1
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Boudjelel M, Zhong J, Ballerini L, Vanswearingen I, Al-Dhufari R, Malapit CA. Electrochemical Generation of Aryl Radicals from Organoboron Reagents Enabled by Pulsed Electrosynthesis. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2024; 63:e202406203. [PMID: 38753725 DOI: 10.1002/anie.202406203] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2024] [Revised: 05/15/2024] [Accepted: 05/15/2024] [Indexed: 05/18/2024]
Abstract
Aryl radicals play a pivotal role as reactive intermediates in chemical synthesis, commonly arising from aryl halides and aryl diazo compounds. Expanding the repertoire of sources for aryl radical generation to include abundant and stable organoboron reagents would significantly advance radical chemistry and broaden their reactivity profile. While traditional approaches utilize stoichiometric oxidants or photocatalysis to generate aryl radicals from these reagents, electrochemical conditions have been largely underexplored. Through rigorous mechanistic investigations, we identified fundamental challenges hindering aryl radical generation. In addition to the high oxidation potentials of aromatic organoboron compounds, electrode passivation through radical grafting, homocoupling of aryl radicals, and decomposition issues were identified. We demonstrate that pulsed electrosynthesis enables selective and efficient aryl radical generation by mitigating the fundamental challenges. Our discoveries facilitated the development of the first electrochemical conversion of aryl potassium trifluoroborate salts into aryl C-P bonds. This sustainable and straightforward oxidative electrochemical approach exhibited a broad substrate scope, accommodating various heterocycles and aryl chlorides, typical substrates in transition-metal catalyzed cross-coupling reactions. Furthermore, we extended this methodology to form aryl C-Se, C-Te, and C-S bonds, showcasing its versatility and potential in bond formation processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maxime Boudjelel
- Department of Chemistry, Northwestern University, 2145 N Sheridan Road, Evanston, IL 60208, USA
| | - Jessica Zhong
- Department of Chemistry, Northwestern University, 2145 N Sheridan Road, Evanston, IL 60208, USA
| | - Lorenzo Ballerini
- Department of Chemistry, Northwestern University, 2145 N Sheridan Road, Evanston, IL 60208, USA
| | - Ian Vanswearingen
- Department of Chemistry, Northwestern University, 2145 N Sheridan Road, Evanston, IL 60208, USA
| | - Rossul Al-Dhufari
- Department of Chemistry, Northwestern University, 2145 N Sheridan Road, Evanston, IL 60208, USA
| | - Christian A Malapit
- Department of Chemistry, Northwestern University, 2145 N Sheridan Road, Evanston, IL 60208, USA
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2
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Metlay AS, Chyi B, Sheehan CJ, Shallenberger JR, Mallouk TE. Fast Outer-Sphere Electron Transfer and High Specific Capacitance at Covalently Modified Carbon Electrodes. J Am Chem Soc 2024. [PMID: 38980188 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.4c04088] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/10/2024]
Abstract
Carbon electrodes typically display sluggish electron transfer kinetics due to the adsorption of adventitious molecules that effectively insulate the surface. Here, we describe a method for rendering graphitic carbon electrodes permanently hydrophilic by functionalization with 4-(diazonium)benzenesulfonic acid. In aqueous electrolytes, these hydrophilic carbon electrodes exhibit metal-like specific capacitance (∼40 μF/cm2) as measured by cyclic voltammetry, suggesting a change in the double-layer structure at the carbon surface. Additionally, the modified electrodes show fast charge transfer kinetics to outer-sphere one-electron redox couples such as ferro-/ferricyanide as well as improved electron transfer kinetics in alkaline aqueous redox flow batteries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amy S Metlay
- Department of Chemistry, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104, United States
| | - Brandon Chyi
- Department of Chemistry, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104, United States
| | - Colton J Sheehan
- Department of Chemistry, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104, United States
| | - Jeffrey R Shallenberger
- Materials Research Institute, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802, United States
| | - Thomas E Mallouk
