Site-specific fluorescent labeling of RNA molecules by specific transcription using unnatural base pairs

Advancing Genetic Alphabet Expansion: Synthesis of 7-(2-Thienyl)-Imidazo[4,5-b]pyridine (Ds) and 4-(4-Pentyne-1,2-diol)-1-Propynyl-2-Nitropyrrole (Diol-Px) for Use in Replicable Unnatural Base Pairs for PCR Applications

Expanding the genetic alphabet enhances DNA recombinant technologies by introducing unnatural base pairs (UBPs) beyond the standard A-T and G-C pairs, leading to biomaterials with novel and increased functionalities. Recent developments include UBPs that effectively function as a third base pair in replication, transcription, and/or translation processes. One such UBP, Ds-Px, demonstrates extremely high specificity in replication. Chemically synthesized DNA fragments containing Ds bases are amplified by PCR with the 5'-triphosphates of Ds and Px deoxyribonucleosides (dDsTP and dPxTP). The Ds-Px pair system has applications in enhanced DNA data storage, generation of high-affinity DNA aptamers, and incorporation of functional elements into RNA through transcription. This protocol describes the synthesis of the amidite derivative of Ds (dDs amidite), the triphosphate dDsTP, and the diol-modified dPxTP (Diol-dPxTP) for PCR amplifications involving the Ds-Px pair. © 2024 Wiley Periodicals LLC. Basic Protocol 1: Synthesis of Ds deoxyribonucleoside (dDs) Basic Protocol 2: Synthesis of dDs amidite Basic Protocol 3: Synthesis of dDs triphosphate (dDsTP) Basic Protocol 4: Synthesis of Pn deoxyribonucleoside (4-iodo-dPn) Basic Protocol 5: Synthesis of acetyl-protected diol-modified Px deoxyribonucleoside (Diol-dPx) Basic Protocol 6: Synthesis of Diol-dPx triphosphate (Diol-dPxTP) Basic Protocol 7: Purification of triphosphates Support Protocol 1: Synthesis of Hoffer's chlorosugar Support Protocol 2: Preparation of 0.5 M pyrophosphate in DMF Support Protocol 3: Preparation of 2 M TEAB buffer.

Orchestration and theranostic applications of synthetic genome with Hachimoji bases/building blocks

Synthetic genomics is a novel field of chemical biology where the chemically modified genetic alphabets have been considered in central dogma of life. Tweaking of chemical compositions of natural nucleotide bases could be developed as novel building blocks of DNA/RNA. The modified bases (dP, dZ, dS, and dB etc.) have been demonstrated to be adaptable for replication, transcription and follow Darwinism law of evolution. With advancement of chemical biology especially nucleotide chemistry, synthetic genetic codes have been discovered and Hachimoji nucleotides are the most important and significant one among them. These additional nucleotide bases can form orthogonal base-pairing, and also follow Darwinian evolution and other structural features. In the Hachimoji base pairing, synthetic building blocks are formed using eight modified nucleotide (DNA/RNA) letters (hence the name "Hachimoji"). Their structural conformations, like polyelectrolyte backbones and stereo-regular building blocks favor thermodynamic stability and confirm Schrodinger aperiodic crystal. From the structural genomics aspect, these synthetic bases could be incorporated into the central dogma of life. Researchers have shown Hachimoji building blocks were transcribed to its RNA counterpart as a functional fluorescent Hachimoji aptamer. Apart from several unnatural nucleotide base pairs maneuvered into its in vitro and in vivo applications, this review describes future perspective towards the development and therapeutic utilization of the genetic codes, a primary objective of synthetic and chemical biology.

Total RNA Synthesis and its Covalent Labeling Innovation

RNA plays critical roles in a wide range of physiological processes. For example, it is well known that RNA plays an important role in regulating gene expression, cell proliferation, and differentiation, and many other chemical and biological processes. However, the research community still suffers from limited approaches that can be applied to readily visualize a specific RNA-of-interest (ROI). Several methods can be used to track RNAs; these rely mainly on biological properties, namely, hybridization, aptamer, reporter protein, and protein binding. With respect to covalent approaches, very few cases have been reported. Happily, several new methods for efficient labeling studies of ROIs have been demonstrated successfully in recent years. Additionally, methods employed for the detection of ROIs by RNA modifying enzymes have also proved feasible. Several approaches, namely, phosphoramidite chemistry, in vitro transcription reactions, co-transcription reactions, chemical post-modification, RNA modifying enzymes, ligation, and other methods targeted at RNA labeling have been revealed in the past decades. To illustrate the most recent achievements, this review aims to summarize the most recent research in the field of synthesis of RNAs-of-interest bearing a variety of unnatural nucleosides, the subsequent RNA labeling research via biocompatible ligation, and beyond.

