Characterization of sea surface chemical contamination after shipping accidents

Identification of high-concern organic pollutants in tap waters from the Yangtze River in China based on combined screening strategies

Recently, numerous organic pollutants have been detected in water environment. The safety of our drinking water has attracted widespread attention. Effective methods to screen and identify high-concern substances are urgently needed. In this study, the combined workflow for the detection and identification of high-concern organic chemicals was established and applied to tap water samples from the Yangtze River Basin. The solid phase extraction (SPE) sorbents were compared and evaluated and finally the HLB cartridge was selected as the best one for most of the contaminants. Based on target, suspect and non-target analysis, 3023 chemicals/peaks were detected. Thirteen substances such as diundecyl phthalate (DUP), 2-hydroxyatrazine, dioxoaminopyrine and diethyl-2-phenylacetamide were detected in drinking water in the Yangtze River Basin for the very first time. Based on three kinds of prioritization principles, 49 ubiquitous, 103 characteristic chemicals and 13 inefficiently removed chemicals were selected as high-concern substances. Among them, 8, 31, 9, 3, 4 substances overlapped with the toxic, risky or high-concern chemicals lists in China, America, European Union, Japan, Korea, respectively. Specific management and removal strategies were further recommended. The workflow is efficient for identification of key pollutants.

Spatial distribution, composition, and source analysis of petroleum pollutants in soil from the Changqing Oilfield, Northwest China

Petroleum contamination surrounding oilfields has attracted more concerns. However, the levels, distribution and source of petroleum of Changqing Oilfield soil still remain lots of knowns, which is important for local environmental protection. Given soil contamination issues in Changqiong Oilfield were investigated. The maximum concentrations of total petroleum hydrocarbons (TPHs), N-alkanes (TNAs) and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) were determined to be 1960.29, 96.13 and 0.82 mg/kg, respectively. TPHs were higher in the north than the south of the study area. TPHs decreased in the horizontal and vertical distribution as soil depth and distance from oil wells increased. Source analysis showed that TNAs mainly originated from petroleum, PAHs were controlled by petroleum spills, combustion and traffic. Correlation analysis implied that TPHs residues had an effect on soil environmental quality. This study have important implications for understanding the environmental behavior of petroleum and can provide support for petroleum remediation and risk control.

Investigation of petroleum hydrocarbon pollution along the coastline of South Attica, Greece, after the sinking of the Agia Zoni ΙΙ oil tanker

Oil spills at sea pose risks to the marine environment and to the economy of many nations. Marine ecosystems are very vulnerable and precious as producers of oxygen and as regulators of climate. Therefore, their protection and preservation are necessary. In the event of an oil spill, anthropogenic clean-up activities and natural weathering processes can minimize the negative effects on marine organisms, and the marine environment in general. The target of this study was to investigate the status of the sea along the coastline of the Saronic Gulf, Greece, a year after the sinking of the Agia Zoni II oil tanker. Seawater samples from 15 sampling locations from Phlisvos coast to Anavissos, an area easily approached by bathers with recreational interest, were collected and analysed for total petroleum hydrocarbons. Concentrations up to a maximum of 56.6 μg/L were detected. Despite the large extent of the initial hydrocarbon pollution, the immediate clean-up operations and natural weathering and/or sorption processes have reduced the impact of the spill on surface waters.

Imprint and short-term fate of the Agia Zoni II tanker oil spill on the marine ecosystem of Saronikos Gulf

In this study we investigate the spatial and temporal imprint of the September 2017 Agia Zoni II tanker heavy fuel oil spill on the marine ecosystem of Saronikos Gulf (Greece). Based on the chemical fingerprinting approach, by means of gas chromatography - flame ionization detector, gas chromatography-mass spectrometry and the use of various diagnostic ratios, we characterize changes in the composition of the spilled oil at various sampling sites and evaluate major mechanisms affecting its fate i.e. dissolution/dispersion, evaporation, biodegradation, photo-oxidation and sedimentation during the first six months from the spill. Overall, the main effects of the incident were confined to the coastal zone during the first three months after the spill, where an extended petroleum imprint was recorded in many cases, with the determined concentrations of the total petroleum hydrocarbons and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons falling within the highest range of concentrations previously reported for similar oil spill incidents worldwide. In the first three months following the spill the oil was affected by a combination of volatilization, rapid biodegradation and photodegradation, the later playing a role in its early days weathering. Concerning sediments, an imprint related to the incident was recorded in a few cases, being, however, mild in respect to the high chronic petroleum-associated anthropogenic background of the impacted area.

