Chelators for radioimmunotherapy: I. NMR and ab initio calculation studies on 1,4,7,10-tetra(carboxyethyl)-1,4,7,10-tetraazacyclododecane (DO4Pr) and 1,4,7-tris(carboxymethyl)-10-(carboxyethyl)-1,4,7,10-tetraazacyclododecane (DO3A1Pr)

IEDDA: An Attractive Bioorthogonal Reaction for Biomedical Applications

The pretargeting strategy has recently emerged in order to overcome the limitations of direct targeting, mainly in the field of radioimmunotherapy (RIT). This strategy is directly dependent on chemical reactions, namely bioorthogonal reactions, which have been developed for their ability to occur under physiological conditions. The Staudinger ligation, the copper catalyzed azide-alkyne cycloaddition (CuAAC) and the strain-promoted [3 + 2] azide–alkyne cycloaddition (SPAAC) were the first bioorthogonal reactions introduced in the literature. However, due to their incomplete biocompatibility and slow kinetics, the inverse-electron demand Diels-Alder (IEDDA) reaction was advanced in 2008 by Blackman et al. as an optimal bioorthogonal reaction. The IEDDA is the fastest bioorthogonal reaction known so far. Its biocompatibility and ideal kinetics are very appealing for pretargeting applications. The use of a trans-cyclooctene (TCO) and a tetrazine (Tz) in the reaction encouraged researchers to study them deeply. It was found that both reagents are sensitive to acidic or basic conditions. Furthermore, TCO is photosensitive and can be isomerized to its cis-conformation via a radical catalyzed reaction. Unfortunately, the cis-conformer is significantly less reactive toward tetrazine than the trans-conformation. Therefore, extensive research has been carried out to optimize both click reagents and to employ the IEDDA bioorthogonal reaction in biomedical applications.

Synthesis and application of a novel cysteine-based DTPA-NCS for targeted radioimmunotherapy

INTRODUCTION

For the development of safe and effective protein-based radiolabeled complexes such as radioimmunotherapy (RIT), the selection of the radionuclides and the chelating agents used for the radiolabeling of tumor-targeting molecules is a critical factor. We aim to synthesize a novel bifunctional chelating agent containing the isothiocyanate group for easy conjugation with antibodies having the characteristics of high stable chelation with therapeutic radionuclides.

METHODS

We have synthesized the DTPA analogue retaining L-cysteine as a core ligand of the thiol group. The chelating power of cysteine-based DTPA-NCS (cys-DTPA-NCS) was compared with that of commercial ρ-SCN-Bn-DTPA. In an application, the cetuximab was radioimmunoconjugated with (177)Lu using cys-DTPA-NCS. The affinity was tested in a cell line overexpressing EGFR. A therapy study was conducted in nude mice with subcutaneous HT-29 xenografts.

RESULTS

The cys-DTPA-NCS presents an excellent ability to chelate as compared to the ρ-SCN-Bn-DTPA. For mean ratio chemical labeling yields of 95%, the result was 0.97. (177)Lu-cys-DTPA-NCS-cetuximab was prepared under ambient condition with a high radiolabeling yield and the radiochemical purity was sustained for at least 6days. The IC50 value of the (177)Lu-labeled cetuximab was 10nM (95% confidence). The stability and therapeutic efficacy of the candidate radiopharmaceutical were verified.

CONCLUSION

The new DTPA derivative, cys-DTPA-NCS, is a good bifunctional chelating agent that can be used for protein-based radiopharmaceutical using lanthanides such as (177)Lu and (90)Y. The prepared (177)Lu-cys-DTPA-NCS-cetuximab can be used for the diagnosis and treatment of human colorectal tumor.

Lanthanides caged by the organic chelates; structural properties

The structure, in particular symmetry, geometry and morphology of organic chelates coordinated with the lanthanide ions are analyzed in the present review. This is the first part of a complete presentation of a theoretical description of the properties of systems, which are widely used in technology, but most of all, in molecular biology and medicine. The discussion is focused on the symmetry and geometry of the cages, since these features play a dominant role in the spectroscopic activity of the lanthanides caged by organic chelates. At the same time, the spectroscopic properties require more formal presentation in the language of Racah algebra, and deserve a separate analysis. In addition to the parent systems of DOTA, DOTP, EDTMP and CDTMP presented here, their modifications by various antennas are analyzed. The conclusions that have a strong impact upon the theory of the energy transfer and the sensitized luminescence of these systems are based on the results of numerical density functional theory calculations.

