1
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Ruiz-Agudo C, Cölfen H. Exploring the Potential of Nonclassical Crystallization Pathways to Advance Cementitious Materials. Chem Rev 2024; 124:7538-7618. [PMID: 38874016 PMCID: PMC11212030 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.3c00259] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2023] [Revised: 05/31/2024] [Accepted: 06/03/2024] [Indexed: 06/15/2024]
Abstract
Understanding the crystallization of cement-binding phases, from basic units to macroscopic structures, can enhance cement performance, reduce clinker use, and lower CO2 emissions in the construction sector. This review examines the crystallization pathways of C-S-H (the main phase in PC cement) and other alternative binding phases, particularly as cement formulations evolve toward increasing SCMs and alternative binders as clinker replacements. We adopt a nonclassical crystallization perspective, which recognizes the existence of critical intermediate steps between ions in solution and the final crystalline phases, such as solute ion associates, dense liquid phases, amorphous intermediates, and nanoparticles. These multistep pathways uncover innovative strategies for controlling the crystallization of binding phases through additive use, potentially leading to highly optimized cement matrices. An outstanding example of additive-controlled crystallization in cementitious materials is the synthetically produced mesocrystalline C-S-H, renowned for its remarkable flexural strength. This highly ordered microstructure, which intercalates soft matter between inorganic and brittle C-S-H, was obtained by controlling the assembly of individual C-S-H subunits. While large-scale production of cementitious materials by a bottom-up self-assembly method is not yet feasible, the fundamental insights into the crystallization mechanism of cement binding phases presented here provide a foundation for developing advanced cement-based materials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cristina Ruiz-Agudo
- Physical Chemistry, Department of Chemistry, University of Konstanz, Universitätsstr. 10, 78457 Konstanz, Germany
| | - Helmut Cölfen
- Physical Chemistry, Department of Chemistry, University of Konstanz, Universitätsstr. 10, 78457 Konstanz, Germany
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2
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Wang Z, Sun T, Ouyang G, Li H, Li Z, He J. Role of polyferric sulphate in hydration regulation of phosphogypsum-based excess-sulphate slag cement: A multiscale investigation. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2024; 948:173750. [PMID: 38866154 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.173750] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2024] [Revised: 05/24/2024] [Accepted: 06/02/2024] [Indexed: 06/14/2024]
Abstract
Current demand for waste recycling, phosphogypsum-based excess-sulphate slag cement (PESSC) as a sustainable cement prepared by solid wastes, urges enhancing its performance development based on microstructure optimisation. For the purpose of improving the performance and durability of PESSC used in normal or corrosive environments, it is deemed an efficient technique to produce iron-doped compounds with high thermodynamic stability. This paper presents a systematic study of the effect of iron modification on PESSC binders by introducing 0%-2% polyferric sulphate (PFS) from a multiscale viewpoint. XPS, 29Si and 27Al NMR, and TEM were used to characterise the nanostructure of solid particles firstly at Level I. Then, the chemical composition and phase assemblage of PESSC binders were revealed at Level II in terms of ICC, ICP, DTG-DSC, FTIR, BSE-EDS and XRD. Finally, setting time and strength development were determined at Level III. Results indicated that the soluble FeOH4- supplied by the hydrolysis of PFS promotes the generation of iron-doped ettringite with a greater length-to-diameter ratio and thermodynamic stability. Seeding effect of iron doping also promotes the production of spherical and retiform gels with a slight influence on the chemical components and polymerisation. Despite the fact that iron doping weakens the early strength of PESSC mortars, it promotes the persistent hydration rate by retarding precipitation and encapsulation of hydrates on the surface of the slag, showing excellent strength in the later stages. In view of microstructure evolution and performance development during each stage, PFS supplementation within 1.0% is considered a feasible modification of PESSC relying on the formation control of iron-doped hydrates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ziyan Wang
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Wuhan University of Technology, Wuhan 430070, China; State Key Laboratory of Silicate Materials for Architectures, Wuhan University of Technology, Wuhan 430070, China
| | - Tao Sun
- State Key Laboratory of Silicate Materials for Architectures, Wuhan University of Technology, Wuhan 430070, China; Wuhan University of Technology Advanced Engineering Technology Research Institute of Zhongshan City, Zhongshan 528437, China; Marine Building Materials and Civil Engineering Centre, Science and Education Innovation Park of Wuhan University of Technology in Sanya, Sanya 572000, China.