Compositional elucidation of heavy petroleum base oil by GC × GC-EI/PI/CI/FI-TOFMS

Comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography (GC × GC) coupled to time-of-flight mass spectrometry is a powerful separation tool for complex petroleum product analysis. However, the most commonly used electron ionization (EI) technique often makes the identification of the majority of hydrocarbons impossible due to the exhaustive fragmentation and lack of molecular ion preservation, prompting the need of soft-ionization energies. In this study, three different soft-ionization techniques including photo ionization (PI), chemical ionization (CI), and field ionization (FI) were compared against EI to elucidate their relative capabilities to reveal different base oil hydrocarbon classes. Compared with EI (70 eV), PI (10.8 eV) retained significant molecular ion (M^+· ) information for a large number of isomeric species including branched-alkanes and saturated monocyclic hydrocarbons along with unique fragmentation patterns. However, for bicyclic/polycyclic naphthenic and aromatic compounds, EI played upper hand by retaining molecular as well as fragment ions to identify the species, whereas PI exhibited mainly molecular ion signals. On the other hand, CI revealed selectivity towards different base oil groups, particularly for steranes, sulfur-containing thiophenes, and esters, yielding protonated molecular ions (M + H)⁺ for unsaturated and hydride abstracted ions (M-H⁺ ) for saturated hydrocarbons. FI, as expected, generated intact molecular ions (M^+· ) irrespective to the base oil chemical classes. It allowed elemental composition by TOFMS with a mass resolving power up to 8000 (FWHM) and a mass accuracy of 1 mDa, leading to the calculation of heteroatomic content, double bond equivalency, and carbon number of the compounds. The qualitative and quantitative results presented herein offer a unique perspective into the detailed comparison of different ionization techniques corresponding to several hydrocarbon classes.

Reptilian exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and associated effects

Reptiles are an underrepresented taxon in ecotoxicological literature, and the means by which toxicants play a role in population declines are only partially understood. Among the contaminants of interest for reptiles are polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), a class of organic compounds that is already a concern for numerous other taxa. The objectives of the present review are to summarize the existing literature on reptilian exposure to PAHs and synthesize general conclusions, to identify knowledge gaps within this niche of research, and to suggest future directions for research. Results confirm a relative scarcity of information on reptilian exposure to PAHs, although research continues to grow, particularly after significant contamination events. The orders Testudines and Squamata are better represented than the orders Crocodilia and Rhynchocephalia. For the taxonomic orders with relevant literature (all but Rhynchocephalia), some species are more frequently represented than others. Few studies establish solid cause-effect relationships after reptilian exposure to PAHs, and many more studies are suggestive of effect or increased risk of effect. Despite the scarcity of information in this area, researchers have already employed a wide variety of approaches to address PAH-related questions for reptiles, including molecular techniques, modeling, and field surveys. As more research is completed, a thoughtful interpretation of available and emerging data is necessary to make the most effective use of this information. Environ Toxicol Chem 2017;36:25-35. © 2016 SETAC.

Evaluating a Tap Water Contamination Incident Attributed to Oil Contamination by Nontargeted Screening Strategies

The present study applied nontargeted screening techniques as a novel approach to evaluate the tap water samples collected during the "4.11" tap water pollution incident occurred on April 11, 2014 in Lanzhou in west China. Multivariate analysis (PCA and OPLS-DA) of about 3000 chemical features obtained in extracts of tap water samples by ultrahigh-pressure liquid chromatography quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (UPLC-QTOF-MS) analysis showed significantly different chemical profiles in tap water from pollution regions versus reference regions during the event. These different chemical profiles in samples from different regions were not observed in samples collected during the nonpollution period. The compounds responsible for the differences in profiles between regions were identified as naphthenic acids (NAs) and oxidized NAs (oxy-NAs) after the sample extracts underwent bromination to explore saturations, dansylation to identify hydroxylations and corresponding MS/MS mode analysis. A consistent finding was further observed in the targeted analysis of NA mixtures, demonstrating that the Lanzhou "4.11" tap water pollution incident could be attributed to oil spill pollution, and NA mixtures would be a marker for oil contamination. Such evaluations can help to rapidly discriminate pollution sources in accidental pollution events and contribute to regular water monitoring management of water safety issues.