Antimicrobial and DNA-cleavage studies of 22-membered N4 tetraaza macrocyclic triazoles: template synthesis and physicochemical characterization

A novel series of 22-membered macrocyclic complexes of the type [MLCl(2)] (M=Co(2+), Ni(2+) and Cu(2+)) have been synthesized with newly derived biologically active ligands (L(1)-L(IV)). These ligands were synthesized by the condensation of ortho-phthalaldehyde and bis-(4-amino-5-mercapto-1, 2, 4-triazole-3-yl)alkanes. The mode of bonding and overall geometry of the complexes have been inferred through IR, EPR, electronic spectral studies, conductivity, magnetic, thermal, and electrochemical studies. All these complexes have been screened for their antibacterial (Escherichia coli, Staphylococus aureus, Salmonella typhi, Pseudomonas aeruginosa) and antifungal activities (Aspergillus niger, Aspergillus flavus, and Cladosporium) by the minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC) method. The DNA cleavage study was done by agarose gel electrophoresis technique.

Template synthesis and physico-chemical characterization of 14-membered tetraimine macrocyclic complexes, [MLX(2)] [M=Co(II), Ni(II), Cu(II) and Zn(II)]. DNA binding study on [CoLCl(2)] complex

The template condensation reaction between glyoxal and 1,8-diaminonaphthalene resulted a few novel mononuclear 14-membered tetraimine macrocyclic complexes of the type, [MLX(2)] [M=Co(II), Ni(II), Cu(II) and Zn(II), for X=Cl or NO(3)]. The stoichiometry and the nature of the complexes have been deduced from the results of elemental analyses and conductance data. The formation of macrocyclic framework has been inferred from the appearance of imine upsilon(CN) and upsilon(MN) band in IR spectra and the resonance signals observed in (1)H and (13)C-NMR spectra. However, the overall geometry of the complexes has been assigned on the positions of bands in electronic spectra and magnetic moment data. The distortion in Cu(II) complexes has been deduced on EPR data. The thermal behavior of these complexes has been studied by TGA analysis. Absorption and circular dichroism studies on the complex proved a significant binding to calf thymus DNA.

Self-assembly in Schiff base lanthanide complexes — From supramolecular dimers to coordination polymers

A review is given of the latest contribution of the author’s research group to the coordination chemistry of Schiff base polyaza macrocycles and acyclic salicylaldimines. Focus is placed on the effectiveness of lanthanides in supramolecular self-assembly of the components leading to the formation of compounds with unusual properties and structures.Key words: Schiff base macrocycles, salicylaldimines, lanthanides, self-assembly, template synthesis.

The long and short of it: the influence of N-carboxyethyl versusN-carboxymethyl pendant arms on in vitro and in vivo behavior of copper complexes of cross-bridged tetraamine macrocycles

A cross-bridged cyclam ligand bearing two N-carboxymethyl pendant arms (1) has been found to form a copper(II) complex that exhibits significantly improved biological behavior in recent research towards (64)Cu-based radiopharmaceuticals. Both the kinetic inertness and resistance to reduction of Cu-1 are believed to be relevant to its enhanced performance. To explore the influence of pendant arm length on these properties, new cross-bridged cyclam and cyclen ligands with longer N-carboxyethyl pendant arms, 2 and 4, and their respective copper(II) complexes have been synthesized. Both mono- as well as di-O-protonated forms of Cu-2 have also been isolated and structurally characterized. The spectral and structural properties of Cu-2 and Cu-4, their kinetic inertness in 5 M HCl, and electrochemical behavior have been obtained and compared to those of their N-carboxymethyl-armed homologs, Cu-1 and Cu-3. Only the cyclam-based Cu-1 and Cu-2 showed unusually high kinetic inertness towards acid decomplexation. While both of these complexes also exhibited quasi-reversible Cu(II)/Cu(I) reductions, Cu-2 is easier to reduce by a substantial margin of +400 mV, bringing it within the realm of physiological reductants. Similarly, of the cyclen-based complexes, Cu-4 is also easier to reduce than Cu-3 though both reductions are irreversible. Biodistribution studies of (64)Cu-labeled 2 and 4 were performed in Sprague Dawley rats. Despite comparable acid inertness to their shorter-armed congeners, both longer-armed ligand complexes have poorer bio-clearance properties. This inferior in vivo behavior may be a consequence of their higher reduction potentials.