| | - Gaoshang Ouyang
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Wuhan University of Technology, Wuhan 430070, China; State Key Laboratory of Silicate Materials for Architectures, Wuhan University of Technology, Wuhan 430070, China
| | - Haoyuan Li
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Wuhan University of Technology, Wuhan 430070, China; State Key Laboratory of Silicate Materials for Architectures, Wuhan University of Technology, Wuhan 430070, China
| | - Zhiwei Li
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Wuhan University of Technology, Wuhan 430070, China; State Key Laboratory of Silicate Materials for Architectures, Wuhan University of Technology, Wuhan 430070, China
| | - Juntu He
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Wuhan University of Technology, Wuhan 430070, China; State Key Laboratory of Silicate Materials for Architectures, Wuhan University of Technology, Wuhan 430070, China
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3
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Venkatesh A, Casano G, Wei R, Rao Y, Lingua H, Karoui H, Yulikov M, Ouari O, Emsley L. Rational Design of Dinitroxide Polarizing Agents for Dynamic Nuclear Polarization to Enhance Overall NMR Sensitivity. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2024; 63:e202317337. [PMID: 38193258 DOI: 10.1002/anie.202317337] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2023] [Revised: 01/03/2024] [Accepted: 01/08/2024] [Indexed: 01/10/2024]
Abstract
We evaluate the overall sensitivity gains provided by a series of eighteen nitroxide biradicals for dynamic nuclear polarization (DNP) solid-state NMR at 9.4 T and 100 K, including eight new biradicals. We find that in the best performing group the factors contributing to the overall sensitivity gains, namely the DNP enhancement, the build-up time, and the contribution factor, often compete with each other leading to very similar overall sensitivity across a range of biradicals. NaphPol and HydroPol are found to provide the best overall sensitivity factors, in organic and aqueous solvents respectively. One of the new biradicals, AMUPolCbm, provides high sensitivity for all three solvent formulations measured here, and can be considered to be a "universal" polarizing agent.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amrit Venkatesh
- Institut des Sciences et Ingénierie Chimiques, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), 1015, Lausanne, Switzerland
- Current address: National High Magnetic Field Laboratory, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL 32310, USA
| | - Gilles Casano
- Aix Marseille Univ, CNRS, Institut de Chimie Radicalaire UMR 7273, 13013, Marseille, France
| | - Ran Wei
- Institut des Sciences et Ingénierie Chimiques, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), 1015, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Yu Rao
- Institut des Sciences et Ingénierie Chimiques, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), 1015, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Hugo Lingua
- Aix Marseille Univ, CNRS, Institut de Chimie Radicalaire UMR 7273, 13013, Marseille, France
| | - Hakim Karoui
- Aix Marseille Univ, CNRS, Institut de Chimie Radicalaire UMR 7273, 13013, Marseille, France
| | - Maxim Yulikov
- Laboratory of Physical Chemistry, Department of Chemistry, ETH Zürich, 8093, Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Olivier Ouari
- Aix Marseille Univ, CNRS, Institut de Chimie Radicalaire UMR 7273, 13013, Marseille, France
| | - Lyndon Emsley
- Institut des Sciences et Ingénierie Chimiques, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), 1015, Lausanne, Switzerland
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4
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Etcheverry JM, Yue Z, Krishnan S, Villagran-Zaccardi YA, Van den Heede P, Dhandapani Y, Bernal SA, De Belie N. Phase Evolution of Hybrid Alkali Sulfate-Activated Ground-Granulated Blast Furnace Slag Cements. ACS SUSTAINABLE CHEMISTRY & ENGINEERING 2023; 11:17519-17531. [PMID: 38313417 PMCID: PMC10836761 DOI: 10.1021/acssuschemeng.3c05937] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2023] [Revised: 11/21/2023] [Accepted: 11/22/2023] [Indexed: 02/06/2024]
Abstract
In this study, a hybrid alkali-activated ground-granulated cement consisting of 70% blast furnace slag (GGBFS) and 30% Portland cement (PC) activated with sodium sulfate was studied. Results were compared with those of a blended system without an activator. The addition of the activator significantly increased the kinetics and degree of reaction of these cements, particularly at early curing ages (2 days), without leading to significant changes in the phase assemblage. The main reaction product formed was an aluminum-substituted calcium silicate hydrate (C-A-S-H) type gel, with a Ca/Si ratio comparable to that of the activator-free blended cement; however, in the presence of the activator, sorption of sulfur was observed in the C-A-S-H phase. The formation of secondary phases including ettringite and Ca- or Mg-rich layered double hydroxides was also identified in these cements depending on the curing age and activation addition. This study demonstrates the effectiveness of sodium sulfate in accelerating the phase assemblage evolution in high-GGBFS-content PC-blended cements without leading to significant changes in the reaction products formed, particularly at advanced curing ages. This represents a step forward in the development of cements with a reduced clinker factor.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juan Manuel Etcheverry
- Magnel-Vandepitte Laboratory for Structural Engineering and Building Materials, Ghent University, Technologiepark-Zwijnaarde 60, 9052 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Zengliang Yue
- School of Civil Engineering, University of Leeds, LS2 9JT Leeds, U.K
| | - Sreejith Krishnan
- School of Civil Engineering, University of Leeds, LS2 9JT Leeds, U.K
| | - Yury Andres Villagran-Zaccardi
- Magnel-Vandepitte Laboratory for Structural Engineering and Building Materials, Ghent University, Technologiepark-Zwijnaarde 60, 9052 Ghent, Belgium
- Sustainable Materials, Flemish Institute for Technological Research (VITO), Boeretang 200, 2400 Mol, Belgium
| | - Philip Van den Heede
- Magnel-Vandepitte Laboratory for Structural Engineering and Building Materials, Ghent University, Technologiepark-Zwijnaarde 60, 9052 Ghent, Belgium
| | | | | | - Nele De Belie
- Magnel-Vandepitte Laboratory for Structural Engineering and Building Materials, Ghent University, Technologiepark-Zwijnaarde 60, 9052 Ghent, Belgium
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5
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Jin Y, Feng W, Zheng D, Dong Z. Interaction Mechanism between Slags and Alkali Silicate Activators: An Approach Based on the Al Phases. MATERIALS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2023; 16:7032. [PMID: 37959628 PMCID: PMC10667997 DOI: 10.3390/ma16217032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2023] [Revised: 10/31/2023] [Accepted: 11/02/2023] [Indexed: 11/15/2023]
Abstract
In this study, we examined the early-stage interaction of three types of slag and six activators with different chemical compositions. To determine the degree of hydration (DOH) and hydrate assemblage in alkali-activated slag (AAS), we employed EDX, XRD, and NMR analyses. We found that with increasing silicate concentration in the activator, the DOH in the AAS varied, whereas the proportion of C-(N)-A-S-H increased and the other Al-containing phase decreased. When examining the impact of the activator on glass dissolution, it is apparent that an index based on the degree of depolymerization of the glass structure correlates with the DOH and the proportion of hydrotalcite in the AAS. Coupled with the activator's modulus, this index can be utilised to elucidate the dissolution-reprecipitation mechanism that governs the interaction between the activator and slag.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu Jin
- Institute of Technology for Marine Civil Engineering, Shenzhen Institute of Information Technology, Shenzhen 518172, China; (Y.J.); (W.F.)
