anion exchanged and cetyltrimethylammonium bromide (CTAB) functionalized MIL-101-Cr-NO₃ were investigated for perrhenate (ReO₄^-), a surrogate of TcO₄^-, sequestration from artificial groundwater. Cl^-, I^-, and CF₃SO₃^- exchanged MIL-101-Cr proved more effective at ReO₄^- removal than the parent MIL-101-Cr-F. Compared to the parent framework, CTAB functionalized MIL-101-Cr-NO₃ increased ReO₄^- removal capacity from 39 to 139 mg/g, improved the reaction kinetics from ~30 to <10 min to reach full adsorption capacity and the selectivity for ReO₄^- over competing NO₃^-, CO₃^2-, SO₄^2-, and Cl^-. Spectroscopic data indicated that the chemical speciation of Re in the exchanged MIL-101-Cr remained ReO₄^-, indicating synergistic sequestration through both anion exchange and non-ion exchange binding with the positively charged ligand of CTAB. These studies foreshadow potential applications of MOFs for the remediation of ⁹⁹TcO₄^- from contaminated environments.

Comparative analysis of ZVI materials for reductive separation of 99Tc(VII) from aqueous waste streams

Technetium-99 (Tc) is a long-lived radioactive contaminant present in legacy nuclear waste streams and contaminated plumes of the nuclear waste storage sites worldwide that poses risks for human health and the environment. Pertechnetate (TcO₄^-), the most common chemical form of Tc under oxidative conditions, is of particular concern due to its high aqueous solubility and mobility in the subsurface. One approach to treatment and remediation of TcO₄^- is reduction of Tc⁷⁺ to less soluble and mobile Tc⁴⁺ and its removal from the contaminated streams such as liquid secondary waste generated during vitrification of the Hanford low activity tank waste. Zero valent iron (ZVI) is a common reactive agent for reductive treatment of environmental contaminants, including reducible heavy metal ions, which can offer a potential solution to this challenge. Here, we present a comparative study of eleven commercial ZVI materials manufactured by different methods that were evaluated for the reductive removal of TcO₄^- from an aqueous 80 mM NaCl solution at near neutral pH representing low activity waste off-gas condensate. Performance of ZVI materials was analyzed in relation to time-dependent Fe²⁺ dissolution as well as pH and ORP profiles of the contact solution. Large variability in the efficiency and kinetics of Tc⁷⁺ reduction by different ZVI materials was contingent on their origin. ZVI materials manufactured by electrolytic method exhibited superior performance, and the kinetics of the Tc⁷⁺ reduction correlated to particle size. ZVI materials manufactured by iron pentacarbonyl reduction with hydrogen were ineffective for Tc⁷⁺ reduction. In general, our results highlight the need for thorough performance analysis of commercial ZVI materials for any contaminant of interest.

Porous iron material for TcO4- and ReO4- sequestration from groundwater under ambient oxic conditions

Technetium-99 (⁹⁹Tc) is a major contaminant at nuclear power plants and several US Department of Energy sites. Its most common aqueous species, pertechnetate (TcO₄^-), is very mobile in the environment, and currently there are no effective technologies for its sequestration. In this work, a porous iron (pFe) material was investigated for TcO₄^- and perrhenate (ReO₄^-) sequestration from artificial groundwater. The pFe was significantly more effective than granular iron for both TcO₄^- and ReO₄- sequestration under oxic conditions. The Tc removal capacity was 27.5 mg Tc/g pFe at pH ˜6.8, while the Re removal capacity was 23.9 mg Re/g pFe at pH ˜10.6. Tc K-edge XANES and EXAFS analyses indicated that the removed Tc species was 70-80% Tc(IV) that was likely incorporated into Fe corrosion products (i.e., Fe(OOH), Fe₃O₄) and 20-30% unreduced TcO₄^-. In contrast, the removed Re species was ReO₄^- only, without detectable Re(IV). In addition, the sequestered ReO₄^- was not extracted (<3%) by 0.1 M Na₂SO₄ and 1 M KI solution, which indicated that ReO₄^- and by chemical analogy, unreduced TcO₄^-, was likely incorporated into Fe corrosion products. This inexpensive pFe material may be applied to the sequestration and stabilization of ⁹⁹TcO₄^- from contaminated environments and nuclear waste streams.