- Department of Chemistry, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104, United States
- International Center for Materials Nanoarchitectonics (WPI-MANA), National Institute for Materials Science (NIMS), Tsukuba Ibaraki 305-0044, Japan
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3
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Avanthay M, Goodrich OH, Tiemessen D, Alder CM, George MW, Lennox AJJ. Bromide-Mediated Silane Oxidation: A Practical Counter-Electrode Process for Nonaqueous Deep Reductive Electrosynthesis. JACS AU 2024; 4:2220-2227. [PMID: 38938809 PMCID: PMC11200245 DOI: 10.1021/jacsau.4c00186] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2024] [Revised: 05/17/2024] [Accepted: 05/17/2024] [Indexed: 06/29/2024]
Abstract
The counter-electrode process of an organic electrochemical reaction is integral for the success and sustainability of the process. Unlike for oxidation reactions, counter-electrode processes for reduction reactions remain limited, especially for deep reductions that apply very negative potentials. Herein, we report the development of a bromide-mediated silane oxidation counter-electrode process for nonaqueous electrochemical reduction reactions in undivided cells. The system is found to be suitable for replacing either sacrificial anodes or a divided cell in several reported reactions. The conditions are metal-free, use inexpensive reagents and a graphite anode, are scalable, and the byproducts are reductively stable and readily removed. We showcase the translation of a previously reported divided cell reaction to a >100 g scale in continuous flow.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mickaël
E. Avanthay
- School
of Chemistry, University of Bristol, Cantock’s Close, Bristol BS8 1TS, U.K.
| | - Oliver H. Goodrich
- School
of Chemistry, University of Nottingham, University Park, Nottingham NG7 2RD, U.K.
| | - David Tiemessen
- School
of Chemistry, University of Nottingham, University Park, Nottingham NG7 2RD, U.K.
| | - Catherine M. Alder
- Modalities
Platform Technologies, Molecular Modalities Discovery, GSK Medicines Research Centre, Stevenage SG1 2NY, U.K.
| | - Michael W. George
- School
of Chemistry, University of Nottingham, University Park, Nottingham NG7 2RD, U.K.
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4
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Borsley S, Leigh DA, Roberts BMW. Molecular Ratchets and Kinetic Asymmetry: Giving Chemistry Direction. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2024; 63:e202400495. [PMID: 38568047 DOI: 10.1002/anie.202400495] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2024] [Indexed: 05/03/2024]
Abstract
Over the last two decades ratchet mechanisms have transformed the understanding and design of stochastic molecular systems-biological, chemical and physical-in a move away from the mechanical macroscopic analogies that dominated thinking regarding molecular dynamics in the 1990s and early 2000s (e.g. pistons, springs, etc), to the more scale-relevant concepts that underpin out-of-equilibrium research in the molecular sciences today. Ratcheting has established molecular nanotechnology as a research frontier for energy transduction and metabolism, and has enabled the reverse engineering of biomolecular machinery, delivering insights into how molecules 'walk' and track-based synthesisers operate, how the acceleration of chemical reactions enables energy to be transduced by catalysts (both motor proteins and synthetic catalysts), and how dynamic systems can be driven away from equilibrium through catalysis. The recognition of molecular ratchet mechanisms in biology, and their invention in synthetic systems, is proving significant in areas as diverse as supramolecular chemistry, systems chemistry, dynamic covalent chemistry, DNA nanotechnology, polymer and materials science, molecular biology, heterogeneous catalysis, endergonic synthesis, the origin of life, and many other branches of chemical science. Put simply, ratchet mechanisms give chemistry direction. Kinetic asymmetry, the key feature of ratcheting, is the dynamic counterpart of structural asymmetry (i.e. chirality). Given the ubiquity of ratchet mechanisms in endergonic chemical processes in biology, and their significance for behaviour and function from systems to synthesis, it is surely just as fundamentally important. This Review charts the recognition, invention and development of molecular ratchets, focussing particularly on the role for which they were originally envisaged in chemistry, as design elements for molecular machinery. Different kinetically asymmetric systems are compared, and the consequences of their dynamic behaviour discussed. These archetypal examples demonstrate how chemical systems can be driven inexorably away from equilibrium, rather than relax towards it.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefan Borsley