Identification of hydrocarbon sources in contaminated soils of three industrial areas

The present paper deals with identification of hydrocarbon sources in contaminated soil of three tank farms located in north, central and south Italy. Parent polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (naphthalene through benzo(g,h,i)perylene) and n-alkanes (n-C10 through n-C36) were determined. The study of source assignments was carried out by their distribution patterns, their diagnostic ratios, and determination of less-commonly used markers. The data show anthropogenic and biogenic origin of n-alkanes and petrogenic and pyrolytic sources of PAHs. Multiple sources of hydrocarbons, that were not considered in the preliminary environmental assessments, are identified. The application of a multi-criteria approach allows to locate petroleum pollution sources that affect the study sites. The results demonstrate that the application of a multi-criteria approach for source identification is a key point to assess environmental damage and prove that an accurate study of source identification has to be performed. The suggested methodology is a useful tool to manage contaminated sites and to plan appropriate interventions of clean up.

Post-incident monitoring to evaluate environmental damage from shipping incidents: chemical and biological assessments

Oil and chemical spills in the marine environment are an issue of growing concern. Oil exploration and exploitation is moving from the continental shelf to deeper waters, and to northern latitudes where the risk of an oil spill is potentially greater and may affect pristine ecosystems. Moreover, a growing number of chemical products are transported by sea and maritime incidents of hazardous and noxious substances (HNS) are expected to increase. Consequently, it seems timely to review all of the experience gained from past spills to be able to cope with appropriate response and mitigation strategies to combat future incidents. Accordingly, this overview is focused on the dissemination of the most successful approaches to both detect and assess accidental releases using chemical as well as biological approaches for spills of either oil or HNS in the marine environment. Aerial surveillance, sampling techniques for water, suspended particles, sediments and biota are reviewed. Early warning bioassays and biomarkers to assess spills are also presented. Finally, research needs and gaps in knowledge are discussed.

Review of oil and HNS accidental spills in Europe: identifying major environmental monitoring gaps and drawing priorities

The European Atlantic area has been the scene of a number of extensive shipping incidents with immediate and potential long-term impacts to marine ecosystems. The occurrence of accidental spills at sea requires an effective response that must include a well executed monitoring programme to assess the environmental contamination and damage of the affected marine habitats. Despite a number of conventions and protocols developed by international and national authorities that focused on the preparedness and response to oil and HNS spills, much remains to be done, particularly in relation to the effectiveness of the environmental monitoring programmes implemented after oil and HNS spills. Hence, the present study reviews the status of the environmental monitoring programmes established following the major spill incidents over the last years in European waters, aiming at identifying the key monitoring gaps and drawing priorities for an effective environmental monitoring of accidental spills.

Occurrence and distribution of hydrocarbons in the surface microlayer and subsurface water from the urban coastal marine area off Marseilles, Northwestern Mediterranean Sea

Aliphatic (AHs) and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) were analyzed in dissolved and particulate material from surface microlayer (SML) and subsurface water (SSW) sampled at nearshore observation stations, sewage effluents and harbour sites from Marseilles coastal area (Northwestern Mediterranean) in 2009 and 2010. Dissolved and particulate AH concentrations ranged 0.05-0.41 and 0.04-4.3 μg l(-1) in the SSW, peaking up to 38 and 1366 μg l(-1) in the SML, respectively. Dissolved and particulate PAHs ranged 1.9-98 and 1.9-21 ng l(-1) in the SSW, amounting up 217 and 1597 ng l(-1) in the SML, respectively. In harbours, hydrocarbons were concentrated in the SML, with enrichment factors reaching 1138 for particulate AHs. Besides episodic dominance of biogenic and pyrogenic inputs, a moderate anthropisation from petrogenic sources dominated suggesting the impact of shipping traffic and surface runoffs on this urbanised area. Rainfalls increased hydrocarbon concentrations by a factor 1.9-11.5 in the dissolved phase.