Bright fluorescent purine analogues as promising probes

Modified bright fluorescent nucleosides that respond to the microenvironment have great potential as probes. A series of novel 8-(phenylethynyl)phenylated 2-amino-2'-deoxyadenosine and 2'-deoxyisoguanosine derivatives have been synthesized by Sonogashira-type coupling reaction and Suzuki reaction. The maximum emission of the new compounds is in the visible region, with strong solvatochromicity and pH-dependent fluorescent properties. Furthermore, some of them exhibit bright fluorescence emissions in various solvents (ε × Φ = 4000-39,000 cm-1 M-1). These consequences indicate that purine analogues could respond to the microenvironment and serve as promising fluorescent probes.Supplemental data for this article is available online at https://doi.org/10.1080/15257770.2021.2004418 .

Strategies for Covalent Labeling of Long RNAs

The introduction of chemical modifications into long RNA molecules at specific positions for visualization, biophysical investigations, diagnostic and therapeutic applications still remains challenging. In this review, we present recent approaches for covalent internal labeling of long RNAs. Topics included are the assembly of large modified RNAs via enzymatic ligation of short synthetic oligonucleotides and synthetic biology approaches preparing site-specifically modified RNAs via in vitro transcription using an expanded genetic alphabet. Moreover, recent approaches to employ deoxyribozymes (DNAzymes) and ribozymes for RNA labeling and RNA methyltransferase based labeling strategies are presented. We discuss the potentials and limits of the individual methods, their applicability for RNAs with several hundred to thousands of nucleotides in length and indicate future directions in the field.

Charting the landscape of RNA polymerases to unleash their potential in strain improvement

One major mission of microbial cell factory is overproduction of desired chemicals. To this end, it is necessary to orchestrate enzymes that affect metabolic fluxes. However, only modification of a small number of enzymes in most cases cannot maximize desired metabolites, and global regulation is required. Of myriad enzymes influencing global regulation, RNA polymerase (RNAP) may be the most versatile enzyme in biological realm because it not only serves as the workhorse of central dogma but also participates in a plethora of biochemical events. In fact, recent years have witnessed extensive exploitation of RNAPs for phenotypic engineering. While a few impressive reviews showcase the structures and functionalities of RNAPs, this review not only summarizes the state-of-the-art advance in the structures of RNAPs but also points out their enormous potentials in metabolic engineering and synthetic biology. This review aims to provide valuable insights for strain improvement.

Tag-Free Internal RNA Labeling and Photocaging Based on mRNA Methyltransferases

The mRNA modification N6 -methyladenosine (m6 A) is associated with multiple roles in cell function and disease. The methyltransferases METTL3-METTL14 and METTL16 act as "writers" for different target transcripts and sequence motifs. The modification is perceived by dedicated "reader" and "eraser" proteins, but not by polymerases. We report that METTL3-14 shows remarkable cosubstrate promiscuity, enabling sequence-specific internal labeling of RNA without additional guide RNAs. The transfer of ortho-nitrobenzyl and 6-nitropiperonyl groups allowed enzymatic photocaging of RNA in the consensus motif, which impaired polymerase-catalyzed primer extension in a reversible manner. METTL16 was less promiscuous but suitable for chemo-enzymatic labeling using different types of click chemistry. Since both enzymes act on distinct sequence motifs, their combination allowed orthogonal chemo-enzymatic modification of different sites in a single RNA.

Genetic alphabet expansion technology by creating unnatural base pairs

Recent advancements in the creation of artificial extra base pairs (unnatural base pairs, UBPs) are opening the door to a new research area, xenobiology, and genetic alphabet expansion technologies. UBPs that function as third base pairs in replication, transcription, and/or translation enable the site-specific incorporation of novel components into DNA, RNA, and proteins. Here, we describe the UBPs developed by three research teams and their application in PCR-based diagnostics, high-affinity DNA aptamer generation, site-specific labeling of RNAs, semi-synthetic organism creation, and unnatural-amino-acid-containing protein synthesis.

Site-Selective RNA Functionalization via DNA-Induced Structure

Methods for RNA functionalization at specific sites are in high demand but remain a challenge, particularly for RNAs produced by transcription rather than by total synthesis. Recent studies have described acylimidazole reagents that react in high yields at 2'-OH groups stochastically at nonbase-paired regions, covering much of the RNA in scattered acyl esters. Localized reactions, if possible, could prove useful in many applications, providing functional handles at specific sites and sequences of the biopolymer. Here, we describe a DNA-directed strategy for in vitro functionalization of RNA at site-localized 2'-OH groups. The method, RNA Acylation at Induced Loops (RAIL), utilizes complementary helper DNA oligonucleotides that expose gaps or loops at selected positions while protecting the remainder in DNA-RNA duplexes. Reaction with an acylimidazole reagent is then carried out, providing high yields of 2'-OH conjugation at predetermined sites. Experiments reveal optimal helper oligodeoxynucleotide designs and conditions for the reaction, and tests of the approach are carried out to control localized ribozyme activities and to label RNAs with dual-color fluorescent dyes. The RAIL approach offers a simple and novel strategy for site-selective labeling and control of RNAs, potentially of any length and origin.