- Department of Chemistry, The University of Manchester, Oxford Road, M13 9PL, Manchester, United Kingdom
| | - David A Leigh
- Department of Chemistry, The University of Manchester, Oxford Road, M13 9PL, Manchester, United Kingdom
| | - Benjamin M W Roberts
- Department of Chemistry, The University of Manchester, Oxford Road, M13 9PL, Manchester, United Kingdom
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5
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Smith BP, Truax NJ, Pollatos AS, Meanwell M, Bedekar P, Garrido-Castro AF, Baran PS. Total Synthesis of Dragocins A-C through Electrochemical Cyclization. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2024; 63:e202401107. [PMID: 38358802 DOI: 10.1002/anie.202401107] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2024] [Revised: 02/14/2024] [Accepted: 02/15/2024] [Indexed: 02/16/2024]
Abstract
The first total synthesis of dragocins A-C, remarkable natural products containing an unusual C4' oxidized ribose architecture bridged by a polyhydroxylated pyrrolidine, is presented through a route featuring a number of uncommon maneuvers. Several generations towards the target molecules are presented, including the spectacular failure of a key C-H oxidation on a late-stage intermediate. The final route features rapid, stereocontrolled access to a densely functionalized pyrrolidine and an unprecedented diastereoselective oxidative electrochemical cyclization to forge the hallmark 9-membered ring. Preliminary studies suggest this electrochemical oxidation protocol is generally useful.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brendyn P Smith
- Department of Chemistry, Scripps Research, 10550 N. Torrey Pines Road, La Jolla, California 92037, United States
| | - Nathanyal J Truax
- Department of Chemistry, Scripps Research, 10550 N. Torrey Pines Road, La Jolla, California 92037, United States
| | - Alexandros S Pollatos
- Department of Chemistry, Scripps Research, 10550 N. Torrey Pines Road, La Jolla, California 92037, United States
| | - Michael Meanwell
- Department of Chemistry, Scripps Research, 10550 N. Torrey Pines Road, La Jolla, California 92037, United States
- Department of Chemistry, University of Alberta, 11227 Saskatchewan Dr NW, Edmonton, AB T6G 2N4, Canada
| | - Pranali Bedekar
- Department of Chemistry, Scripps Research, 10550 N. Torrey Pines Road, La Jolla, California 92037, United States
| | - Alberto F Garrido-Castro
- Department of Chemistry, Scripps Research, 10550 N. Torrey Pines Road, La Jolla, California 92037, United States
- Laboratorium für Organische Chemie, ETH Zürich, Vladimir-Prelog-Weg 3, HCI, 8093, Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Phil S Baran
- Department of Chemistry, Scripps Research, 10550 N. Torrey Pines Road, La Jolla, California 92037, United States
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6
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Behera N, Rodrigo S, Hazra A, Maity R, Luo L. Revisiting Alternating Current Electrolysis for Organic Synthesis. CURRENT OPINION IN ELECTROCHEMISTRY 2024; 43:101439. [PMID: 38450312 PMCID: PMC10914348 DOI: 10.1016/j.coelec.2023.101439] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/08/2024]
Abstract
This review summarizes the recent advancements in alternating current (AC)-driven electroorganic synthesis since 2021 and discusses the reactivities AC electrolysis provides to achieve new and unique organic transformations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nibedita Behera
- Department of Chemistry, Wayne State University, Detroit, Michigan 48202, United States
| | - Sachini Rodrigo
- Department of Chemistry, Wayne State University, Detroit, Michigan 48202, United States
| | - Atanu Hazra
- Department of Chemistry, Wayne State University, Detroit, Michigan 48202, United States
| | - Rajendra Maity
- Department of Chemistry, Wayne State University, Detroit, Michigan 48202, United States
| | - Long Luo
- Department of Chemistry, Wayne State University, Detroit, Michigan 48202, United States
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7