| | - Weipeng Feng
- Institute of Technology for Marine Civil Engineering, Shenzhen Institute of Information Technology, Shenzhen 518172, China; (Y.J.); (W.F.)
| | - Dapeng Zheng
- Key Laboratory for Resilient Infrastructures of Coastal Cities (MOE), College of Civil and Transportation Engineering, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen 518060, China;
| | - Zhijun Dong
- Institute of Technology for Marine Civil Engineering, Shenzhen Institute of Information Technology, Shenzhen 518172, China; (Y.J.); (W.F.)
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6
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Casar Z, Mohamed AK, Bowen P, Scrivener K. Atomic-Level and Surface Structure of Calcium Silicate Hydrate Nanofoils. THE JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY. C, NANOMATERIALS AND INTERFACES 2023; 127:18652-18661. [PMID: 37752905 PMCID: PMC10518866 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpcc.3c03350] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2023] [Revised: 08/29/2023] [Indexed: 09/28/2023]
Abstract
Deciphering the calcium silicate hydrate (C-S-H) surface is crucial for unraveling the mechanisms of cement hydration and property development. Experimental observations of C-S-H in cement systems suggest a surface termination which is fundamentally different from the silicate-terminated surface assumed in many atomistic level studies. Here, a new multiparameter approach to describing the (001) basal C-S-H surface is developed, which considers how the surface termination affects the overall properties (Ca/Si ratio, mean chain length, relative concentration of silanol and hydroxide groups). Contrary to current beliefs, it is concluded that the (001) C-S-H surface is dominantly calcium terminated. Finally, an adsorption mechanism for calcium and hydroxide ions is proposed, which is in agreement with the surface charge densities observed in previous studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ziga Casar
- Laboratory
of Construction Materials, Institut des Matériaux, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne
(EPFL), CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Aslam Kunhi Mohamed
- Institute
for Building Materials, Department of Civil, Environmental and Geomatic
Engineering, ETH Zürich, CH-8093 Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Paul Bowen
- Laboratory
of Construction Materials, Institut des Matériaux, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne
(EPFL), CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Karen Scrivener
- Laboratory
of Construction Materials, Institut des Matériaux, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne
(EPFL), CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
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7
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Cordova M, Moutzouri P, Nilsson Lill SO, Cousen A, Kearns M, Norberg ST, Svensk Ankarberg A, McCabe J, Pinon AC, Schantz S, Emsley L. Atomic-level structure determination of amorphous molecular solids by NMR. Nat Commun 2023; 14:5138. [PMID: 37612269 PMCID: PMC10447443 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-023-40853-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2023] [Accepted: 08/10/2023] [Indexed: 08/25/2023] Open
Abstract
Structure determination of amorphous materials remains challenging, owing to the disorder inherent to these materials. Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) powder crystallography is a powerful method to determine the structure of molecular solids, but disorder leads to a high degree of overlap between measured signals, and prevents the unambiguous identification of a single modeled periodic structure as representative of the whole material. Here, we determine the atomic-level ensemble structure of the amorphous form of the drug AZD4625 by combining solid-state NMR experiments with molecular dynamics (MD) simulations and machine-learned chemical shifts. By considering the combined shifts of all 1H and 13C atomic sites in the molecule, we determine the structure of the amorphous form by identifying an ensemble of local molecular environments that are in agreement with experiment. We then extract and analyze preferred conformations and intermolecular interactions in the amorphous sample in terms of the stabilization of the amorphous form of the drug.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manuel Cordova
- Institut des Sciences et Ingénierie Chimiques, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), CH-1015, Lausanne, Switzerland
- National Centre for Computational Design and Discovery of Novel Materials MARVEL, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Pinelopi Moutzouri
- Institut des Sciences et Ingénierie Chimiques, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), CH-1015, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Sten O Nilsson Lill
- Data Science & Modelling, Pharmaceutical Sciences, R&D, AstraZeneca, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Alexander Cousen
- Early Chemical Development, Pharmaceutical Sciences, R&D, AstraZeneca, Macclesfield, UK
| | - Martin Kearns
- Early Product Development and Manufacturing, Pharmaceutical Sciences, R&D, AstraZeneca, Macclesfield, UK
| | - Stefan T Norberg
- Oral Product Development, Pharmaceutical Technology & Development, Operations, AstraZeneca, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Anna Svensk Ankarberg
- Oral Product Development, Pharmaceutical Technology & Development, Operations, AstraZeneca, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - James McCabe
- Early Product Development and Manufacturing, Pharmaceutical Sciences, R&D, AstraZeneca, Macclesfield, UK
| | - Arthur C Pinon
- Swedish NMR Center, Department of Chemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Gothenburg, 41390, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Staffan Schantz
- Oral Product Development, Pharmaceutical Technology & Development, Operations, AstraZeneca, Gothenburg, Sweden.
| | - Lyndon Emsley
- Institut des Sciences et Ingénierie Chimiques, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), CH-1015, Lausanne, Switzerland.