Posttranscriptional site-directed spin labeling of large RNAs with an unnatural base pair system under non-denaturing conditions

Site-directed spin labeling (SDSL) of large RNAs for electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) spectroscopy has remained challenging to date.

Site-directed spin labeling (SDSL) of large RNAs for electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) spectroscopy has remained challenging to date. We here demonstrate an efficient and generally applicable posttranscriptional SDSL method for large RNAs using an expanded genetic alphabet containing the NaM-TPT3 unnatural base pair (UBP). An alkyne-modified TPT3 ribonucleotide triphosphate (rTPT3^COTP) is synthesized and site-specifically incorporated into large RNAs by in vitro transcription, which allows attachment of the azide-containing nitroxide through click chemistry. We validate this strategy by SDSL of a 419-nucleotide ribonuclease P (RNase P) RNA from Bacillus stearothermophilus under non-denaturing conditions. The effects of site-directed UBP incorporation and subsequent spin labeling on the global structure and function of RNase P are marginal as evaluated by Circular Dichroism spectroscopy, Small Angle X-ray Scattering, Sedimentation Velocity Analytical Ultracentrifugation and enzymatic assay. Continuous-Wave EPR analyses reveal that the labeling reaction is efficient and specific, and Pulsed Electron–Electron Double Resonance measurements yield an inter-spin distance distribution that agrees with the crystal structure. The labeling strategy as presented overcomes the size constraint of RNA labeling, opening new avenues of spin labeling and EPR spectroscopy for investigating the structure and dynamics of large RNAs.

The Theophylline Aptamer: 25 Years as an Important Tool in Cellular Engineering Research

The theophylline aptamer was isolated from an oligonucleotide library in 1994. Since that time, the aptamer has found wide utility, particularly in synthetic biology, cellular engineering, and diagnostic applications. The primary application of the theophylline aptamer is in the construction and characterization of synthetic riboswitches for regulation of gene expression. These riboswitches have been used to control cellular motility, regulate carbon metabolism, construct logic gates, screen for mutant enzymes, and control apoptosis. Other applications of the theophylline aptamer in cellular engineering include regulation of RNA interference and genome editing through CRISPR systems. Here we describe the uses of the theophylline aptamer for cellular engineering over the past 25 years. In so doing, we also highlight important synthetic biology applications to control gene expression in a ligand-dependent manner.

The chemistry and applications of RNA 2'-OH acylation

RNA is a versatile biomolecule with a broad range of biological functions that go far beyond its initially described role as a simple information carrier. The development of chemical methods to control, manipulate and modify RNA has the potential to yield new insights into its many functions and properties. Traditionally, most of these methods involved the chemical modification of RNA structure using solid-state synthesis or enzymatic transformations. However, over the past 15 years, the direct functionalization of RNA by selective acylation of the 2'-hydroxyl (2'-OH) group has emerged as a powerful alternative that enables the simple modification of both synthetic and transcribed RNAs. In this Review, we discuss the chemical properties and design of effective reagents for RNA 2'-OH acylation, highlighting the unique problem of 2'-OH reactivity in the presence of water. We elaborate on how RNA 2'-OH acylation is being exploited to develop selective chemical probes that enable interrogation of RNA structure and function, and describe new developments and applications in the field.

Simple alkanoyl acylating agents for reversible RNA functionalization and control

We describe the synthesis and RNA acylation activity of a series of minimalist azidoalkanoyl imidazole reagents, with the aim of functionalizing RNA at 2'-hydroxyl groups at stoichiometric to superstoichiometric levels. We find marked effects of small structural changes on their ability to acylate and be reductively removed, and identify reagents and methods that enable efficient RNA functionalization and control.

Enzymatic synthesis of base-modified RNA by T7 RNA polymerase. A systematic study and comparison of 5-substituted pyrimidine and 7-substituted 7-deazapurine nucleoside triphosphates as substrates

We synthesized a small library of eighteen 5-substituted pyrimidine or 7-substituted 7-deazapurine nucleoside triphosphates bearing methyl, ethynyl, phenyl, benzofuryl or dibenzofuryl groups through cross-coupling reactions of nucleosides followed by triphosphorylation or through direct cross-coupling reactions of halogenated nucleoside triphosphates. We systematically studied the influence of the modification on the efficiency of T7 RNA polymerase catalyzed synthesis of modified RNA and found that modified ATP, UTP and CTP analogues bearing smaller modifications were good substrates and building blocks for the RNA synthesis even in difficult sequences incorporating multiple modified nucleotides. Bulky dibenzofuryl derivatives of ATP and GTP were not substrates for the RNA polymerase. In the case of modified GTP analogues, a modified procedure using a special promoter and GMP as initiator needed to be used to obtain efficient RNA synthesis. The T7 RNA polymerase synthesis of modified RNA can be very efficiently used for synthesis of modified RNA but the method has constraints in the sequence of the first three nucleotides of the transcript, which must contain a non-modified G in the +1 position.