Indium-Labeled Macrocyclic Conjugates of Naltrindole: High-Affinity Radioligands for In Vivo Studies of Peripheral δ Opioid Receptors

We have identified a series of hydrophilic indium-labeled DOTA and DO3A conjugates of naltrindole (NTI) that are suited to in vivo studies of peripheral delta opioid receptors. Indium(III) complexes, linked to the indole nitrogen of NTI by six- to nine-atom spacers, display high affinities (0.1-0.2 nM) and excellent selectivities for binding to delta sites in vitro. The [111In]-labeled complexes can be prepared in good isolated yields ( approximately 65%) with high specific radioactivities (>3300 mCi/mumol). The spacers serve as pharmacokinetic modifiers, and log D7.4 values range from -2.74 to -1.79. These radioligands exhibit a high level of specific binding (75-94%) to delta opioid receptors in mouse gut, heart, spleen, and pancreas in vivo. Uptakes of radioactivity are saturable by the non-radioactive complexes, inhibited by naltrexone, and blocked by NTI. Thus, these radiometal-labeled NTI analogues warrant further study by single-photon emission computed tomography.

Thermodynamic study of lanthanide(iii) complexes with bifunctional monophosphinic acid analogues of H4dota and comparative kinetic study of yttrium(iii) complexes

New bifunctional H(4)dota-like ligands with three acetic acid and one phosphinic acid pendant arms and propionate (H(5)do3ap(PrA)) or 4-aminobenzyl (H(4)do3ap(ABn)) reactive groups bound to the phosphorus atom were investigated. Potentiometric studies showed that the ligands have a similar basicity to the parent H(4)dota and the stability constants of their complexes with sodium(i) and selected lanthanide(III) ions are also similar. Formation and acid-assisted decomplexation kinetics of yttrium(III) complexes with a series of H(4)dota-like ligands (H(4)dota and its phosphinic/phosphonic acid analogues) were studied and the reactions are sensitive to a slight modification of the ligand structure. The (2-carboxyethyl)phosphinic acid derivative H(5)do3ap(PrA) and the phosphonic acid ligand H(5)do3ap form complexes faster than H(4)dota. The most kinetically inert complex is that with H(4)do3ap(ABn). Rates of complexation and decomplexation can depend on the ability to transfer proton(s) outside/inside the complex cavity and, therefore, on the hydrophobicity of the ligands. The results demonstrate that the new bifunctional ligands are suitable for labelling biomolecules with yttrium(iii) radioisotopes for utilization in nuclear medicine.

Monopropionate analogues of DOTA4– and DTPA5–: kinetics of formation and dissociation of their lanthanide(iii) complexes

The replacement of an acetate function of the macrocyclic DOTA4-(DO3A-Nprop4-) or the acyclic DTPA5- in terminal position (DTTA-Nprop5-) has been recently shown to result in a significant increase of the water exchange rate on the Gd3+ complexes, which makes these chelates potential contrast agents for MRI applications. Here, two novel and straightforward synthetic routes to H4DO3A-Nprop are described. Protonation constants of DO3A-Nprop4- and stability constants with several alkaline earth and transition metal ions have been determined by potentiometry. For each metal, the thermodynamic stability constant is decreased in comparison to the DOTA chelates. The formation reaction of LnDO3A-Nprop- complexes (Ln=Ce, Gd and Yb) proceeds via the rapid formation of a diprotonated intermediate and its subsequent deprotonation and rearrangement in a slow, OH- catalyzed process. The stability of the LnH2DO3A-Nprop* intermediates is similar to those reported for the corresponding DOTA analogues. The rate constants of the OH- catalyzed deprotonation step increase with decreasing lanthanide ion size, and are slightly higher than for DOTA complexes. The kinetic inertness of GdDTTA-Nprop2- was characterized by the rates of its exchange reactions with Zn2+ and Eu3+. The rate of the reaction between GdDTTA-Nprop2- and Zn2+ increases with Zn2+ concentration, while it is independent of pH, implying that the exchange takes place predominantly via direct attack of the metal ion on the complex. In the Eu3+ exchange, the rate decreases with increasing concentration of the exchanging ion which is accounted for by the transitional formation of a dinuclear GdDTTA-NpropEu+ species. The kinetic inertness of the monopropionate GdDTTA-Nprop2- is decreased in comparison to GdDTPA2-: all rate constants, characterizing the dissociation reaction via either proton- or metal-catalyzed pathways being higher by 1-2 orders of magnitude. Similarly, a study of the acid-catalyzed dissociation of the macrocyclic CeDO3A-Nprop- showed a partial loss of the kinetic inertness with regard to the tetraacetate derivative CeDOTA-.