- National Centre for Computational Design and Discovery of Novel Materials MARVEL, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Lausanne, Switzerland.
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8
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Wieland E, Miron GD, Ma B, Geng G, Lothenbach B. Speciation of iron(II/III) at the iron-cement interface: a review. MATERIALS AND STRUCTURES 2023; 56:31. [PMID: 36777453 PMCID: PMC9908688 DOI: 10.1617/s11527-023-02115-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2022] [Accepted: 01/21/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Steel is used as reinforcement in construction materials and it is also an important component of cement-stabilized waste materials to be disposed of in deep geological repositories for radioactive waste. Steel corrosion releases dissolved Fe(II/III) species that can form corrosion products on the steel surface or interact with cementitious materials at the iron-cement interface. The thermodynamically stable Fe species in the given conditions may diffuse further into the adjacent, porous cement matrix and react with individual cement phases. Thus, the retention of Fe(II/III) by the hydrate assemblage of cement paste is an important process affecting the diffusive transport of the aqueous species into the cementitious materials. The diffusion of aqueous Fe(II/III) species from the steel surface into the adjacent cementitious material coupled with the kinetically controlled formation of iron corrosion products, such as by Fe(II) oxidation, decisively determines the extension of the corrosion front. This review summarises the state-of-the art knowledge on the interaction of ferrous and ferric iron with cement phases based on a literature survey and provides new insights and proper perspectives for future study on interaction systems of iron and cement.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erich Wieland
- Laboratory for Waste Management, Paul Scherrer Institut, Villigen PSI, Switzerland
| | - George Dan Miron
- Laboratory for Waste Management, Paul Scherrer Institut, Villigen PSI, Switzerland
| | - Bin Ma
- Laboratory for Waste Management, Paul Scherrer Institut, Villigen PSI, Switzerland
| | - Guoqing Geng
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, National University of Singapore, Singapore, 117576 Singapore
| | - Barbara Lothenbach
- Concrete & Asphalt Laboratory, Empa, Dübendorf, Switzerland
- Institute of Geological Sciences, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
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9
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Morales-Melgares A, Casar Z, Moutzouri P, Venkatesh A, Cordova M, Kunhi Mohamed A, Scrivener KL, Bowen P, Emsley L. Atomic-Level Structure of Zinc-Modified Cementitious Calcium Silicate Hydrate. J Am Chem Soc 2022; 144:22915-22924. [PMID: 36508687 PMCID: PMC9782795 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.2c06749] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
It has recently been demonstrated that the addition of zinc can enhance the mechanical strength of tricalcium silicates (C3S) upon hydration, but the structure of the main hydration product of cement, calcium silicate hydrate (C-S-H), in zinc-modified formulations remains unresolved. Here, we combine 29Si DNP-enhanced solid-state nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), density functional theory (DFT)-based chemical shift computations, and molecular dynamics (MD) modeling to determine the atomic-level structure of zinc-modified C-S-H. The structure contains two main new silicon species (Q(1,Zn) and Q(2p,Zn)) where zinc substitutes Q(1) silicon species in dimers and bridging Q(2b) silicon sites, respectively. Structures determined as a function of zinc content show that zinc promotes an increase in the dreierketten mean chain lengths.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Morales-Melgares
- Laboratory
of Magnetic Resonance, Institut des Sciences et Ingénierie
Chimiques, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale
de Lausanne (EPFL), CH-1015Lausanne, Switzerland,Laboratory
of Construction Materials, Institut des Matériaux, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne
(EPFL), CH-1015Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Ziga Casar
- Laboratory
of Construction Materials, Institut des Matériaux, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne
(EPFL), CH-1015Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Pinelopi Moutzouri
- Laboratory
of Magnetic Resonance, Institut des Sciences et Ingénierie
Chimiques, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale
de Lausanne (EPFL), CH-1015Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Amrit Venkatesh
- Laboratory
of Magnetic Resonance, Institut des Sciences et Ingénierie
Chimiques, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale
de Lausanne (EPFL), CH-1015Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Manuel Cordova
- Laboratory
of Magnetic Resonance, Institut des Sciences et Ingénierie
Chimiques, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale
de Lausanne (EPFL), CH-1015Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Aslam Kunhi Mohamed
- Institute
for Building Materials, Department of Civil, Environmental and Geomatic
Engineering, ETH Zürich, CH-8093Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Karen L. Scrivener
- Laboratory
of Construction Materials, Institut des Matériaux, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne
(EPFL), CH-1015Lausanne, Switzerland,
| | - Paul Bowen
- Laboratory
of Construction Materials, Institut des Matériaux, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne
(EPFL), CH-1015Lausanne, Switzerland,
| | - Lyndon Emsley
- Laboratory
of Magnetic Resonance, Institut des Sciences et Ingénierie
Chimiques, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale
de Lausanne (EPFL), CH-1015Lausanne, Switzerland,
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10