Unnatural Base Pairs for Synthetic Biology

In this review, we have summarized the research effort into the development of unnatural base pairs beyond standard Watson-Crick (WC) base pairs for synthetic biology. Prior to introducing our research results, we present investigations by four outstanding groups in the field. Their research results demonstrate the importance of shape complementarity and stacking ability as well as hydrogen-bonding (H-bonding) patterns for unnatural base pairs. On the basis of this research background, we developed unnatural base pairs consisting of imidazo[5',4':4.5]pyrido[2,3-d]pyrimidines and 1,8-naphthyridines, i.e., Im : Na pairs. Since Im bases are recognized as ring-expanded purines and Na bases are recognized as ring-expanded pyrimidines, Im : Na pairs are expected to satisfy the criteria of shape complementarity and enhanced stacking ability. In addition, these pairs have four non-canonical H-bonds. Because of these preferable properties, ImN^N : NaO^O, one of the Im : Na pairs, is recognized as a complementary base pair in not only single nucleotide insertion, but also the PCR.

Water-Soluble Leaving Group Enables Hydrophobic Functionalization of RNA

Attachment of hydrophobic groups to RNA is challenging because of their poor aqueous solubility. One-step acylation of RNA 2'-OH groups in water using a water-soluble imidazole leaving group is described. The effect of the hydrophobic groups on hybridization is reported. Furthermore, propargyl-functionalized RNA is shown to be readily labeled with a fluorophore. Lastly, heptyl-functionalized RNA is found to exhibit the unusual property of solubility in organic solvents.

Creation of unnatural base pairs for genetic alphabet expansion toward synthetic xenobiology

Artificial extra base pairs (unnatural base pairs, UBPs) expand the genetic alphabet of DNA, thus broadening entire biological systems in the central dogma. UBPs function as third base pairs in replication, transcription, and/or translation, and have created a new research area, synthetic xenobiology, providing genetic engineering tools to generate novel DNAs, RNAs, and proteins with increased functionalities. Several UBPs have been developed and applied to PCR technology, DNA aptamer generation, and semi-synthetic organism creation. Among them, we developed a series of UBPs and demonstrated unique quantitative PCR and high-affinity DNA aptamer generation methods.

Amino-Functionalized 5' Cap Analogs as Tools for Site-Specific Sequence-Independent Labeling of mRNA

mRNA is a template for protein biosynthesis, and consequently mRNA transport, translation, and turnover are key elements in the overall regulation of gene expression. Along with growing interest in the mechanisms regulating mRNA decay and localization, there is an increasing need for tools enabling convenient fluorescent labeling or affinity tagging of mRNA. We report new mRNA 5' cap analog-based tools that enable site-specific labeling of RNA within the cap using N-hydroxysuccinimide (NHS) chemistry. We explored two complementary methods: a co-transcriptional labeling method, in which the label is first attached to a cap analog and then incorporated into RNA by in vitro transcription, and a post-transcriptional labeling method, in which an amino-functionalized cap analog is incorporated into RNA followed by chemical labeling of the resulting transcript. After testing the biochemical properties of RNAs carrying the novel modified cap structures, we demonstrated the utility of fluorescently labeled RNAs in decapping assays, RNA decay assays, and RNA visualization in cells. Finally, we also demonstrated that mRNAs labeled by the reported method are translationally active. We envisage that the novel analogs will provide an alternative to radiolabeling of mRNA caps for in vitro studies and open possibilities for new applications related to the study of mRNA fates in vivo.

A cyclopropene-modified nucleotide for site-specific RNA labeling using genetic alphabet expansion transcription

Site-specific RNA modification with methyl cyclopropene moieties is performed by T7 in vitro transcription. An existing unnatural base is functionalized with a cyclopropene moiety and used in transcription reactions to produce site-specifically cyclopropene-modified RNA molecules. The posttranscriptional inverse electron demand Diels-Alder cycloaddition reaction with a selected tetrazine-fluorophore conjugate is demonstrated.

Site-specific enzymatic introduction of a norbornene modified unnatural base into RNA and application in post-transcriptional labeling

Inverse electron demand Diels-Alder cycloadditions have proven to be extremely useful for mild and additive-free orthogonal labeling of biomolecules, amongst others, for RNA labeling in vitro and in a cellular context. Here we present a method for site-specific introduction of an alkene modification into RNA via T7 in vitro transcription. For this, an unnatural, hydrophobic base pairing system developed by Romesberg and coworkers was modified introducing one or two norbornene moieties at predefined positions into RNA oligonucleotides in an in vitro transcription reaction. This allows post-transcriptional functionalization of these RNA molecules with tetrazine derivatives containing for instance fluorophores or biotin.