The impact of iron nanoparticles on technetium-contaminated groundwater and sediment microbial communities

Iron nanoparticles are a promising new technology to treat contaminated groundwater, particularly as they can be engineered to optimise their transport properties. Technetium is a common contaminant at nuclear sites and can be reductively scavenged from groundwater by iron(II). Here we investigated the potential for a range of optimised iron nanoparticles to remove technetium from contaminated groundwater, and groundwater/sediment systems. Nano zero-valent iron and Carbo-iron stimulated the development of anoxic conditions while generating Fe(II) which reduced soluble Tc(VII) to sparingly soluble Tc(IV). Similar results were observed for Fe(II)-bearing biomagnetite, albeit at a slower rate. Tc(VII) remained in solution in the presence of the Fe(III) mineral nano-goethite, until acetate was added to stimulate microbial Fe(III)-reduction after which Tc(VII) concentrations decreased concomitant with Fe(II) ingrowth. The addition of iron nanoparticles to sediment microcosms caused an increase in the relative abundance of Firmicutes, consistent with fermentative/anoxic metabolisms. Residual bacteria from the synthesis of the biomagnetite nanoparticles were out-competed by the sediment microbial community. Overall the results showed that iron nanoparticles were highly effective in removing Tc(VII) from groundwater in sediment systems, and generated sustained anoxic conditions via the stimulation of beneficial microbial processes including Fe(III)-reduction and sulfate reduction.

Impacts of Repeated Redox Cycling on Technetium Mobility in the Environment

Technetium is a problematic contaminant at nuclear sites and little is known about how repeated microbiologically mediated redox cycling impacts its fate in the environment. We explore this question in sediments representative of the Sellafield Ltd. site, UK, over multiple reduction and oxidation cycles spanning ∼1.5 years. We found the amount of Tc remobilised from the sediment into solution significantly decreased after repeated redox cycles. X-ray Absorption Spectroscopy (XAS) confirmed that sediment bound Tc was present as hydrous TcO₂-like chains throughout experimentation and that Tc's increased resistance to remobilization (via reoxidation to soluble TcO₄^-) resulted from both shortening of TcO₂ chains during redox cycling and association of Tc(IV) with Fe phases in the sediment. We also observed that Tc(IV) remaining in solution during bioreduction was likely associated with colloidal magnetite nanoparticles. These findings highlight crucial links between Tc and Fe biogeochemical cycles that have significant implications for Tc's long-term environmental mobility, especially under ephemeral redox conditions.

Quantifying Technetium and Strontium Bioremediation Potential in Flowing Sediment Columns

The high-yield fission products ⁹⁹Tc and ⁹⁰Sr are found as problematic radioactive contaminants in groundwater at nuclear sites. Treatment options for radioactively contaminated land include bioreduction approaches, and this paper explores ^99mTc and ⁹⁰Sr behavior and stability under a range of biogeochemical conditions stimulated by electron donor addition methods. Dynamic column experiments with sediment from the Sellafield nuclear facility, completed at site relevant flow conditions, demonstrated that Fe(III)-reducing conditions had developed by 60 days. Sediment reactivity toward ⁹⁹Tc was then probed using a ^99mTc(VII) tracer at <10^-10 mol L^-1 and γ camera imaging showed full retention of ^99mTc in acetate amended systems. Sediment columns were then exposed to selected treatments to examine the effects of different acetate amendment regimes and reoxidation scenarios over 55 days when they were again imaged with ^99mTc. Here, partially oxidized sediments with no further electron donor additions remained reactive toward ^99mTc under relevant groundwater O₂ and NO₃^- concentrations over 55 days. Immobilization of ^99mTc was highest where continuous acetate amendment had resulted in sulfate-reducing conditions. Interestingly, the sulfate reducing system showed enhanced Sr retention when stable Sr²⁺ was added continuously as a proxy for ⁹⁰Sr. Overall, sediment reactivity was nondestructively imaged over an extended period to provide new information about dynamic iron and radionuclide biogeochemistry throughout realistic sediment redox cycling regimes.