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Atkins AP, Chaturvedi AK, Tate JA, Lennox AJJ. Pulsed electrolysis: enhancing primary benzylic C(sp 3)-H nucleophilic fluorination. Org Chem Front 2024; 11:802-808. [PMID: 38298566 PMCID: PMC10825853 DOI: 10.1039/d3qo01865b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2023] [Accepted: 12/09/2023] [Indexed: 02/02/2024]
Abstract
Electrosynthesis is an efficient and powerful tool for the generation of elusive reactive intermediates. The application of alternative electrolysis waveforms provides a new level of control for dynamic redox environments. Herein, we demonstrate that pulsed electrolysis provides a favourable environment for the generation and fluorination of highly unstable primary benzylic cations from C(sp3)-H bonds. By introduction of a toff period, we propose this waveform modulates the electrical double layer to improve mass transport and limit over-oxidation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander P Atkins
- School of Chemistry, University of Bristol Cantock's Close BS8 1TS Bristol UK
| | - Atul K Chaturvedi
- School of Chemistry, University of Bristol Cantock's Close BS8 1TS Bristol UK
| | - Joseph A Tate
- Jealott's Hill International Research Centre, Syngenta Jealott's Hill Bracknell RG426EY UK
| | - Alastair J J Lennox
- School of Chemistry, University of Bristol Cantock's Close BS8 1TS Bristol UK
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8
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Borsley S, Gallagher JM, Leigh DA, Roberts BMW. Ratcheting synthesis. Nat Rev Chem 2024; 8:8-29. [PMID: 38102412 DOI: 10.1038/s41570-023-00558-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 11/02/2023] [Indexed: 12/17/2023]
Abstract
Synthetic chemistry has traditionally relied on reactions between reactants of high chemical potential and transformations that proceed energetically downhill to either a global or local minimum (thermodynamic or kinetic control). Catalysts can be used to manipulate kinetic control, lowering activation energies to influence reaction outcomes. However, such chemistry is still constrained by the shape of one-dimensional reaction coordinates. Coupling synthesis to an orthogonal energy input can allow ratcheting of chemical reaction outcomes, reminiscent of the ways that molecular machines ratchet random thermal motion to bias conformational dynamics. This fundamentally distinct approach to synthesis allows multi-dimensional potential energy surfaces to be navigated, enabling reaction outcomes that cannot be achieved under conventional kinetic or thermodynamic control. In this Review, we discuss how ratcheted synthesis is ubiquitous throughout biology and consider how chemists might harness ratchet mechanisms to accelerate catalysis, drive chemical reactions uphill and programme complex reaction sequences.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefan Borsley
- Department of Chemistry, University of Manchester, Manchester, UK
| | | | - David A Leigh
- Department of Chemistry, University of Manchester, Manchester, UK.
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9
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Zeng L, Wang J, Wang D, Yi H, Lei A. Comprehensive Comparisons between Directing and Alternating Current Electrolysis in Organic Synthesis. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2023; 62:e202309620. [PMID: 37606535 DOI: 10.1002/anie.202309620] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2023] [Revised: 08/20/2023] [Accepted: 08/21/2023] [Indexed: 08/23/2023]
Abstract
Organic electrosynthesis has consistently aroused significant interest within both academic and industrial spheres. Despite the considerable progress achieved in this field, the majority of electrochemical transformations have been conducted through the utilization of direct-current (DC) electricity. In contrast, the application of alternating current (AC), characterized by its polarity-alternating nature, remains in its infancy within the sphere of organic synthesis, primarily due to the absence of a comprehensive theoretical framework. This minireview offers an overview of recent advancements in AC-driven organic transformations and seeks to elucidate the differences between DC and AC electrolytic methodologies by probing into their underlying physical principles. These differences encompass the ability of AC to preclude the deposition of metal catalysts, the precision in modulating oxidation and reduction intensities, and the mitigation of mass transfer processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Li Zeng