Synthesis of Nucleoside Triphosphates from 2'-3'-Protected Nucleosides Using Trimetaphosphate

Chemists have been attempting to triphosphorylate nucleosides and other alcohols using trimetaphosphate (TriMP) since the 1960s. However, this route appears to have been abandoned due to poor yields. The first practical syntheses of nucleoside triphosphates (NTPs) are reported using TriMP as the key reagent. This was achieved by reacting the tetrabutylammonium salt of TriMP with mesitylenesulfonyl chloride in the presence of DABCO in pyridine followed by the addition of an appropriately protected nucleoside and phthalimide. Quenching the reaction with aqueous buffer followed by hydrolysis of the OH protecting groups gave the NTPs in good yield.

Cycloadditions for Studying Nucleic Acids

Cycloaddition reactions for site-specific or global modification of nucleic acids have enabled the preparation of a plethora of previously inaccessible DNA and RNA constructs for structural and functional studies on naturally occurring nucleic acids, the assembly of nucleic acid nanostructures, therapeutic applications, and recently, the development of novel aptamers. In this chapter, recent progress in nucleic acid functionalization via a range of different cycloaddition (click) chemistries is presented. At first, cycloaddition/click chemistries already used for modifying nucleic acids are summarized, ranging from the well-established copper(I)-catalyzed alkyne-azide cycloaddition reaction to copper free methods, such as the strain-promoted azide-alkyne cycloaddition, tetrazole-based photoclick chemistry and the inverse electron demand Diels-Alder cycloaddition reaction between strained alkenes and tetrazine derivatives. The subsequent sections contain selected applications of nucleic acid functionalization via click chemistry; in particular, site-specific enzymatic labeling in vitro, either via DNA and RNA recognizing enzymes or by introducing unnatural base pairs modified for click reactions. Further sections report recent progress in metabolic labeling and fluorescent detection of DNA and RNA synthesis in vivo, click nucleic acid ligation, click chemistry in nanostructure assembly and click-SELEX as a novel method for the selection of aptamers.

On the use of metal purine derivatives (M=Ir, Rh) for the selective labeling of nucleosides and nucleotides

The reactions of neutral or cationic IrIII and RhIII derivatives of phenyl purine nucleobases with unsymmetrical alkynes produce new metallacycles in a predictable manner, which allows for the incorporation of either photoactive (anthracene or pyrene) or electroactive (ferrocene) labels in the nucleotide or nucleoside moiety. The reported methodology (metalation of the purine derivative and subsequent marker insertion) could be used for the postfunctionalization and unambiguous labeling of oligonucleotides.

Transcription of 4′-thioDNA templates to natural RNA in vitro and in mammalian cells

Synthetic chemically modified nucleic acids, which are compatible with DNA/RNA polymerases, have great potential as a genetic material for synthetic biological studies.

Vilsmeier cyclization of α-acetyl-α-aroyl ketene-N,S-acetals: direct and efficient synthesis of halogenated pyridin-2(1H)-ones

An efficient synthetic route to 3-aroyl-5-formyl-4-halo pyridin-2(1H)-ones has been developed via Vilsmeier cyclization of 2-(ethylthio(arylamino)methylene)-1-alkylbutane-1,3-dione.

Isomorphic emissive GTP surrogate facilitates initiation and elongation of in vitro transcription reactions

The fastidious behavior of T7 RNA polymerase limits the incorporation of synthetic nucleosides into RNA transcripts, particularly at or near the promoter. The practically exclusive use of GTP for transcription initiation further compounds this challenge, and reactions with GTP analogs, where the heterocyclic nucleus has been altered, have not, to our knowledge, been demonstrated. The enzymatic incorporation of ^thGTP, a newly synthesized isomorphic fluorescent nucleotide with a thieno[3,4-d]pyrimidine core, is explored. The modified nucleotide can initiate and maintain transcription reactions, leading to the formation of fully modified and highly emissive RNA transcripts with ^thG replacing all guanosine residues. Short and long modified transcripts are synthesized in comparable yields to their natural counterparts. To assess proper folding and function, transcripts were used to assemble a hammerhead ribozyme with all permutations of natural and modified enzyme and substrate strands. The ^thG modified substrate was effectively cleaved by the natural RNA enzyme, demonstrating the isomorphic features of the nucleoside and its ability to replace G residues while retaining proper folding. In contrast, the ^thG modified enzyme showed little cleavage ability, suggesting the modifications likely disrupted the catalytic center, illustrating the significance of the Hoogsteen face in mediating appropriate contacts. Importantly, the ribozyme cleavage reaction of the emissive fluorescent transcripts could be followed in real time by fluorescence spectroscopy. Beyond their utility as fluorescent probes in biophysical and discovery assays, the results reported point to the potential utility of such isomorphic nucleosides in probing specific mechanistic questions in RNA catalysis and RNA structural analysis.

