Cyclopentasilane-fused hexasilabenzvalene

Tetrylene-Functionalized Si7-Siliconoids

The core expansion of metallic or metalloid clusters by the addition of further homo- or heteronuclear vertices is pivotal to the nucleation and growth of particles. The exohedral grafting of a low-valent functionality followed by endohedral incorporation have been identified as key steps. Following previous work on the Si6 series, we now report the synthesis and full characterization of the amidinatotetrylene-functionalized seven-vertex siliconoids Si7R5[E(NtBu)2CPh] (E = Si, Ge, Sn). In the case of the silylene derivative, the solid-state structure was determined by single crystal X-ray diffraction.

Heavy Tetrel Clusters Based on the Bicyclobutane Framework: Bicyclo[1.1.0]butanes, [1.1.1]Propellanes, and Tricyclo[2.1.0.02,5 ]pentanes

In this review, the current state of affairs in the novel field of the group 14 element clusters based on the bicyclo[1.1.0]butane framework, namely, bicyclo[1.1.0]butane, [1.1.1]propellane, and tricyclo[2.1.0.02,5 ]pentane derivatives, are overviewed. Structural similarities and differences between these three classes of highly strained polycyclic compounds are considered from the viewpoint of the critically important nature of their bridgehead bonds. Synthetic strategies towards bicyclo[1.1.0]butanes, [1.1.1]propellanes, and tricyclo[2.1.0.02,5 ]pentanes, as well as their peculiar structural and bonding features, and specific reactivity, are also presented and discussed in this review.

π-Aromaticity Dominating in a Saturated Ring: Neutral Aromatic Silicon Analogues of Cyclobutane-1,3-diyls

The synthesis, structures, and reactivity of the first neutral 2π-aromatic Si4 rings [LSiSiAr(X)]2 (3: X = Br; 4: X = Cl; L = PhC(NtBu)2, Ar = 2,4,6-Me3C6H2) were described. Compounds 3 and 4 were obtained by 1,3-halogenation of tetrasilacyclobutadiene (LSiSiAr)2 (2), which was prepared by the reductive cross-coupling of trisilane (ArSiCl2)2SiHAr with two equiv of chlorosilylene LSiCl. The reaction of 3 with two equiv of PhLi yielded the corresponding substitution Si4 ring [LSiSiAr(Ph)]2 (5). Single-crystal X-ray diffraction analysis of 3 disclosed that it adopts both puckered (3a) and planar (3b) structures in the solid state, whereas 4 and 5 exhibit only a puckered structure. DFT calculations suggested that the puckered 3a features almost the same electronic structure with fully delocalized 2π planar 3b. The dominant 2π-aromaticity of 3 in a σ-frame has been demonstrated by DFT calculations, providing the first example of aromatics featuring both planar and puckered structures.

Partial and Complete Replacement of the Phenyl Group(s) of 1,1,3,3-Tetraphenyl-2,2,4,4-tetrakis(trimethylsilyl)cyclotetrasilane by Chlorine Atom(s)

The four phenyl groups of 1,1,3,3-tetraphenyl-2,2,4,4-tetrakis(trimethylsilyl)cyclotetrasilane were partially replaced by chlorine atom(s) by successive treatment with trifluoromethanesulfonic acid and lithium chloride. The replacement of all phenyl groups was carried out with hydrogen chloride in the presence of aluminum chloride. The structural features of the resulting mono-, di-, and tetrachlorocyclotetrasilanes were compared by X-ray crystallography.

Stable Silapyramidanes

Starting from tetrakis(trimethylsilyl)cyclobutadiene and an amidinate-supported silylene of the Roesky-type, a sequence of addition and reduction cleanly gives the elusive silapyramidane via an isolable cyclobutene intermediate with an exocyclic Si═C bond. The silapyramidane features an unusually shielded ²⁹Si NMR resonance at -448.3 ppm for the apex silicon atom. Treatment with Fe₂(CO)₉ results in the formation of the corresponding silapyramidane-iron complex. Silapyramidane also reacts with the cyclobutadiene starting material to cleanly afford a fluorescent spirobis(silole).