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Barzgar S, Yan Y, Tarik M, Skibsted J, Ludwig C, Lothenbach B. A long-term study on structural changes in calcium aluminate silicate hydrates. MATERIALS AND STRUCTURES 2022; 55:243. [PMID: 36447990 PMCID: PMC9700620 DOI: 10.1617/s11527-022-02080-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2022] [Accepted: 11/08/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
UNLABELLED Production of blended cements in which Portland cement is combined with supplementary cementitious materials (SCM) is an effective strategy for reducing the CO2 emissions during cement manufacturing and achieving sustainable concrete production. However, the high Al2O3 and SiO2 contents of SCM change the chemical composition of the main hydration product, calcium aluminate silicate hydrate (C-A-S-H). Herein, spectroscopic and structural data for C-A-S-H gels are reported in a large range of equilibration times from 3 months up to 2 years and Al/Si molar ratios from 0.001 to 0.2. The 27Al MAS NMR spectroscopy and thermogravimetric analysis indicate that in addition to the C-A-S-H phase, secondary phases such as strätlingite, katoite, Al(OH)3 and calcium aluminate hydrate are present at Al/Si ≥ 0.03 limiting the uptake of Al in C-A-S-H. More secondary phases are present at higher Al concentrations; their content decreases with equilibration time while more Al is taken up in the C-A-S-H phase. At low Al contents, Al concentrations decrease strongly with time indicating a slow equilibration, in contrast to high Al contents where a clear change in Al concentrations over time was not observed indicating that the equilibrium has been reached faster. The 27Al NMR studies show that tetrahedrally coordinated Al is incorporated in C-A-S-H and its amount increases with the amount of Al present in the solution. SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1617/s11527-022-02080-x.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sonya Barzgar
- Empa, Concrete & Asphalt Laboratory, CH-8610 Dübendorf, Switzerland
- École Polytechnique Fédéral de Lausanne (EPFL), ENAC IIE GR-LUD, CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
- Present Address: Sweco UK, Advisory and Planning Division, EC2M 7LS London, UK
| | - Yiru Yan
- Empa, Concrete & Asphalt Laboratory, CH-8610 Dübendorf, Switzerland
| | - Mohamed Tarik
- Paul Scherrer Institute (PSI), ENE LBK CPM, 5232 Villigen PSI, Switzerland
| | - Jorgen Skibsted
- Aarhus University, Department of Chemistry and Interdisciplinary Nanoscience Center, 8000 Aarhus C, Denmark
| | - Christian Ludwig
- Empa, Concrete & Asphalt Laboratory, CH-8610 Dübendorf, Switzerland
- Paul Scherrer Institute (PSI), ENE LBK CPM, 5232 Villigen PSI, Switzerland
| | - Barbara Lothenbach
- Empa, Concrete & Asphalt Laboratory, CH-8610 Dübendorf, Switzerland
- NTNU, Department of Structural Engineering, Trondheim, Norway
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11
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Qi F, Zhu G, Zhang Y, Li H, Li S, Yang C, Zhang J. Eco-friendly recycling of silicon-rich lye: Synthesis of hierarchically structured calcium silicate hydrate and its application for phosphorus removal. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2022; 848:157431. [PMID: 35863577 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.157431] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2022] [Revised: 06/29/2022] [Accepted: 07/12/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Silicon-rich lye (SRL), a byproduct generated from pre-treatment of coal-based solid waste (CSW), was considered as a preponderant silicon source to prepare hierarchically nanostructured calcium silicate hydrate (C-S-H). Through the novel mild-causticization synthesis strategy, C-S-H was prepared under optimal caustic process conditions at time of 3 h, temperature of 80 °C, Ca/Si of 1.25:1, and active CaO to obtain a conversion rate of Si up to 97.33 % during the high-value utilization of SRL. The synthesized C-S-H possesses abundant mesoporous structure and massive exchangeable active sites, whose formation is advanced through an appropriate elevation regulation of caustic temperature and time. The silicate chain depolymerization occurs to C-S-H prepared in the highly alkaline system at higher caustic temperature, longer caustic period, especially at existence of massive sodium ions, but it presents higher polymerization degree at more aluminum co-existing. The adsorption capacity up to 119.27 mg/g for C-S-H presents a valid removal performance toward phosphorus in the wastewater than massive present reports. The removal mechanism of phosphorus can be identified as the surface chemisorption and formation of calcium phosphate co-precipitation. This study can provide considerable and potential guidance to the coordinated disposal between industrial solid wastes and wastewater purification.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fang Qi
- College of Resources and Environmental Engineering, State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Mineral Metallurgical Resources Utilization and Pollution Control, Wuhan University of Science and Technology, Wuhan 430081, Hubei Province, China
| | - Ganyu Zhu
- Key Laboratory of Green Process and Engineering, National Engineering Research Center of Green Recycling for Strategic Metal Resources, Institute of Process Engineering, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China
| | - Yimin Zhang
- College of Resources and Environmental Engineering, State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Mineral Metallurgical Resources Utilization and Pollution Control, Wuhan University of Science and Technology, Wuhan 430081, Hubei Province, China.
| | - Huiquan Li
- Key Laboratory of Green Process and Engineering, National Engineering Research Center of Green Recycling for Strategic Metal Resources, Institute of Process Engineering, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China; School of Chemical Engineering, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China.