Synthesis, photophysical properties and incorporation of a highly emissive and environment-sensitive uridine analogue based on the Lucifer chromophore

The majority of fluorescent nucleoside analogues used in nucleic acid studies have excitation maxima in the UV region and show very low fluorescence within oligonucleotides (ONs); hence, they cannot be utilised with certain fluorescence methods and for cell-based analysis. Here, we describe the synthesis, photophysical properties and incorporation of a highly emissive and environment-sensitive uridine analogue, derived by attaching a Lucifer chromophore (1,8-naphthalimide core) at the 5-position of uracil. The emissive nucleoside displays excitation and emission maxima in the visible region and exhibits high quantum yield. Importantly, when incorporated into ON duplexes it retains appreciable fluorescence efficiency and is sensitive to the neighbouring base environment. Notably, the nucleoside signals the presence of purine repeats in ON duplexes with an enhancement in fluorescence intensity, a property rarely displayed by other nucleoside analogues.

The synthesis and application of a diazirine-modified uridine analogue for investigating RNA–protein interactions

A uridine analogue equipped with a photoactive diazirine unit was generated and incorporated into RNA either syntheticallyviaphosphoramidite chemistry or by enzymatic polymerization. The new analogue was developed to identify and investigate RNA–protein interactions.

Efficient and sequence-independent replication of DNA containing a third base pair establishes a functional six-letter genetic alphabet

The natural four-letter genetic alphabet, comprised of just two base pairs (dA-dT and dG-dC), is conserved throughout all life, and its expansion by the development of a third, unnatural base pair has emerged as a central goal of chemical and synthetic biology. We recently developed a class of candidate unnatural base pairs, exemplified by the pair formed between d5SICS and dNaM. Here, we examine the PCR amplification of DNA containing one or more d5SICS-dNaM pairs in a wide variety of sequence contexts. Under standard conditions, we show that this DNA may be amplified with high efficiency and greater than 99.9% fidelity. To more rigorously explore potential sequence effects, we used deep sequencing to characterize a library of templates containing the unnatural base pair as a function of amplification. We found that the unnatural base pair is efficiently replicated with high fidelity in virtually all sequence contexts. The results show that, for PCR and PCR-based applications, d5SICS-dNaM is functionally equivalent to a natural base pair, and when combined with dA-dT and dG-dC, it provides a fully functional six-letter genetic alphabet.

Structure-activity studies on the fluorescent indicator in a displacement assay for the screening of small molecules binding to RNA

A series of xanthone and thioxanthone derivatives with aminoalkoxy substituents were synthesized as fluorescent indicators for a displacement assay in the study of small-molecule-RNA interactions. The RNA-binding properties of these molecules were investigated in terms of the improved binding selectivity to the loop region in the RNA secondary structure relative to 2,7-bis(2-aminoethoxy)xanthone (X2S) by fluorimetric titration and displacement assay. An 11-mer double-stranded RNA and a hairpin RNA mimicking the stem loop IIB of Rev response element (RRE) RNA of HIV-1 mRNA were used. The X2S derivatives with longer aminoalkyl substituents showed a higher affinity to the double-stranded RNA than the parent molecule. Introduction of a methyl group on the aminoethoxy moiety of X2S effectively modulated the selectivity to the RNA secondary structure. Methyl group substitution at the C1' position suppressed the binding to the loop regions. Substitution with two methyl groups on the amino nitrogen atom resulted in reducing the affinity to the double-stranded region by a factor of 40%. The effect of methyl substitution on the amino nitrogen atom was also observed for a thioxanthone derivative. Titration experiments, however, suggested that thioxanthone derivatives showed a more prominent tendency of multiple binding to RNA than xanthone derivatives. The selectivity index calculated from the affinity to the double-stranded and loop regions suggested that the N,N-dimethyl derivative of X2S would be suitable for the screening of small molecules binding to RRE.