Siliconoid Expansion by a Single Germanium Atom through Isolated Intermediates

The growth of (semi-)metal clusters is pivotal for nucleation processes in gaseous and condensed phases. We now report the isolation of intermediates during the expansion of a stable unsaturated silicon cluster (siliconoid) by a single germanium atom through a sequence of substitution, rearrangement and reduction. The reaction of ligato-lithiated hexasilabenzpolarene LiSi6 Tip5 (1Li⋅(thf)2 , Tip=2,4,6-triisopropylphenyl) with GeCl2 ⋅NHC (NHC=1,3-diisopropyl-4,5-dimethylimidazol-2-ylidene) initially yields the product with exohedral germanium(II) functionality, which then inserts into an Si-Si bond of the Si6 scaffold. The concomitant transfer of the chloro functionality from germanium to an adjacent silicon preserves the electron-precise nature of the formed endohedral germylene. Full incorporation of the germanium heteroatom to the Si6 Ge cluster core is finally achieved either by reduction under loss of the coordinating NHC or directly by reaction of 1Li⋅(thf)2 with GeCl2 ⋅1,4-dioxane.

Molecular Silicon Clusters

The continuously decreasing size of device features in microelectronics draws growing attention to the structuring of silicon at the molecular level with powerful tools provided by synthetic chemistry. Silicon clusters are of particular importance in this regard not only as potential precursors for silicon deposition but also as well-defined model systems for bulk and surfaces of silicon at the nanoscale as well as possible starting points for future construction of molecularly precise device structures. This review aims to give a comprehensive overview about the state of the art in the synthesis of molecular silicon clusters, which are grouped into (1) electron-precise saturated clusters, (2) soluble polyhedral Zintl anions, and (3) unsaturated silicon clusters, the so-called siliconoids. Particular attention is paid to functionalization as it is generally considered a necessary prerequisite for the design and construction of more extended systems. The interrelations between the three different classes of molecular silicon clusters, e.g., arising from the introduction of negatively charged functional groups, are highlighted on grounds of NMR properties and computed electronic structures.

Disila- and digermabenzenes

Reactions of isolable disilynes and digermynes with alkynes can result in the formation of the corresponding disila- (DSBs) and digermabenzenes (DGBs), wherein two carbon atoms of the benzene ring are replaced by silicon or germanium atoms. Detailed structural and spectroscopic analyses of these DSBs and DGBs have revealed that they exhibit considerable aromaticity, comparable to that of benzene. However, in contrast to the all-carbon system benzene, these DSBs and DGBs are highly reactive toward small molecules such as oxygen, hydrogen, 1,3-dienes, and water. During the investigation of their reactivity, we discovered that a 1,2-DGB works as a catalyst for the cyclotrimerization of arylalkynes, which provides access to the corresponding 1,2,4-triarylbenzenes. In this perspective article, our recent progress in the area of DSB and DGB chemistry is summarized.

Optical properties of organosilicon compounds containing sigma-electron delocalization by quasiparticle self-consistent GW calculations

We investigate theoretically the electronic and optical absorption properties of two sub-classes of oligosilanes: (i) Si(CH₃)₄, Si₄(CH₃)₈, and Si₈(CH₃)₈ that contain Si dot, ring and cage, respectively, and exhibit typical SiC and SiSi bonds; and (ii) persilastaffanes Si₇H₆(CH₃)₆ and Si₁₂H₆(CH₃)₁₂, which contain extended delocalized σ-electrons in SiSi bonds over three-dimensional Si frameworks. Our modeling is performed within the GW approach up to the partially self-consistent GW₀ approximation, which is more adequate for reliably predicting the optical band gaps of materials. We examine how the optical properties of these organosilicon compounds depend on their size, geometric features, and Si/C composition. Our results indicate that the present methodology offers a viable way of describing the optical excitations of tailored functional Si-C-based clusters and molecular optical tags with potential use as efficient light absorbers/emitters in molecular optical devices.