Hydrocarbon composition and distribution in a coastal region under influence of oil production in northeast Brazil

Waters and sediments from the Potiguar Basin (NE Brazilian coast) were investigated for the presence and nature of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) and aliphatic hydrocarbons. The region receives treated produced waters through a submarine outfall system serving the industrial district. The total dispersed/dissolved concentrations in the water column ranged from 10-50 ng L(-1) for ∑16PAH and 5-10 μg L(-1) for total aliphatic hydrocarbons. In the sediments, hydrocarbon concentrations were low (0.5-10 ng g(-1)for ∑16PAH and 0.01-5.0 μg g(-1) for total aliphatic hydrocarbons) and were consistent with the low organic carbon content of the local sandy sediments. These data indicate little and/or absence of anthropogenic influence on hydrocarbon distribution in water and sediment. Therefore, the measured values may be taken as background values for the region and can be used as future reference following new developments of the petroleum industry in the Potiguar Basin.

Association of metals with plastic production pellets in the marine environment

Plastic production pellets sampled from four beaches along a stretch of coastline (south Devon, SW England) and accompanying, loosely adhered and entrapped material removed ultrasonically have been analysed for major metals (Al, Fe, Mn) and trace metals (Cu, Zn, Pb, Ag, Cd, Co, Cr, Mo, Sb, Sn, U) following acid digestion. In most cases, metal concentrations in composite pellet samples from each site were less than but within an order of magnitude of corresponding concentrations in the pooled extraneous materials. However, normalisation of data with respect to Al revealed enrichment of Cd and Pb in plastic pellets at two sites. These observations are not wholly due to the association of pellets with fine material that is resistant to ultrasonication since new polyethylene pellets suspended in a harbour for 8 weeks accumulated metals from sea water through adsorption and precipitation. The environmental implications and potential applications of these findings are discussed.

Enrichment of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in mariculture sediments of Hong Kong

Surface and core sediments collected from six fish farms in Hong Kong and from reference sites were investigated for the enrichment and sources of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). Moderately high SigmaPAH16 levels (123-947 ng g(-1), mean: 450 ng g(-1)) were found in the surface aquaculture sediments. In comparison with the sediments from the reference sites, the average enrichment percentage of total organic carbon (TOC) and PAHs in surface sediments were 21.4 and 43.8%, respectively, and in the core sediments, 24.6 and 73.7%, respectively. Mathematical source apportionment analyses (i.e. isomer ratios, hierarchical cluster analysis, principal components analysis with multiple linear regression analysis) suggested a higher percentage of petrogenic sources in aquaculture sediments. The fish feeds might be the main source of the enriched PAHs in the aquaculture sediments. To our knowledge, this is the first study showing that PAHs in aquaculture sediments could be attributed to human aquaculture activities.

Integrated assessment of oil pollution using biological monitoring and chemical fingerprinting

A full assessment of the impact of oil and chemical spills at sea requires the identification of both the polluting chemicals and the biological effects they cause. Here, a combination of chemical fingerprinting of surface oils, tissue residue analysis, and biological effects measures was used to explore the relationship between spilled oil and biological impact following the grounding of the MSC Napoli container ship in Lyme Bay, England in January 2007. Initially, oil contamination remained restricted to a surface slick in the vicinity of the wreck, and there was no chemical evidence to link biological impairment of animals (the common limpet, Patella vulgata) on the shore adjacent to the oil spill. Secondary oil contamination associated with salvage activities in July 2007 was also assessed. Chemical analyses of aliphatic hydrocarbons and terpanes in shell swabs taken from limpet shells provided an unequivocal match with the fuel oil carried by the ship. Corresponding chemical analysis of limpet tissues revealed increased concentrations of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) dominated by phenanthrene and C1 to C3 phenanthrenes with smaller contributions from heavier molecular weight PAHs. Concurrent ecotoxicological tests indicated impairment of cellular viability (p < 0.001), reduced immune function (p < 0.001), and damage to DNA (Comet assay, p < 0.001) in these animals, whereas antioxidant defenses were elevated relative to un-oiled animals. These results illustrate the value of combining biological monitoring with chemical fingerprinting for the rapid identification of spilled oils and their sublethal impacts on biota in situ.