PCR amplification and transcription for site-specific labeling of large RNA molecules by a two-unnatural-base-pair system

For the site-specific labeling and modification of RNA by genetic alphabet expansion, we developed a PCR and transcription system using two hydrophobic unnatural base pairs: 7-(2-thienyl)-imidazo[4,5-b]pyridine (Ds) and 2-nitro-4-propynylpyrrole (Px) as a third pair for PCR amplification and Ds and pyrrole-2-carbaldehyde (Pa) for the incorporation of functional components as modified Pa bases into RNA by T7 transcription. To prepare Ds-containing DNA templates with long chains, the Ds-Px pair was utilized in a fusion PCR method, by which we demonstrated the synthesis of 282-bp DNA templates containing Ds at specific positions. Using these Ds-containing DNA templates and a biotin-linked Pa substrate (Biotin-PaTP) as a modified Pa base, 260-mer RNA transcripts containing Biotin-Pa at a specific position were generated by T7 RNA polymerase. This two-unnatural-base-pair system, combining the Ds-Px and Ds-Pa pairs with modified Pa substrates, provides a powerful tool for the site-specific labeling and modification of desired positions in large RNA molecules.

Site-specific incorporation of functional components into RNA by an unnatural base pair transcription system

Toward the expansion of the genetic alphabet, an unnatural base pair between 7-(2-thienyl)imidazo[4,5-b]pyridine (Ds) and pyrrole-2-carbaldehyde (Pa) functions as a third base pair in replication and transcription, and provides a useful tool for the site-specific, enzymatic incorporation of functional components into nucleic acids. We have synthesized several modified-Pa substrates, such as alkylamino-, biotin-, TAMRA-, FAM-, and digoxigenin-linked PaTPs, and examined their transcription by T7 RNA polymerase using Ds-containing DNA templates with various sequences. The Pa substrates modified with relatively small functional groups, such as alkylamino and biotin, were efficiently incorporated into RNA transcripts at the internal positions, except for those less than 10 bases from the 3′-terminus. We found that the efficient incorporation into a position close to the 3′-terminus of a transcript depended on the natural base contexts neighboring the unnatural base, and that pyrimidine-Ds-pyrimidine sequences in templates were generally favorable, relative to purine-Ds-purine sequences. The unnatural base pair transcription system provides a method for the site-specific functionalization of large RNA molecules.

Site-specific labeling of DNA and RNA using an efficiently replicated and transcribed class of unnatural base pairs

Site-specific labeling of enzymatically synthesized DNA or RNA has many potential uses in basic and applied research, ranging from facilitating biophysical studies to the in vitro evolution of functional nucleic acids and the construction of various nanomaterials and biosensors. As part of our efforts to expand the genetic alphabet, we have developed a class of unnatural base pairs, exemplified by d5SICS-dMMO2 and d5SICS-dNaM, which are efficiently replicated and transcribed, and which may be ideal for the site-specific labeling of DNA and RNA. Here, we report the synthesis and analysis of the ribo- and deoxyribo-variants, (d)5SICS and (d)MMO2, modified with free or protected propargylamine linkers that allow for the site-specific modification of DNA or RNA during or after enzymatic synthesis. We also synthesized and evaluated the α-phosphorothioate variant of d5SICSTP, which provides a route to backbone thiolation and an additional strategy for the postamplification site-specific labeling of DNA. The deoxynucleotides were characterized via steady-state kinetics and PCR, while the ribonucleosides were characterized by the transcription of both a short, model RNA as well as full length tRNA. The data reveal that while there are interesting nucleotide and polymerase-specific sensitivities to linker attachment, both (d)MMO2 and (d)5SICS may be used to produce DNA or RNA site-specifically modified with multiple, different functional groups with sufficient efficiency and fidelity for practical applications.

Highly specific unnatural base pair systems as a third base pair for PCR amplification

Toward the expansion of the genetic alphabet of DNA, we present highly efficient unnatural base pair systems as an artificial third base pair for PCR. Hydrophobic unnatural base pair systems between 7-(2-thienyl)imidazo[4,5-b]pyridine (Ds) and 2-nitro-4-propynylpyrrole (Px) were fine-tuned for efficient PCR, by assessing the amplification efficiency and fidelity using different polymerases and template sequence contexts and modified Px bases. Then, we found that some modifications of the Px base reduced the misincorporation rate of the unnatural base substrates opposite the natural bases in templates without reducing the Ds–Px pairing selectivity. Under optimized conditions using Deep Vent DNA polymerase, the misincorporation rate was extremely low (0.005%/bp/replication), which is close to that of the natural base mispairings by the polymerase. DNA fragments with different sequence contexts were amplified ∼10¹⁰-fold by 40 cycles of PCR, and the selectivity of the Ds–Px pairing was >99.9%/replication, except for 99.77%/replication for unfavorable purine-Ds-purine motifs. Furthermore, >97% of the Ds–Px pair in DNA survived in the 10²⁸-fold amplified products after 100-cycle PCR (10 cycles repeated 10 times). This highly specific Ds–Px pair system provides a framework for new biotechnology.