Chalcogen-Expanded Unsaturated Silicon Clusters: Thia-, Selena-, and Tellurasiliconoids

Reactions of silylenes with heavier chalcogens (E) typically result in Si=E double bonds or their π-addition products. In contrast, the oxidation of a silylene-functionalized unsaturated silicon cluster (siliconoid) with Group 16 elements selectively yields cluster expanded siliconoids Si7 E (E=S, Se, Te) fully preserving the unsaturated nature of the cluster scaffold as evident from the NMR signatures of the products. Mechanistic considerations by DFT calculations suggest the intermediacy of a Si6 siliconoid with exohedral Si=E functionality. The reaction thus may serve as model system for the oxidation of surface-bonded silylenes at Si(100) by chalcogens and their diffusion into the silicon bulk.

Nickel-assisted complete cleavage of CO by a silylene/siliconoid hybrid under formation of an Si[double bond, length as m-dash]C enol ether bridge

Reaction of a silylene-functionalized Si6 siliconoid with CO in the presence of catalytic quantities of a nickel(0) complex results in the complete cleavage of the CO triple bond, but preserves the Si6 scaffold with an exohedrally incorporated Si[double bond, length as m-dash]C enol ether bridge. The uncompromised cluster core emphasizes the role of the so-called benzpolarene motif as the energetic silicon pendants of benzene in carbon chemistry.

A highly unsaturated six-vertex amido-substituted silicon cluster

Thermal treatment of the bicyclo[1.1.0]tetrasilatetraamide [Si₄{N(SiMe₃)Dipp}₄] 1 resulted in the formation of a highly unsaturated six-vertex silicon cluster [Si₆{N(SiMe₃)Dipp}₄] 2 with only four amine-substituents and two ligand-free silicon atoms.

Thermal treatment of the bicyclo[1.1.0]tetrasilatetraamide [Si₄{N(SiMe₃)Dipp}₄] 1 resulted in the formation of a highly unsaturated six-vertex silicon cluster [Si₆{N(SiMe₃)Dipp}₄] 2 with only four amine-substituents and two ligand-free silicon atoms. In solution, a major and a minor conformer of this cluster are in equilibrium according to multinuclear NMR spectroscopy, lineshape analysis, DFT calculations and molecular dynamics simulations. The bonding situation in the highly unsaturated cluster features lone pair type character at the ligand-free silicon atoms and partial single and double bond character in the upper butterfly-shaped ring of 2. This allows to consider 2 as the silicon analogue of a butalene isomer.

Indirect and Direct Grafting of Transition Metals to Siliconoids

Unsaturated charge‐neutral silicon clusters (siliconoids) are important as gas‐phase intermediates between molecules and the elemental bulk. With stable zirconocene‐ and hafnocene‐substituted derivatives, we here report the first examples containing directly bonded transition‐metal fragments that are readily accessible from the ligato‐lithiated Si₆ siliconoid (1Li) and Cp₂MCl₂ (M=Zr, Hf). Charge‐neutral siliconoid ligands with pending tetrylene functionality were prepared by the reaction of amidinato chloro tetrylenes [PhC(NtBu)₂]ECl (E=Si, Ge, Sn) with 1Li, thus confirming the principal compatibility of such low‐valent functionalities with the unsaturated Si₆ cluster scaffold. The pronounced donor properties of the tetrylene/siliconoid hybrids allow for their coordination to the Fe(CO)₄ fragment.

Site-selective functionalization of Si6R6 siliconoids

The recent progress in the synthesis of partially substituted neutral silicon clusters (siliconoids) revealed unique structures and electronic anisotropies that are reminiscent of bulk and nano surfaces of silicon. Here, we report the selective 2-lithiation of the global minimum Si6R6 siliconoid at a different vertex than in the previously reported isomeric 4-lithiated derivative (R = 2,4,6- i Pr3C6H2). In order to enable an intuitive distinction of the vertices of the global minimum Si6R6 scaffold (which can be considered the silicon analogue of benzene in terms of thermodynamic stability), we introduce a novel nomenclature in analogy to the ortho-meta-para nomenclature of disubstituted benzenes. By treatment of the 2-lithiated Si6 cluster with Me3SiCl, SiCl4 H3B·SMe2, (Me2N)2PCl as well as with carboxylic acid chlorides RCOCl (R = t Bu, Ph) various 2-functionalized Si6 clusters were obtained and characterized in solution and - in most cases - the solid state. The structural and spectroscopic effect of the position of the newly introduced functional group is discussed by comparison to the corresponding 4-functionalized derivatives.