| | - Shaopeng Li
- Key Laboratory of Green Process and Engineering, National Engineering Research Center of Green Recycling for Strategic Metal Resources, Institute of Process Engineering, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China
| | - Chennian Yang
- Key Laboratory of Green Process and Engineering, National Engineering Research Center of Green Recycling for Strategic Metal Resources, Institute of Process Engineering, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China
| | - Jianbo Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Green Process and Engineering, National Engineering Research Center of Green Recycling for Strategic Metal Resources, Institute of Process Engineering, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China
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Rizaal M, Nakajima K, Saito T, Osaka M, Okamoto K. High-Temperature Gaseous Reaction of Cesium with Siliceous Thermal Insulation: The Potential Implication to the Provenance of Enigmatic Fukushima Cesium-Bearing Material. ACS OMEGA 2022; 7:29326-29336. [PMID: 36033724 PMCID: PMC9404493 DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.2c03525] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2022] [Accepted: 07/22/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Here, we report an investigation of the gas-solid reaction between cesium hydroxide (CsOH) and siliceous (calcium silicate) thermal insulation at high temperature, which is postulated as the origin for the formation mechanism of cesium-bearing material emitted from the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear power plant. A developed reaction furnace consisting of two heating compartments was used to study the reaction at temperatures of 873, 973, and 1073 K. Under the influence of hydrogen-steam atmospheric conditions (H2/H2O = 0.2), the reaction between cesium hydroxide vapor and solid thermal insulation was confirmed to occur at temperatures of 973 and 1073 K with the formation of dicalcium silicate (Ca2SiO4) and cesium aluminum silicate (CsAlSiO4). Water-dissolution analyses of the reaction products have demonstrated their stability, in particular, CsAlSiO4. Constituent similarity of the field-observed cesium-bearing materials near the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear power plants with CsAlSiO4 suggests for the first time that gaseous reaction between CsOH with calcium silicate thermal insulation could be one of the original formation mechanisms of the cesium-bearing materials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Muhammad Rizaal
- Nuclear
Science and Engineering Center, Japan Atomic
Energy Agency, 2-4 Shirane, Shirakata, Tokai-mura, Naka-gun, Ibaraki 319-1195, Japan
| | - Kunihisa Nakajima
- Nuclear
Science and Engineering Center, Japan Atomic
Energy Agency, 2-4 Shirane, Shirakata, Tokai-mura, Naka-gun, Ibaraki 319-1195, Japan
| | - Takumi Saito
- Nuclear
Professional School, School of Engineering, The University of Tokyo, 2-22 Shirane, Shirakata, Tokai-mura, Naka-gun, Ibaraki 319-1188, Japan
| | - Masahiko Osaka
- Nuclear
Science and Engineering Center, Japan Atomic
Energy Agency, 2-4 Shirane, Shirakata, Tokai-mura, Naka-gun, Ibaraki 319-1195, Japan
| | - Koji Okamoto
- Nuclear
Professional School, School of Engineering, The University of Tokyo, 2-22 Shirane, Shirakata, Tokai-mura, Naka-gun, Ibaraki 319-1188, Japan
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Korpa A, Dervishi S, Volavsek J, Gjyli S, Andoni A. 29Si and 27Al MAS NMR assessment of the C-(A-) S–H nanomolecular structure of Ultra-High-Performance Concrete (UHPC) modified with pyrogenic oxides. J INDIAN CHEM SOC 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jics.2022.100443] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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14
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Mesecke K, Warr LN, Malorny W. Structure modeling and quantitative X-ray diffraction of C-(A)-S-H. J Appl Crystallogr 2022; 55:133-143. [PMID: 35145359 PMCID: PMC8805164 DOI: 10.1107/s1600576721012668] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2021] [Accepted: 11/28/2021] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Quantitative X-ray diffraction of nanocrystalline calcium silicate hydrate (C-S-H) and its aluminium-substituted variants (C-A-S-H) has so far been limited by a lack of appropriate structure models. In this study, atomistic structure models derived from tobermorite were combined with a supercell approach using TOPAS. By accounting for nanostructural features such as isolated layers, turbostratic disorder and, for the first time, fibrils, characteristic reflections and asymmetric bands were more accurately simulated than before, providing the means for phase quantification and refinement of structural sites. This improved methodology is applied to autoclaved aerated concrete and the experimental study of related hydrothermal reactions. Scanning electron microscopy indicated a fibrillar morphology for intermediate C-(A)-S-H, and energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy constrained its Ca/Si ratio to 1.31-1.35. As a first step, the direct quantification of C-(A)-S-H via structure models was assessed by a series of X-ray diffraction measurements using corundum as an internal standard. Secondly, the verified structure model was applied to evaluate in situ X-ray diffraction experiments at 457, 466 and 473 K (1.1, 1.35 and 1.55 MPa, respectively). Finally, a quantitative study of industrially produced autoclaved aerated concrete was conducted, determining 20-30 wt% C-(A)-S-H at Ca/Si ratios < 1.0. In general, the developed structure models advance the study of Portland cement concrete and related materials, including autoclaved aerated concrete, and the supercell approach may be universally applicable to other nanocrystalline materials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karsten Mesecke