Reductive immobilization of pertechnetate in soil and groundwater using synthetic pyrite nanoparticles

Radioactive technetium (⁹⁹Tc) is of intense concern because of its toxicity and high mobility in the environment. Reduction of Tc(VII) to Tc(IV) decreases the mobility and availability of technetium in soil and groundwater. In this study, pyrite nanoparticles (FeS₂) were synthesized, characterized and tested for immobilizing/removing ⁹⁹Tc(VII) in soil and groundwater through batch and column experiments. Influences of particle dosage, dissolved organic matter (DOM), and pH on the reductive immobilization kinetics were examined. At a dosage of 0.28 g/L as Fe, the pyrite nanoparticles were able to rapidly and completely remove 4.88 × 10^-7 M of Tc(VII) by converting it to insoluble Tc(IV), with a retarded first-order rate constant of 0.30 h^-1. The presence of high concentrations of DOM only moderately inhibited the reduction effectiveness, and acidic pH was more favorable for Tc(VII) reduction. Column experiments showed that embedding a 0.8 cm pyrite layer of the material in a soil bed, simulating a permeable reactive barrier, was able to retard technetium transport 710 times more than a model sandy soil. The results demonstrated that the pyrite particles may serve as a long-lasting reactive material to remediate Tc-contaminated soil, groundwater and solid wastes.

Long-Term Immobilization of Technetium via Bioremediation with Slow-Release Substrates

Radionuclides are present in groundwater at contaminated nuclear facilities with technetium-99, one of the most mobile radionuclides encountered. In situ bioremediation via the generation of microbially reducing conditions has the potential to remove aqueous and mobile Tc(VII) from groundwater as insoluble Tc(IV). However, questions remain regarding the optimal methods of biostimulation and the stability of reduced Tc(IV) phases under oxic conditions. Here, we selected a range of slow-release electron donor/chemical reduction based substrates available for contaminated land treatment, and assessed their potential to stimulate the formation of recalcitrant Tc(IV) biominerals under conditions relevant to radioactively contaminated land. These included a slow-release polylactate substrate (HRC), a similar substrate with an additional organosulfur ester (MRC) and a substrate containing zerovalent iron and plant matter (EHC). Results showed that Tc was removed from solution in the form of poorly soluble hydrous Tc(IV)-oxides or Tc(IV)-sulfides during the development of reducing conditions. Reoxidation experiments showed that these phases were largely resistant to oxidative remobilization and were more resistant than Tc(IV) produced via biostimulation with an acetate/lactate electron donor mix in the sediments tested. The implications of the targeted formation of recalcitrant Tc(IV) phases using these proprietorial substrates in situ is discussed in the context of the long-term management of technetium at legacy nuclear sites.

Enhanced biotic and abiotic transformation of Cr(vi) by quinone-reducing bacteria/dissolved organic matter/Fe(iii) in anaerobic environment

This study investigated the simultaneous transformation of Cr(vi) via a closely coupled biotic and abiotic pathway in an anaerobic system of quinone-reducing bacteria/dissolved organic matters (DOM)/Fe(iii). Batch studies were conducted with quinone-reducing bacteria to assess the influences of sodium formate (NaFc), electron shuttling compounds (DOM) and the Fe(iii) on Cr(vi) reduction rates as these chemical species are likely to be present in the environment during in situ bioremediation. Results indicated that the concentration of sodium formate and anthraquinone-2-sodium sulfonate (AQS) had apparently an effect on Cr(vi) reduction. The fastest decrease in rate for incubation supplemented with 5 mM sodium formate and 0.8 mM AQS showed that Fe(iii)/DOM significantly promoted the reduction of Cr(vi). Presumably due to the presence of more easily utilizable sodium formate, DOM and Fe(iii) have indirect Cr(vi) reduction capability. The coexisting cycles of Fe(ii)/Fe(iii) and DOM(ox)/DOM(red) exhibited a higher redox function than the individual cycle, and their abiotic coupling action can significantly enhance Cr(vi) reduction by quinone-reducing bacteria.