Atomically Precise Expansion of Unsaturated Silicon Clusters

Small- to medium-sized clusters occur in various areas of chemistry, for example, as active species of heterogeneous catalysis or as transient intermediates during chemical vapor deposition. The manipulation of stable representatives is mostly limited to the stabilizing ligand periphery, virtually excluding the systematic variation of the property-determining cluster scaffold. We now report the deliberate expansion of a stable unsaturated silicon cluster from six to seven and finally eight vertices. The consecutive application of lithium/naphthalene as the reducing agent and decamethylsilicocene as the electrophilic source of silicon results in the expansion of the core by precisely one atom with the potential of infinite repetition.

(PhC(NtBu)2Al)2(SiH2)4 six-membered heterocycle: comparable in structure to cyclohexane

A (PhC(NtBu)₂Al)₂(SiH₂)₄ centrosymmetric six-membered heterocycle (LAl)₂(SiH₂)₄ (L = PhC(NtBu)₂) with chair conformation is prepared by reacting disilylene LSi–SiL with alane AlH₃·NEtMe₂. It is comparable in structure to cyclohexane containing four Si and two Al atoms as a core.

An anionic heterosiliconoid with two germanium vertices

Reduction of dismutational 1,4-digermatetrasilabenzene isomer gives lithium digermatetrasila-benzpolarenide (R = Tip = 2,4,6-iPr₃C₆H₂). The positions of its Ge vertices yield mechanistic insights; its reaction with SiCl₄ proves its nucleophilicity.

The formation of a 1,4-disilabenzene and its isomerization into a disilabenzvalene derivative

A stable 1,4-disilabenzene was generated from the reaction of a stable disilyne with 3-hexyne.

Transformative Si8R8 Siliconoids

Molecular silicon clusters with unsubstituted silicon vertices (siliconoids) have received attention as unsaturated silicon clusters and potential intermediates in the gas-phase deposition of elemental silicon. Investigation of behaviors of the siliconoids could contribute to the greater understanding of the transformation of silicon clusters as found in the chemical vapor deposition of elemental silicon. Herein we reported drastic transformation of a Si8R8 siliconoid to three novel silicon clusters under mild thermal conditions. Molecular structures of the obtained new clusters were determined by XRD analyses. Two clusters are siliconoids that have unsaturated silicon vertices adopting unusual geometries, and another one is a bis(disilene) which has two silicon–silicon double bonds interacted to each other through the central polyhedral silicon skeleton. The observed drastic transformation of silicon frameworks suggests that unsaturated molecular silicon clusters have a great potential to provide various molecular silicon clusters bearing unprecedented structures and properties.

Designing the Backbone of Hexasilabenzene Derivatives with a High Unimolecular Kinetic Stability

It is an important subject to theoretically predict the kinetic stability of transient species. In this study, we have studied the kinetic stability of hexasilabenzene Si₆ H₆ and its derivatives, that is, decasilanaphthalene Si₁₀ H₈ and Li-substituted hexasilabenzene Si₆ Li₆ , theoretically by the artificial force induced reaction (AFIR) method combined with the rate constant matrix contraction (RCMC) method. Molecular design was further conducted to extend the unimolecular lifetime of hexasilabenzene derivatives. Although both Si₁₀ H₈ and Si₆ Li₆ were shown to possess shorter lifetimes than Si₆ H₆ , we found that the lifetimes of Si₆ Li₆ changed depending on arrangements of Li atoms around the monocyclic Si₆ backbone. Based on this knowledge, we found that a compound of an atomic composition Si₆ H₄ Li₂ with a planar, monocyclic Si₆ backbone has a relatively long unimolecular lifetime. Moreover, substitution of the two Li atoms by Na atoms further increased the lifetime.

Stable unsaturated silicon clusters (siliconoids)

Unsaturated silicon clusters are key intermediates of silicon deposition processes from the gas phase, which is reflected in the recently introduced term "siliconoids" for silicon rich clusters with at least one hemispheroidally coordinated vertex. Unlike the case of metalloid clusters of heavier Group 14 elements, stable homonuclear derivatives containing silicon have become available just recently. This review summarizes the developments since the first report on a stable unsaturated silicon cluster in 2005. The synthesis, structure and reactivity under retention of the unsaturated vertices (i.e. the functionalization) of stable siliconoids is discussed within the broader context of soluble Zintl anions of silicon and metalloid clusters. A structural parameter is introduced as a quantitative measure to characterize the "hemispheroidality" of an unsubstituted vertex of a siliconoid.