- Hochschule Wismar, Philipp-Müller-Straße 14, 23966 Wismar, Germany
- University of Greifswald, Friedrich-Ludwig-Jahn-Straße 17A, 17489 Greifswald, Germany
| | - Laurence N. Warr
- University of Greifswald, Friedrich-Ludwig-Jahn-Straße 17A, 17489 Greifswald, Germany
| | - Winfried Malorny
- Hochschule Wismar, Philipp-Müller-Straße 14, 23966 Wismar, Germany
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15
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Luukkonen T, Yliniemi J, Walkley B, Geddes D, Griffith B, Hanna JV, Provis JL, Kinnunen P, Illikainen M. Characterization of an aged alkali-activated slag roof tile after 30 years of exposure to Northern Scandinavian weather. RSC Adv 2022; 12:25822-25832. [PMID: 36199609 PMCID: PMC9465636 DOI: 10.1039/d2ra04456k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2022] [Accepted: 09/06/2022] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The phase assemblage and nanostructural characterization results reported here further elucidate the long-term changes occurring in alkali activated blast furnace slag binders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tero Luukkonen
- Fibre and Particle Engineering Research Unit, University of Oulu, P.O. Box 8000, FI-90014, Oulu, Finland
| | - Juho Yliniemi
- Fibre and Particle Engineering Research Unit, University of Oulu, P.O. Box 8000, FI-90014, Oulu, Finland
| | - Brant Walkley
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, The University of Sheffield, Sheffield S1 3JD, UK
| | - Daniel Geddes
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, The University of Sheffield, Sheffield S1 3JD, UK
| | - Ben Griffith
- Department of Physics, The University of Warwick, Coventry CV4 7AL, UK
| | - John V. Hanna
- Department of Physics, The University of Warwick, Coventry CV4 7AL, UK
| | - John L. Provis
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, The University of Sheffield, Sheffield S1 3JD, UK
| | - Paivo Kinnunen
- Fibre and Particle Engineering Research Unit, University of Oulu, P.O. Box 8000, FI-90014, Oulu, Finland
| | - Mirja Illikainen
- Fibre and Particle Engineering Research Unit, University of Oulu, P.O. Box 8000, FI-90014, Oulu, Finland
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Alderete NM, Mignon A, Schollbach K, Villagrán-Zaccardi Y. Deformations in Cement Pastes during Capillary Imbibition and Their Relation to Water and Isopropanol as Imbibing Liquids. MATERIALS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2021; 15:36. [PMID: 35009183 PMCID: PMC8746290 DOI: 10.3390/ma15010036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2021] [Revised: 12/03/2021] [Accepted: 12/16/2021] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
The traditional approach for evaluating capillary imbibition, which describes the phenomena as a linear relationship between mass gain and the square root of time, considers a rigid pore structure. The common deviation from the linearity when using the square-root law (manifested in a downward curvature, i.e., slower water ingress) can be explained by considering a changing pore structure during the process caused by the swelling of calcium silicate hydrate (C-S-H) during water ingress. Analysing how the combination of deforming phase (C-S-H), non-deforming phase, and porosity affects the capillary water ingress rate is relevant for a deeper understanding of concrete durability. In this research, the C-S-H content was quantified by means of XRD diffraction coupled with Rietveld + PONKCS, dynamic water sorption (DVS), and SEM/BSE images coupled with phase mapping using PhAse Recognition and Characterization (PARC) software. The porosity was assessed by mercury intrusion porosimetry, water absorption under vacuum, and DVS. Furthermore, to assess deformations occurring with water and a non-aqueous imbibant, capillary imbibition tests with water and isopropanol as invading liquids were performed along with simultaneous deformation measurements. The relation between the relative C-S-H content and porosity has a great impact on the transport process. Samples exposed to isopropanol presented a much larger liquid uptake but significantly fewer deformations in comparison to imbibition with water. The effects of the changing pore structure were also evaluated with the Thomas and Jennings model, from which calculations indicated that pore shrink during imbibition. A comprehensive description of the relation between deformations and capillary imbibition in cement pastes reveals that liquid ingress is highly influenced by deformations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Natalia Mariel Alderete
- Magnel-Vandepitte Laboratory, Department of Structural Engineering and Building Materials, Faculty of Engineering and Architecture, Ghent University, Technologiepark Zwijnaarde 60, B-9052 Ghent, Belgium;
| | - Arn Mignon
- Smart Polymeric Biomaterials, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering Research Group, Campus Group T, KU Leuven, Andreas Vesaliusstraat 13, 3000 Leuven, Belgium;
| | - Katrin Schollbach
- Department of the Built Environment, Eindhoven University of Technology, 5612 AP Eindhoven, The Netherlands;
| | - Yury Villagrán-Zaccardi
- Magnel-Vandepitte Laboratory, Department of Structural Engineering and Building Materials, Faculty of Engineering and Architecture, Ghent University, Technologiepark Zwijnaarde 60, B-9052 Ghent, Belgium;
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17
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Pérez-Bravo R, Morales-Cantero A, Bruscolini M, Aranda MAG, Santacruz I, De la Torre AG. Effect of Boron and Water-to-Cement Ratio on the Performances of Laboratory Prepared Belite-Ye'elimite-Ferrite (BYF) Cements. MATERIALS 2021; 14:ma14174862. [PMID: 34500950 PMCID: PMC8432724 DOI: 10.3390/ma14174862] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2021] [Revised: 08/20/2021] [Accepted: 08/24/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