- The Institute for Advanced Studies (IAS), College of Chemistry and Molecular Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan, 430072, P. R. China
| | - Jianxing Wang
- The Institute for Advanced Studies (IAS), College of Chemistry and Molecular Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan, 430072, P. R. China
| | - Daoxin Wang
- National Research Center for Carbohydrate Synthesis, Jiangxi Normal University, Nanchang, 330022, P. R. China
| | - Hong Yi
- The Institute for Advanced Studies (IAS), College of Chemistry and Molecular Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan, 430072, P. R. China
| | - Aiwen Lei
- The Institute for Advanced Studies (IAS), College of Chemistry and Molecular Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan, 430072, P. R. China
- National Research Center for Carbohydrate Synthesis, Jiangxi Normal University, Nanchang, 330022, P. R. China
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10
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Behera N, Gunasekera D, Mahajan JP, Frimpong J, Liu ZF, Luo L. Electrochemical hydrogen isotope exchange of amines controlled by alternating current frequency. Faraday Discuss 2023; 247:45-58. [PMID: 37466111 PMCID: PMC10796833 DOI: 10.1039/d3fd00044c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/20/2023]
Abstract
Here, we report an electrochemical protocol for hydrogen isotope exchange (HIE) at α-C(sp3)-H amine sites. Tetrahydroisoquinoline and pyrrolidine are selected as two model substrates because of their different proton transfer (PT) and hydrogen atom transfer (HAT) kinetics at the α-C(sp3)-H amine sites, which are utilized to control the HIE reaction outcome at different applied alternating current (AC) frequencies. We found the highest deuterium incorporation for tetrahydroisoquinolines at 0 Hz (i.e., under direct current (DC) electrolysis conditions) and pyrrolidines at 0.5 Hz. Analysis of the product distribution and D isotope incorporation at different frequencies reveals that the HIE of tetrahydroisoquinolines is limited by its slow HAT, whereas the HIE of pyrrolidines is limited by the overoxidation of its α-amino radical intermediates. The AC-frequency-dependent HIE of amines can be potentially used to achieve selective labeling of α-amine sites in one drug molecule, which will significantly impact the pharmaceutical industry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nibedita Behera
- Department of Chemistry, Wayne State University, Detroit, Michigan 48202, USA.
| | - Disni Gunasekera
- Department of Chemistry, Wayne State University, Detroit, Michigan 48202, USA.
| | - Jyoti P Mahajan
- Department of Chemistry, Wayne State University, Detroit, Michigan 48202, USA.
| | - Joseph Frimpong
- Department of Chemistry, Wayne State University, Detroit, Michigan 48202, USA.
| | - Zhen-Fei Liu
- Department of Chemistry, Wayne State University, Detroit, Michigan 48202, USA.
| | - Long Luo
- Department of Chemistry, Wayne State University, Detroit, Michigan 48202, USA.
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11
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Hu GQ, Zhang WY, Liu YX, Liu JH, Zhao B. Visible Light-Accelerated Palladium-Catalyzed Thiocarbonylation Using Oxalic Acid Monothioester with Aryl/Alkenyl Sulfonium Salts. J Org Chem 2023; 88:14351-14356. [PMID: 37802501 DOI: 10.1021/acs.joc.3c01173] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/10/2023]
Abstract
Herein, we present a decarboxylative thiocarbonylation of aryl and alkenyl sulfonium salts with oxalic acid monothioethers (OAMs), which can be achieved by visible light-accelerated palladium catalysis. Sulfonium salts are widely available, and OAM is an easily accessible and stored reagent; this mild reaction method can also be used for the synthesis of different types of thioester compounds. The reaction represents a new application of visible light-accelerated palladium catalysis in catalytic decarboxylative cross-couplings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guo-Qin Hu
- School of Chemical Engineering, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou 450001, China
| | - Wen-Yan Zhang
- School of Chemical Engineering, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou 450001, China
| | - Yong-Xin Liu
- School of Chemical Engineering, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou 450001, China
| | - Jing-Hui Liu
- School of Chemical Engineering, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou 450001, China