(99)Tc(VII) Retardation, Reduction, and Redox Rate Scaling in Naturally Reduced Sediments

An experimental and modeling study was conducted to investigate pertechnetate (Tc(VII)O4(-)) retardation, reduction, and rate scaling in three sediments from Ringold formation at U.S. Department of Energy's Hanford site, where (99)Tc is a major contaminant in groundwater. Tc(VII) was reduced in all the sediments in both batch reactors and diffusion columns, with a faster rate in a sediment containing a higher concentration of HCl-extractable Fe(II). Tc(VII) migration in the diffusion columns was reductively retarded with retardation degrees correlated with Tc(VII) reduction rates. The reduction rates were faster in the diffusion columns than those in the batch reactors, apparently influenced by the spatial distribution of redox-reactive minerals along transport paths that supplied Tc(VII). X-ray computed tomography and autoradiography were performed to identify the spatial locations of Tc(VII) reduction and transport paths in the sediments, and results generally confirmed the newly found behavior of reaction rate changes from batch to column. The results from this study implied that Tc(VII) migration can be reductively retarded at Hanford site with a retardation degree dependent on reactive Fe(II) content and its distribution in sediments. This study also demonstrated that an effective reaction rate may be faster in transport systems than that in well-mixed reactors.

An autotrophic H2 -oxidizing, nitrate-respiring, Tc(VII)-reducing Acidovorax sp. isolated from a subsurface oxic-anoxic transition zone

Increasing concentrations of H2 with depth were observed across a geologic unconformity and associated redox transition zone in the subsurface at the Hanford Site in south-central Washington, USA. An opposing gradient characterized by decreasing O2 and nitrate concentrations was consistent with microbial-catalysed biogeochemical processes. Sterile sand was incubated in situ within a multilevel sampler placed across the redox transition zone to evaluate the potential for Tc(VII) reduction and for enrichment of H2 -oxidizing denitrifiers capable of reducing Tc(VII). H2 -driven TcO4 (-) reduction was detected in sand incubated at all depths but was strongest in material from a depth of 17.1 m. Acidovorax spp. were isolated from H2 -nitrate enrichments from colonized sand from 15.1 m, with one representative, strain JHL-9, subsequently characterized. JHL-9 grew on acetate with either O2 or nitrate as electron acceptor (data not shown) and on medium with bicarbonate, H2 and nitrate. JHL-9 also reduced pertechnetate (TcO4 (-) ) under denitrifying conditions with H2 as the electron donor. H2 -oxidizing Acidovorax spp. in the subsurface at Hanford and other locations may contribute to the maintenance of subsurface redox gradients and offer the potential for Tc(VII) reduction.

Influence of alkaline co-contaminants on technetium mobility in vadose zone sediments

Pertechnetate was slowly reduced in a natural, untreated arid sediment under anaerobic conditions (0.02 nmolg(-1)h(-1)), which could occur in low permeability zones in the field, most of which was quickly oxidized. A small portion of the surface Tc may be incorporated into slowly dissolving surface phases, so was not readily oxidized/remobilized into pore water. In contrast, pertechnetate reduction in an anaerobic sediment containing adsorbed ferrous iron as the reductant was rapid (15-600 nmolg(-1)h(-1)), and nearly all (96-98%) was rapidly oxidized/remobilized (2.6-6.8 nmolg(-1)h(-1)) within hours. Tc reduction in an anaerobic sediment containing 0.5-10mM sulfide showed a relatively slow reduction rate (0.01-0.03 nmolg(-1)h(-1)) that was similar to observations in the natural sediment. Pertechnetate infiltration into sediment with a highly alkaline water resulted in rapid reduction (0.07-0.2 nmolg(-1)h(-1)) from ferrous iron released during biotite or magnetite dissolution. Oxidation of NaOH-treated sediments resulted in slow Tc oxidation (∼0.05 nmolg(-1)h(-1)) of a small fraction of the surface Tc (13-23%). The Tc remaining on the surface was Tc(IV) (by XANES), and autoradiography and elemental maps of Tc (by electron microprobe) showed Tc was present associated with specific minerals, rather than being evenly distributed on the surface. Dissolution of quartz, montmorillonite, muscovite, and kaolinite also occurred in the alkaline water, resulting in significant aqueous silica and aluminum. Over time, aluminosilicates, cancrinite, zeolite and sodalite were precipitating. These precipitates may be coating surface Tc(IV) phases, limiting reoxidation.