Characterization and identification of the protein partners of Fn3 domain in FnTm2

Recently, a novel transmembrane protein was found to be up-regulated in the auditory learning pathway of birds and mammals. The protein, FnTm2, was predicted to have an extracellular fibronectin III (Fn3) domain and a single transmembrane domain. By contrast to other studied Fn3 domains the extracellular domain of FnTm2 bears several cysteine residues, which are predicted to form disulfide bonds. The Fn3 domain of the FnTm2 protein was expressed in DH5-α Escherichia coli (E. coli) cells, purified and characterized by circular dichroism (CD). In order to identify binding partners to Fn3, the isolated protein was incubated with bird brain lysate for a pull down treatment. Of the proteins recognized, myelin basic protein (MBP) was identified as a bona fide partner; it was further characterized for binding to Fn3 in vitro via fluorescence spectroscopy and confirmed via isothermal calorimetry (ITC).

Unnatural base pair systems for sensing and diagnostic applications

Expansion of the genetic alphabet by an unnatural base pair system provides a platform for the site-specific, enzymatic incorporation of extra, functional components into nucleic acids. Recently, several unnatural base pairs that exhibit high fidelity and efficiency in PCR have been developed. Functional groups of interest, such as fluorescent dyes, can be linked to the unnatural bases, and the modified base substrates are site-specifically incorporated into nucleic acids by polymerases. Furthermore, unique unnatural base pairs between fluorophore and quencher base analogs have been developed for imaging PCR amplification and as molecular beacons. Here, we describe the recent progress in the development of unnatural base pairs that function in PCR amplification and their applications as sensing and diagnostic tools.

The oligodeoxynucleotide probes for the site-specific modification of RNA

As the knowledge of the biological functions of RNA expands, the demand for research tools to investigate intracellular RNA is increasing. Oligonucleotides can be rationally designed for the target RNA sequence, and therefore, have become a reliable platform for the development of specific molecules for RNA. The chemical modification of RNA has a strong impact on RNA research; the fluorescent labeling of RNA is useful to monitor RNA production, processing, relocation in the cell, interaction with other intracellular components and degradation, etc. Chemical modification may affect the RNA function through a variety of pathways, and therefore, would be potentially useful for biological research, therapeutic approach and artificial manipulation of the RNA function. This tutorial review starts with an introduction of the biological relevance of modified RNA, and focuses on the recent progress of the oligodeoxynucleotide probes for the covalent modifications of RNA. The prospects of this new technology are also discussed.

A multifunctional bioconjugate module for versatile photoaffinity labeling and click chemistry of RNA

A multifunctional reagent based on a coumarin scaffold was developed for derivatization of naive RNA. The alkylating agent N3BC [7-azido-4-(bromomethyl)coumarin], obtained by Pechmann condensation, is selective for uridine. N3BC and its RNA conjugates are pre-fluorophores which permits controlled modular and stepwise RNA derivatization. The success of RNA alkylation by N3BC can be monitored by photolysis of the azido moiety, which generates a coumarin fluorophore that can be excited with UV light of 320 nm. The azidocoumarin-modified RNA can be flexibly employed in structure-function studies. Versatile applications include direct use in photo-crosslinking studies to cognate proteins, as demonstrated with tRNA and RNA fragments from the MS2 phage and the HIV genome. Alternatively, the azide function can be used for further derivatization by click-chemistry. This allows e.g. the introduction of an additional fluorophore for excitation with visible light.

An isothermal system that couples ligand-dependent catalysis to ligand-independent exponential amplification

A system was devised that enables quantitative, ligand-dependent exponential amplification for various ligands that can be recognized by an RNA aptamer. The aptamer is linked to an RNA enzyme that catalyzes the joining of two oligonucleotide substrates. The product of this reaction is another RNA enzyme that undergoes self-sustained replication at constant temperature, increasing in copy number exponentially. The concentration of the ligand determines the amount of time required for the replication products to reach a threshold concentration. A standardized plot of time to threshold versus ligand concentration can be used to determine the concentration of ligand in an unknown sample. This system is analogous to quantitative polymerase chain reaction (PCR), linking rare recognition events to subsequent exponential amplification, but unlike PCR can be applied to the quantitative detection of non-nucleic acid ligands.

Site-specific incorporation of extra components into RNA by transcription using unnatural base pair systems

The expansion of the genetic alphabet, by an unnatural base pair system, provides a powerful tool for the site-specific incorporation of extra, functional components into nucleic acids by replication and transcription. We developed several unnatural base pairs that function in PCR and in vitro transcription. Among them, a hydrophobic, unnatural base pair between 7-(2-thienyl)-imidazo[4,5-b]pyridine (denoted by Ds) and pyrrole-2-carbaldehyde (denoted by Pa) exhibits high fidelity in PCR and T7 transcription. Modified Pa bases linked with functional groups of interest can also be site-specifically incorporated into RNA opposite Ds in DNA templates, by T7 RNA polymerase. Here, we describe the methods for the site-specific biotinylation of RNA molecules by transcription using the Ds-Pa pair with biotinylated PaTP (Biotin-PaTP).