| | - Bin Zhao
- School of Chemical Engineering, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou 450001, China
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12
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Garrido-Castro AF, Hioki Y, Kusumoto Y, Hayashi K, Griffin J, Harper KC, Kawamata Y, Baran PS. Scalable Electrochemical Decarboxylative Olefination Driven by Alternating Polarity. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2023; 62:e202309157. [PMID: 37656907 DOI: 10.1002/anie.202309157] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2023] [Revised: 08/18/2023] [Accepted: 09/01/2023] [Indexed: 09/03/2023]
Abstract
A mild, scalable (kg) metal-free electrochemical decarboxylation of alkyl carboxylic acids to olefins is disclosed. Numerous applications are presented wherein this transformation can simplify alkene synthesis and provide alternative synthetic access to valuable olefins from simple carboxylic acid feedstocks. This robust method relies on alternating polarity to maintain the quality of the electrode surface and local pH, providing a deeper understanding of the Hofer-Moest process with unprecedented chemoselectivity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alberto F Garrido-Castro
- Department of Chemistry, Scripps Research, 10550 North Torrey Pines Road, La Jolla, CA, 92037, USA
- Laboratorium für Organische Chemie, ETH Zürich, Vladimir-Prelog-Weg 3, HCI, 8093, Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Yuta Hioki
- Department of Chemistry, Scripps Research, 10550 North Torrey Pines Road, La Jolla, CA, 92037, USA
- Science and Innovation Center, Mitsubishi Chemical Corporation, 1000, Kamoshida-cho, Aoba-ku, Yokohama, Kanagawa 227-8502, Japan
| | - Yoshifumi Kusumoto
- Department of Chemistry, Scripps Research, 10550 North Torrey Pines Road, La Jolla, CA, 92037, USA
| | - Kyohei Hayashi
- Department of Chemistry, Scripps Research, 10550 North Torrey Pines Road, La Jolla, CA, 92037, USA
| | - Jeremy Griffin
- AbbVie Process Research and Development, 1401 North Sheridan Road, North Chicago, IL, 60064, USA
| | - Kaid C Harper
- AbbVie Process Research and Development, 1401 North Sheridan Road, North Chicago, IL, 60064, USA
| | - Yu Kawamata
- Department of Chemistry, Scripps Research, 10550 North Torrey Pines Road, La Jolla, CA, 92037, USA
| | - Phil S Baran
- Department of Chemistry, Scripps Research, 10550 North Torrey Pines Road, La Jolla, CA, 92037, USA
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13
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Wang Y, Dana S, Long H, Xu Y, Li Y, Kaplaneris N, Ackermann L. Electrochemical Late-Stage Functionalization. Chem Rev 2023; 123:11269-11335. [PMID: 37751573 PMCID: PMC10571048 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.3c00158] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2023] [Indexed: 09/28/2023]
Abstract
Late-stage functionalization (LSF) constitutes a powerful strategy for the assembly or diversification of novel molecular entities with improved physicochemical or biological activities. LSF can thus greatly accelerate the development of medicinally relevant compounds, crop protecting agents, and functional materials. Electrochemical molecular synthesis has emerged as an environmentally friendly platform for the transformation of organic compounds. Over the past decade, electrochemical late-stage functionalization (eLSF) has gained major momentum, which is summarized herein up to February 2023.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Yang Xu
- Institut für Organische
und Biomolekulare Chemie and Wöhler Research Institute for
Sustainable Chemistry (WISCh), Georg-August-Universität, Göttingen 37077, Germany
| | - Yanjun Li
- Institut für Organische
und Biomolekulare Chemie and Wöhler Research Institute for
Sustainable Chemistry (WISCh), Georg-August-Universität, Göttingen 37077, Germany
| | - Nikolaos Kaplaneris
- Institut für Organische
und Biomolekulare Chemie and Wöhler Research Institute for
Sustainable Chemistry (WISCh), Georg-August-Universität, Göttingen 37077, Germany
| | - Lutz Ackermann
- Institut für Organische
und Biomolekulare Chemie and Wöhler Research Institute for
Sustainable Chemistry (WISCh), Georg-August-Universität, Göttingen 37077, Germany
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14