Chemical stability of (99m)Tc-DTPA under aerobic and microbially mediated Fe(III)-reducing conditions in porous media

(99m)Tc-DTPA has been used as a conservative tracer to quantify water transport through porous media. However, more information on the reactivity of this (99m)Tc compound under varying geochemical conditions is desirable to better understand its potential uses. We measured the speciation of Tc following amendment of (99m)Tc-DTPA to batch systems spanning a range of controlled biogeochemical conditions. Our results suggest that (99m)Tc-DTPA is stable under the reducing conditions tested. However, freshly precipitated Al-ferrihydrite may displace Tc(IV) from DTPA in the absence of Fe(III)-reducing conditions.

Oxidative remobilization of technetium sequestered by sulfide-transformed nano zerovalent iron

Our previous study showed that formation of TcS2-like phases is favored over TcO2 under sulfidic conditions stimulated by nano zerovalent iron. This study further investigates the stability of Tc(IV) sulfide upon reoxidation by solution chemistry, solid phase characterization, and X-ray absorption spectroscopy. Tc dissolution data showed that Tc(VII) reduced by sulfide-transformed nZVI has substantially slower reoxidation kinetics than Tc(VII) reduced by nZVI only. The initial inhibition of Tc(IV) dissolution at S/Fe = 0.112 is due to the redox buffer capacity of FeS, which is evidenced by the parallel trends in oxidation-reduction potentials (ORP) and Tc dissolution kinetics. The role of FeS in inhibiting Tc oxidation is further supported by the Mössbauer spectroscopy and micro X-ray diffraction data at S/Fe = 0.112, showing persistence of FeS after 24-h oxidation but complete oxidation after 120-h oxidation. X-ray absorption spectroscopy data for S/Fe = 0.011 showed significantly increasing percentages of TcS2 in the solid phase after 24-h oxidation, indicating stronger resistance of TcS2 to oxidation. At S/Fe = 0.112, the XAS results revealed significant transformation of Tc speciation from TcS2 to TcO2 after 120-h oxidation. Given that no apparent Tc dissolution occurred during this period, the speciation transformation might play a secondary role in hindering Tc oxidation. Collectively, the results indicate that sequestrating Tc as TcS2 under stimulated sulfate reduction is a promising strategy to improve the long-term stability of reduced Tc in subsurface remediation.

Environmental controls on the activity of aquifer microbial communities in the 300 area of the Hanford site

Aquifer microbes in the 300 Area of the Hanford Site in southeastern Washington State, USA, are located in an oligotrophic environment and are periodically exposed to U(VI) concentrations that can range up to 10 μM in small sediment fractures. Assays of (3)H-leucine incorporation indicated that both sediment-associated and planktonic microbes were metabolically active, and that organic C was growth-limiting in the sediments. Although bacteria suspended in native groundwater retained high activity when exposed to 100 μM U(VI), they were inhibited by U(VI) <1 μM in synthetic groundwater that lacked added bicarbonate. Chemical speciation modeling suggested that positively charged species and particularly (UO2)3(OH)5 (+) rose in concentration as more U(VI) was added to synthetic groundwater, but that carbonate complexes dominated U(VI) speciation in natural groundwater. U toxicity was relieved when increasing amounts of bicarbonate were added to synthetic groundwater containing 4.5 μM U(VI). Pertechnetate, an oxyanion that is another contaminant of concern at the Hanford Site, was not toxic to groundwater microbes at concentrations up to 125 μM.