π-Electron systems containing Si=Si double bonds

Sterically large substituents can provide kinetic stabilization to various types of low-coordinate compounds. For example, regarding the chemistry of the group 14 elements, since West et al. introduced the concept of kinetic protection of the otherwise highly reactive Si=Si double bond by bulky mesityl (2,4,6-trimethylphenyl) groups in 1981, a number of unsaturated compounds of silicon and its group homologs have been successfully isolated by steric effects using the appropriate large substituents. However, the functions and applications of the Si-Si π-bonds consisting of the 3pπ electrons on the formally sp2-hybridized silicon atoms have rarely been explored until 10 years ago, when Scheschkewitz and Tamao independently reported the model systems of the oligo(p-phenylenedisilenylene)s (Si-OPVs) in 2007. This review focuses on the recent advances in the chemistry of π-electron systems containing Si=Si double bonds, mainly published in the last decade. The synthesis, characterization, and potential application of a variety of donor-free π-conjugated disilene compounds are described.

Low oxidation state silicon clusters – synthesis and structure of [NHCDippCu(η4-Si9)]3−

The reaction of NHC^DippCuCl with the silicide phases A₁₂Si₁₇ (A: K, K/Rb, Rb) in NH₃(l) yields [NHC^DippCu(η⁴-Si₉)]³⁻ as a rare example of a metal complex of a [Si₉] cluster.

Dispersion-Energy-Driven Wagner-Meerwein Rearrangements in Oligosilanes

The installation of structural complex oligosilanes from linear starting materials by Lewis acid induced skeletal rearrangement reactions was studied under stable ion conditions. The produced cations were fully characterized by multinuclear NMR spectroscopy at low temperature, and the reaction course was studied by substitution experiments. The results of density functional theory calculations indicate the decisive role of attractive dispersion forces between neighboring trimethylsilyl groups for product formation in these rearrangement reactions. These attractive dispersion interactions control the course of Wagner-Meerwein rearrangements in oligosilanes, in contrast to the classical rearrangement in hydrocarbon systems, which are dominated by electronic substituent effects such as resonance and hyperconjugation.

Isolation and Versatile Derivatization of an Unsaturated Anionic Silicon Cluster (Siliconoid)

The characteristic features of bulk silicon surfaces are echoed in the related partially substituted—and thus unsaturated—neutral silicon clusters (siliconoids). The incorporation of siliconoids into more‐extended frameworks is promising owing to their unique electronic features, but further developments in this regard are limited by the notable absence of functionalized siliconoid derivatives until now. Herein we report the isolation and full characterization of the lithium salt of an anionic R₅Si₆‐siliconoid, thus providing the missing link between silicon‐based Zintl anions and siliconoid clusters. Proof‐of‐principle for the high potential of this species for the efficient transfer of the intact unsaturated R₅Si₆ moiety is demonstrated by clean reactions with representative electrophiles of Groups 13, 14, and 15.

Two pentasilahousanes fused together

The organosilicon cluster 1 with two pentasilahousanes fused together was synthesized by the reduction of 1,1,3-trichlorocyclotetrasilane. This reaction involves dimerization and rearrangement of the silicon skeleton. The structure and properties of 1 were studied by X-ray crystallographic and spectroscopic analyses.

Preference for a propellane motif in pure silicon nanosheets

Free standing silicene nanosheets remain elusive presumably due to the instability associated with sp(2) hybridized silicon atoms. Here we show that silicon prefers nanosheets based on the non-classical Si5 unit with a [1.1.1]-propellane motif that has two inverted tetrahedral atoms bridged by three tetrahedral atoms. DFT calculations show that nanosheets constructed exclusively from propellane building blocks are consistently more stable than those with sp(2) silicon atoms or their hybrids. These nanosheets also exhibit a narrow but definite band gap, unlike those reported earlier.