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Rodrigo S, Hazra A, Mahajan JP, Nguyen HM, Luo L. Overcoming the Potential Window-Limited Functional Group Compatibility by Alternating Current Electrolysis. J Am Chem Soc 2023; 145:21851-21859. [PMID: 37747918 PMCID: PMC10774024 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.3c05802] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/27/2023]
Abstract
The functional group compatibility of an electrosynthetic method is typically limited by its potential reaction window. Here, we report that alternating current (AC) electrolysis can overcome such potential window-limited functional group compatibility. Using alkene heterodifunctionalization as a model system, we design and demonstrate a series of AC-driven reactions that add two functional groups sequentially and separately under the cathodic and anodic pulses, including chloro- and bromotrilfuoromethylation as well as chlorosulfonylation. We discovered that the oscillating redox environment during AC electrolysis allows the regeneration of the redox-active functional groups after their oxidation or reduction in the preceding step. As a result, even though redox labile functional groups such as pyrrole, quinone, and aryl thioether fall in the reaction potential window, they are tolerated under AC electrolysis conditions, leading to synthetically useful yields. The cyclic voltammetric study has confirmed that the product yield is limited by the extent of starting material regeneration during the redox cycling. Our findings open a new avenue for improving functional group compatibility in electrosynthesis and show the possibility of predicting the product yield under AC electrolysis from voltammogram features.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sachini Rodrigo
- Department of Chemistry, Wayne State University, Detroit, Michigan 48202, United States
| | - Atanu Hazra
- Department of Chemistry, Wayne State University, Detroit, Michigan 48202, United States
| | - Jyoti P Mahajan
- Department of Chemistry, Wayne State University, Detroit, Michigan 48202, United States
| | - Hien M Nguyen
- Department of Chemistry, Wayne State University, Detroit, Michigan 48202, United States
| | - Long Luo
- Department of Chemistry, Wayne State University, Detroit, Michigan 48202, United States
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15
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Wan Q, Chen K, Dong X, Ruan X, Yi H, Chen S. Elucidating the Underlying Reactivities of Alternating Current Electrosynthesis by Time-Resolved Mapping of Short-Lived Reactive Intermediates. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2023; 62:e202306460. [PMID: 37593930 DOI: 10.1002/anie.202306460] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2023] [Revised: 08/14/2023] [Accepted: 08/17/2023] [Indexed: 08/19/2023]
Abstract
Alternating current (AC) electrolysis is an emerging field in synthetic chemistry, however its mechanistic studies are challenged by the effective characterization of the elusive intermediate processes. Herein, we develop an operando electrochemical mass spectrometry platform that allows time-resolved mapping of stepwise electrosynthetic reactive intermediates in both direct current and alternating current modes. By dissecting the key intermediate processes of electrochemical functionalization of arylamines, the unique reactivities of AC electrosynthesis, including minimizing the over-oxidation/reduction through the inverse process, and enabling effective reaction of short-lived intermediates generated by oxidation and reduction in paired electrolysis, were evidenced and verified. Notably, the controlled kinetics of reactive N-centered radical intermediates in multistep sequential AC electrosynthesis to minimize the competing reactions was discovered. Overall, this work provides direct evidence for the mechanism of AC electrolysis, and clarifies the underlying reasons for its high efficiency, which will benefit the rational design of AC electrosynthetic reactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qiongqiong Wan
- The Institute for Advanced Studies (IAS), Wuhan University, Wuhan, 430072, P. R. China
| | - Kaixiang Chen
- The Institute for Advanced Studies (IAS), Wuhan University, Wuhan, 430072, P. R. China
| | - Xin Dong
- The Institute for Advanced Studies (IAS), Wuhan University, Wuhan, 430072, P. R. China
| | - Xianqin Ruan
- The Institute for Advanced Studies (IAS), Wuhan University, Wuhan, 430072, P. R. China
| | - Hong Yi
- The Institute for Advanced Studies (IAS), Wuhan University, Wuhan, 430072, P. R. China
| | - Suming Chen
- The Institute for Advanced Studies (IAS), Wuhan University, Wuhan, 430072, P. R. China