Environmental implications of oil spills from shipping accidents

Since ancient times, ships have sunk during storms, either as a result of collisions with other vessels or running onto rocks. However, the ever-increasing importance of crude oil in the twentieth century and the corresponding growth in the world's tanker fleet have drawn attention to the negative implications of sea transport. Disasters involving tankers like the Torrey Canyon or the Amoco Cadiz have shown how dramatic the consequences of such an accident may be. The effects of oil spills at sea depend on numerous factors, such as the physicochemical parameters of the oil, the characteristics of the environment affected, and the physical, chemical, and biological processes occurring there, such as evaporation, dissolution, dispersion, emulsification, photo-oxidation, biodegradation, and sedimentation. The combination of these processes reduces the concentrations of hydrocarbons in sediments and water and alters the chemical composition of spilled oils. In every case, oil spills pose a danger to fauna and flora and cause damage to sea and shores ecosystems. Many of the petroleum-related chemicals that are spilled are toxic, otherwise carcinogenic or can be bioaccumulated in the tissues of marine organisms. Such chemicals may then be biomagnified up the marine food chain from phytoplankton to fish, then to seals and other carnivorous sea mammals. Moreover, oil products can be accumulated and immobilized in bottom deposits for long periods of time. Oil spills are particularly dangerous when they occur in small inland seas that have intense sea traffic, e.g., the Baltic Sea.

Cytokine release and cytotoxicity in human keratinocytes induced by polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (1-methylpyrene and perylene)

The cytotoxic effects of two polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) (1-methyplyrene and perylene) were investigated on human skin keratinocytes. Normal human keratinocytes were cultured in the presence of various concentrations of 1-methylpyrene and perylene either alone or in combination. Following incubation, keratinocyte adhesion, viability, proliferation, colony-forming efficiency, and apoptosis/necrosis level were examined. The effects of PAH on wound healing were also determined in vitro using a scrape-wound healing assay on epidermis-like tissue. In addition, the inflammatory cell response to PAH insult was examined through interleukin-1 (IL-1) alpha and interleukin-6 (IL-6) secretion. Each individual PAH significantly decreased keratinocyte adhesion and viability in a concentration-dependent manner, which was associated with a reduced ability of keratinocytes to proliferate and form colonies. When PAH were combined, a greater effect on keratinocyte adhesion, viability, and proliferation was noted. Decreased cell proliferation/colony-forming efficiency was accompanied by increased cell apoptosis following incubation with either PAH. This effect was enhanced by the inhibitory influence on keratinocyte migration, as assessed by culture scratching. Each PAH also exerted a significant effect on keratinocyte immune functions by modulating the secretion of inflammatory mediators. Indeed, 1-methylpyrene or perylene, individually or when combined, significantly upregulated IL-1alpha and IL-6 secretion. This effect was greater and was concentration dependent when the PAH combination was used. Overall results indicate that 1-methylpyrene and perylene exerted a cytotoxic effect on human keratinocytes. Our findings may shed light on mechanisms underlying potential adverse effects of 1-methylpyrene and perylene on human skin.

Reproductive toxicity of the water accommodated fraction (WAF) of crude oil in the polychaetes Arenicola marina (L.) and Nereis virens (Sars)

Accidental pollution incidents are common in the marine environment and are often caused by oil-related activities. Here the potential of such an incident to disrupt reproduction in two polychaete species is investigated, using an environmentally relevant preparation of weathered Forties crude oil, i.e. the water accommodated fraction (WAF). Oocytes were collected and exposed to three concentrations of WAF for 1h prior to the addition of sperm, so that fertilization took place under exposure conditions. Fertilization success was significantly reduced in both species by an exposure to WAF concentrations equivalent to 0.38 mgL(-1) PAHs, to just 26.8% in Arenicola marina compared to 76% in Nereis virens. The effects of WAF exposure on fertilization were greatly enhanced at lower sperm concentrations in N. virens, with a complete lack of fertilization reactions observed at sperm concentrations of 10(3)sperm per mL. We therefore suggest a mechanism of toxicity related to sperm swimming behaviour, resulting in reduced sperm:egg collision rates. WAF was found to reduce post-fertilization development rates and have teratogenic effects on early embryonic stages in both species, which exhibited abnormal cleavage patterns and high levels of fluctuating asymmetry. These results illustrate how the presence of crude oil in its soluble form in seawater at the time of a spawning event for either A. marina or N. virens could impact on fertilization success with implications for the fertilization ecology of these free spawning marine invertebrates.