Promoted reduction of tellurite and formation of extracellular tellurium nanorods by concerted reaction between iron and Shewanella oneidensis MR-1

The reduction of tellurite (Te(IV)) by dissimilatory metal reducing bacterium, Shewanella oneidensis MR-1, was promoted in the presence of Fe(III) in comparison with Te(IV) bioreduction in the absence of Fe(III). Electron microscopic analyses revealed that iron promoted Te(IV) reduction led to form exclusively extracellular crystalline Te(0) nanorods, as compared to the mostly intracellular formation of Te(0) nanorods in the absence of Fe(III). The Te K-edge X-ray absorption spectrometric analyses demonstrated that S. oneidensis MR-1 in the presence of Fe(III) reduced Te(IV) to less harmful metallic Te(0) nanorods through the precipitation of tellurite (Te(IV)Ox) complex by the bacterial respiration of Fe(III) to Fe(II) under anaerobic conditions. However, Fe(II) ion itself was only able to precipitate the solid tellurite (Te(IV)Ox) complex from the Te(IV) solution, which was not further reduced to Te(0). The results clearly indicated that bacterial S. oneidensis MR-1 plays important roles in the reduction and crystallization of Te(0) nanorods by as yet undetermined biochemical mechanisms. As compared to the slow bacterial Te(IV) reduction in the absence of Fe(III), the rapid reduction of Te(IV) to Te(0) by the concerted biogeochemical reaction between Fe(II) and S. oneidensis MR-1 could be applied for the sequestration and detoxification of Te(IV) in the environments as well as for the preparation of extracellular Te(0) nanorod structures.

Reductive sequestration of pertechnetate (⁹⁹TcO₄⁻) by nano zerovalent iron (nZVI) transformed by abiotic sulfide

Under anoxic conditions, soluble pertechnetate (⁹⁹TcO₄⁻) can be reduced to less soluble TcO₂·nH₂O, but the oxide is highly susceptible to reoxidation. Here we investigate an alternative strategy for remediation of Tc-contaminated groundwater whereby sequestration as Tc sulfide is favored by sulfidic conditions stimulated by nano zerovalent iron (nZVI). nZVI was pre-exposed to increasing concentrations of sulfide in simulated Hanford groundwater for 24 h to mimic the onset of aquifer biotic sulfate reduction. Solid-phase characterizations of the sulfidated nZVI confirmed the formation of nanocrystalline FeS phases, but higher S/Fe ratios (>0.112) did not result in the formation of significantly more FeS. The kinetics of Tc sequestration by these materials showed faster Tc removal rates with increasing S/Fe between 0 and 0.056, but decreasing Tc removal rates with S/Fe > 0.224. The more favorable Tc removal kinetics at low S/Fe could be due to a higher affinity of TcO₄⁻ for FeS than iron oxides, and electron microscopy confirmed that the majority of the Tc was associated with FeS phases. The inhibition of Tc removal at high S/Fe appears to have been caused by excess HS(-). X-ray absorption spectroscopy revealed that as S/Fe increased, the pathway for Tc(IV) formation shifted from TcO₂·nH2₂ to Tc sulfide phases. The most substantial change of Tc speciation occurred at low S/Fe, coinciding with the rapid increase in Tc removal rate. This agreement further confirms the importance of FeS in Tc sequestration.

Imaging and modeling of flow in porous media using clinical nuclear emission tomography systems and computational fluid dynamics

This paper presents experimental and modeling aspects of applying nuclear emission tomography to study fluid flow in laboratory packed porous media columns of the type frequently used in geophysics, geochemistry and hydrology research. Positron emission tomography (PET) and single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) are used as non-invasive tools to obtain dynamic 3D images of radioactive tracer concentrations. Dynamic sequences obtained using ¹⁸F-FDG PET are used to trace flow through a 5 cm diameter × 20 cm tall sand packed column with and without an impermeable obstacle. In addition, a custom-made rotating column setup placed in a clinical two-headed SPECT camera is used to image ^99mTc-DTPA tracer propagation in a through-flowing column (10 cm diameter × 30 cm tall) packed with recovered aquifer sediments. A computational fluid dynamics software package FLUENT is used to model the observed flow dynamics. Tracer distributions obtained in the simulations in the smaller column uniformly packed with sand and in the column with an obstacle are remarkably similar to the reconstructed images in the PET experiments. SPECT results demonstrate strongly non-uniform flow patterns for the larger column slurry-packed with sub-surface sediment and slow upward flow. In the numerical simulation of the SPECT study, two symmetric channels with increased permeability are prescribed along the column walls, which result in the emergence of two well-defined preferential flow paths. Methods and results of this work provide new opportunities in hydrologic and biogeochemical research. The primary target application for developed technologies is non-destructive, non-perturbing, quantitative imaging of flow dynamics within laboratory scale porous media systems.