Density-functional theory structures of 1,4,7,10-tetraazacyclododecane-1,4,7,10-tetraacetic acid complexes for ions across the lanthanide series

The use of organically chelated lanthanides in diagnosis and treatment is a rapidly growing field in medicine. In order to gain a deeper understanding into the properties of these chelates, particularly spectroscopic, density-functional calculations have been performed on a series of lanthanide ions chelated with 1,4,7,10-tetraazacyclododecane-1,4,7,10-tetraacetic acid. Based on the results of these calculations, it has been concluded that the local symmetry experienced by the chelated lanthanide ion may be treated as being axial, which will make the interpretation of their spectroscopic properties greatly simplified. It has also been suggested that the so-called "capping" water molecule at the ninth coordination position of the lanthanide is hydrogen bonded to the acetate oxygens of the sidearms, rather than coordinated as the ninth ligand of the lanthanide.

Fine-tuning water exchange on GdIII poly(amino carboxylates) by modulation of steric crowding

In the objective of optimizing water exchange rate on stable, nine-coordinate, monohydrated Gd(III) poly(amino carboxylate) complexes, we have prepared monopropionate derivatives of DOTA4- (DO3A-Nprop4-) and DTPA5- (DTTA-Nprop5-). A novel ligand, EPTPA-BAA(3-), the bisamylamide derivative of ethylenepropylenetriamine-pentaacetate (EPTPA5-) was also synthesized. A variable temperature 17O NMR study has been performed on their Gd(III) complexes, which, for [Gd(DTTA-Nprop)(H2O)]2- and [Gd(EPTPA-BAA)(H2O)] has been combined with multiple field EPR and NMRD measurements. The water exchange rates, k(ex)(298), are 8.0 x 10(7) s(-1), 6.1 x 10(7) s(-1) and 5.7 x 10(7) s(-1) for [Gd(DTTA-Nprop)(H2O)]2-, [Gd(DO3A-Nprop)(H2O)]- and [Gd(EPTPA-BAA)(H2O)], respectively, all in the narrow optimal range to attain maximum proton relaxivities, provided the other parameters (electronic relaxation and rotation) are also optimized. The substitution of an acetate with a propionate arm in DTPA5- or DOTA4- induces increased steric compression around the water binding site and thus leads to an accelerated water exchange on the Gd(III) complex. The k(ex) values on the propionate complexes are, however, lower than those obtained for [Gd(EPTPA)(H2O)]2- and [Gd(TRITA)(H2O)]- which contain one additional CH(2) unit in the amine backbone as compared to the parent [Gd(DTPA)(H2O)]2- and [Gd(DOTA)(H2O)]-. In addition to their optimal water exchange rate, [Gd(DTTA-Nprop)(H2O)]2- has, and [Gd(DO3A-Nprop)(H2O)]- is expected to have sufficient thermodynamic stability. These properties together make them prime candidates for the development of high relaxivity, macromolecular MRI contrast agents.

Synthesis and evaluation of novel bifunctional chelating agents based on 1,4,7,10-tetraazacyclododecane-N,N',N",N"'-tetraacetic acid for radiolabeling proteins

Detailed synthesis of the bifunctional chelating agents 2-methyl-6-(p-isothiocyanatobenzyl)-1,4,7,10-tetraazacyclododecane-1,4,7,10-tetraacetic acid (1B4M-DOTA) and 2-(p-isothiocyanatobenzyl)-5, 6-cyclohexano-1, 4, 7, 10-tetraazacyclododecane-1, 4, 7, 10-tetraacetate (CHX-DOTA) are reported. These chelating agents were compared to 2-(p-isothiocyanatobenzyl)-1, 4, 7, 10-tetraazacyclododecane-1, 4, 7, 10-tetraacetic acid (C-DOTA) and 1, 4, 7, 10-Tetraaza-N-(1-carboxy-3-(4-nitrophenyl)propyl)-N', N", N"'-tris(acetic acid) cyclododecane (PA-DOTA) as their (177)Lu radiolabeled conjugates with Herceptin. In vitro stability of the immunoconjugates radiolabeled with (177)Lu was assessed by serum stability studies. The in vivo stability of the radiolabeled immunoconjugates and their targeting characteristics were determined by biodistribution studies in LS-174T xenograft tumor-bearing mice. Relative radiolabeling rates and efficiencies were determined for all four immunoconjugates. Insertion of the 1B4M moiety into the DOTA backbone increases radiometal chelation rate and provides complex stability comparable to C-DOTA and PA-DOTA while the CHX-DOTA appears to not form as stable a (177)Lu complex while exhibiting a substantial increase in formation rate. The 1B4M-DOTAmay have potential for radioimmunotherapy applications.