The effect of superplasticiser, borax and the water-to-cement ratio on BYF hydration and mechanical strengths has been studied. Two laboratory-scale BYF cements—st-BYF (with β-C2S and orthorhombic C4A3S¯) and borax-activated B-BYF (with α’H-C2S and pseudo-cubic C4A3S¯)—have been used, and both show similar particle size distribution. The addition of superplasticiser and externally added borax to BYF pastes has been optimised through rheological measurements. Optimised superplasticiser contents (0.3, 0.4 and 0.1 wt % for st-BYF, B-BYF and st-BYF with externally added 0.25 wt % B2O3, respectively) result in low viscosities yielding homogeneous mortars. The calorimetric study revealed that st-BYF is more reactive than B-BYF, as the values of heat released are 300–370 J/g and 190–210 J/g, respectively, after 7 days of hydration; this fact is independent of the water-to-cement ratio. These findings agree with the higher degree of hydration at 28 days of β-C2S in st-BYF (from 45 to 60%) than α’H-C2S in B-BYF (~20 to 30%). The phase assemblage evolution has been determined by LXRPD coupled with the Rietveld method and MAS-NMR. The formation of stratlingite is favoured by increasing the w/c ratio in both systems. Finally, the optimisation of fresh BYF pastes jointly with the reduction of water-to-cement ratio to 0.40 have allowed the achieving of mortars with compressive strengths over 40 MPa at 7 days in all systems. Moreover, the st-BYF mortar, where borax was externally added, achieved more than 70 MPa after 28 days. The main conclusion of this work does not support Lafarge’s approach of adding boron/borax to the raw meal of BYF cements. This procedure stabilises the alpha belite polymorph, but its reactivity, in these systems, is lower and the associated mechanical strengths poorer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raquel Pérez-Bravo
- Departamento de Química Inorgánica, Cristalografía y Mineralogía, Facultad de Ciencias, Campus Teatinos, Universidad de Málaga, 29010 Málaga, Spain; (R.P.-B.); (A.M.-C.); (M.A.G.A.); (I.S.)
| | - Alejandro Morales-Cantero
- Departamento de Química Inorgánica, Cristalografía y Mineralogía, Facultad de Ciencias, Campus Teatinos, Universidad de Málaga, 29010 Málaga, Spain; (R.P.-B.); (A.M.-C.); (M.A.G.A.); (I.S.)
| | - Margherita Bruscolini
- Dipartimento di Scienze Della Terra, Università Degli Studi di Milano, Via Botticelli 23, I20133 Milano, Italy;
| | - Miguel A. G. Aranda
- Departamento de Química Inorgánica, Cristalografía y Mineralogía, Facultad de Ciencias, Campus Teatinos, Universidad de Málaga, 29010 Málaga, Spain; (R.P.-B.); (A.M.-C.); (M.A.G.A.); (I.S.)
| | - Isabel Santacruz
- Departamento de Química Inorgánica, Cristalografía y Mineralogía, Facultad de Ciencias, Campus Teatinos, Universidad de Málaga, 29010 Málaga, Spain; (R.P.-B.); (A.M.-C.); (M.A.G.A.); (I.S.)
| | - Angeles G. De la Torre
- Departamento de Química Inorgánica, Cristalografía y Mineralogía, Facultad de Ciencias, Campus Teatinos, Universidad de Málaga, 29010 Málaga, Spain; (R.P.-B.); (A.M.-C.); (M.A.G.A.); (I.S.)
- Correspondence:
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18
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Reif B, Ashbrook SE, Emsley L, Hong M. Solid-state NMR spectroscopy. NATURE REVIEWS. METHODS PRIMERS 2021; 1:2. [PMID: 34368784 PMCID: PMC8341432 DOI: 10.1038/s43586-020-00002-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 155] [Impact Index Per Article: 51.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 10/29/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Solid-state nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy is an atomic-level method used to determine the chemical structure, three-dimensional structure, and dynamics of solids and semi-solids. This Primer summarizes the basic principles of NMR as applied to the wide range of solid systems. The fundamental nuclear spin interactions and the effects of magnetic fields and radiofrequency pulses on nuclear spins are the same as in liquid-state NMR. However, because of the anisotropy of the interactions in the solid state, the majority of high-resolution solid-state NMR spectra is measured under magic-angle spinning (MAS), which has profound effects on the types of radiofrequency pulse sequences required to extract structural and dynamical information. We describe the most common MAS NMR experiments and data analysis approaches for investigating biological macromolecules, organic materials, and inorganic solids. Continuing development of sensitivity-enhancement approaches, including 1H-detected fast MAS experiments, dynamic nuclear polarization, and experiments tailored to ultrahigh magnetic fields, is described. We highlight recent applications of solid-state NMR to biological and materials chemistry. The Primer ends with a discussion of current limitations of NMR to study solids, and points to future avenues of development to further enhance the capabilities of this sophisticated spectroscopy for new applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bernd Reif
- Technische Universität München, Department Chemie, Lichtenbergstr. 4, D-85747 Garching, Germany
| | - Sharon E. Ashbrook
- School of Chemistry, University of St Andrews, North Haugh, St Andrews, KY16 9ST, UK
| | - Lyndon Emsley
- École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Institut des sciences et ingénierie chimiques, CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Mei Hong
- Department of Chemistry and Francis Bitter Magnet Laboratory, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 170 Albany Street, Cambridge, MA 02139
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