Effect of aqueous Fe(II) on arsenate sorption on goethite and hematite

Biogeochemical iron cycling often generates systems where aqueous Fe(II) and solid Fe(III) oxides coexist. Reactions between these species result in iron oxide surface and phase transformations, iron isotope fractionation, and redox transformations of many contaminant species. Fe(II)-induced recrystallization of goethite and hematite has recently been shown to cause the repartitioning of Ni(II) at the mineral-water interface, with adsorbed Ni incorporating into the iron oxide structure and preincorporated Ni released back into aqueous solution. However, the effect of Fe(II) on the fate and speciation of redox inactive species incompatible with iron oxide structures is unclear. Arsenate sorption to hematite and goethite in the presence of aqueous Fe(II) was studied to determine whether Fe(II) causes substantial changes in the sorption mechanisms of such incompatible species. Sorption isotherms reveal that Fe(II) minimally alters macroscopic arsenate sorption behavior except at circumneutral pH in the presence of elevated concentrations (10⁻³ M) of Fe(II) and at high arsenate loadings, where a clear signature of precipitation is observed. Powder X-ray diffraction demonstrates that the ferrous arsenate mineral symplesite precipitates under such conditions. Extended X-ray absorption fine structure spectroscopy shows that outside this precipitation regime arsenate surface complexation mechanisms are unaffected by Fe(II). In addition, arsenate was found to suppress Fe(II) sorption through competitive adsorption processes before the onset of symplesite precipitation. This study demonstrates that the sorption of species incompatible with iron oxide structure is not substantially affected by Fe(II) but that such species may potentially interfere with Fe(II)-iron oxide reactions via competitive adsorption.

Purification and characterization of the [NiFe]-hydrogenase of Shewanella oneidensis MR-1

Shewanella oneidensis MR-1 possesses a periplasmic [NiFe]-hydrogenase (MR-1 [NiFe]-H(2)ase) that has been implicated in H(2) production and oxidation as well as technetium [Tc(VII)] reduction. To characterize the roles of MR-1 [NiFe]-H(2)ase in these proposed reactions, the genes encoding both subunits of MR-1 [NiFe]-H(2)ase were cloned and then expressed in an MR-1 mutant without hyaB and hydA genes. Expression of recombinant MR-1 [NiFe]-H(2)ase in trans restored the mutant's ability to produce H(2) at 37% of that for the wild type. Following purification, MR-1 [NiFe]-H(2)ase coupled H(2) oxidation to reduction of Tc(VII)O(4)(-) and methyl viologen. Change of the buffers used affected MR-1 [NiFe]-H(2)ase-mediated reduction of Tc(VII)O(4)(-) but not methyl viologen. Under the conditions tested, all Tc(VII)O(4)(-) used was reduced in Tris buffer, while in HEPES buffer, only 20% of Tc(VII)O(4)(-) was reduced. The reduced products were soluble in Tris buffer but insoluble in HEPES buffer. Transmission electron microscopy analysis revealed that Tc precipitates reduced in HEPES buffer were aggregates of crystallites with diameters of ∼5 nm. Measurements with X-ray absorption near-edge spectroscopy revealed that the reduction products were a mixture of Tc(IV) and Tc(V) in Tris buffer but only Tc(IV) in HEPES buffer. Measurements with extended X-ray adsorption fine structure showed that while the Tc bonding environment in Tris buffer could not be determined, the Tc(IV) product in HEPES buffer was very similar to Tc(IV)O(2)·nH(2)O, which was also the product of Tc(VII)O(4)(-) reduction by MR-1 cells. These results shows for the first time that MR-1 [NiFe]-H(2)ase catalyzes Tc(VII)O(4)(-) reduction directly by coupling to H(2) oxidation.