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16
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Li Z, Wang L, Wang T, Sun L, Yang W. Steering the Dynamics of Reaction Intermediates and Catalyst Surface during Electrochemical Pulsed CO 2 Reduction for Enhanced C 2+ Selectivity. J Am Chem Soc 2023; 145:20655-20664. [PMID: 37639564 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.3c08005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/31/2023]
Abstract
Developing alternative electrolysis techniques is crucial for advancing electrocatalysis in addition to tremendous efforts of material developments. Recently, pulse electrochemical CO2 reduction reaction (CO2RR) has demonstrated dramatic selectivity improvement toward multicarbon (C2+) products compared to potentiostatic electrochemical CO2RR, yet the underlying mechanisms remain little understood. Herein, we develop a fast time-resolved in situ Raman spectroscopic method with a time resolution of 0.25 s. We reveal that pulse electrolysis improves the C2+ selectivity of CO2RR through dynamic controls of the surface CuxO/Cu composition that would be unachievable under potentiostatic electrolysis. The population of the surface-adsorbed CO intermediate (COads) is characterized to be the determining factor in controlling reaction selectivity, which depicts the C2+/C1 selectivity of CO2RR under pulse conditions. Meanwhile, the vibrational character of COads, despite transforming dynamically between the low-frequency and high-frequency modes is characterized not to be the key factor in controlling the reaction selectivity. Such an active control of catalyst surface compositions and reaction intermediates enabled by pulse electrolysis offer a general way of regulating the electrocatalysis performance of broad electrochemical reactions beyond CO2RR.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhuofeng Li
- Center of Artificial Photosynthesis for Solar Fuels and Department of Chemistry, School of Science and Research Center for Industries of the Future, Westlake University, Hangzhou 310024, Zhejiang, China
- Institute of Natural Sciences, Westlake Institute for Advanced Study, Hangzhou 310024, Zhejiang, China
- Division of Solar Energy Conversion and Catalysis at Westlake University, Zhejiang Baima Lake Laboratory Co., Ltd., Hangzhou 310000, China
| | - Linqin Wang
- Center of Artificial Photosynthesis for Solar Fuels and Department of Chemistry, School of Science and Research Center for Industries of the Future, Westlake University, Hangzhou 310024, Zhejiang, China
- Institute of Natural Sciences, Westlake Institute for Advanced Study, Hangzhou 310024, Zhejiang, China
- Division of Solar Energy Conversion and Catalysis at Westlake University, Zhejiang Baima Lake Laboratory Co., Ltd., Hangzhou 310000, China
| | - Tao Wang
- Center of Artificial Photosynthesis for Solar Fuels and Department of Chemistry, School of Science and Research Center for Industries of the Future, Westlake University, Hangzhou 310024, Zhejiang, China
- Institute of Natural Sciences, Westlake Institute for Advanced Study, Hangzhou 310024, Zhejiang, China
- Division of Solar Energy Conversion and Catalysis at Westlake University, Zhejiang Baima Lake Laboratory Co., Ltd., Hangzhou 310000, China
| | - Licheng Sun
- Center of Artificial Photosynthesis for Solar Fuels and Department of Chemistry, School of Science and Research Center for Industries of the Future, Westlake University, Hangzhou 310024, Zhejiang, China
- Institute of Natural Sciences, Westlake Institute for Advanced Study, Hangzhou 310024, Zhejiang, China
- Division of Solar Energy Conversion and Catalysis at Westlake University, Zhejiang Baima Lake Laboratory Co., Ltd., Hangzhou 310000, China
| | - Wenxing Yang
- Center of Artificial Photosynthesis for Solar Fuels and Department of Chemistry, School of Science and Research Center for Industries of the Future, Westlake University, Hangzhou 310024, Zhejiang, China
- Institute of Natural Sciences, Westlake Institute for Advanced Study, Hangzhou 310024, Zhejiang, China
- Division of Solar Energy Conversion and Catalysis at Westlake University, Zhejiang Baima Lake Laboratory Co., Ltd., Hangzhou 310000, China
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17
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He M, Wu Y, Li R, Wang Y, Liu C, Zhang B. Aqueous pulsed electrochemistry promotes C-N bond formation via a one-pot cascade approach. Nat Commun 2023; 14:5088. [PMID: 37607922 PMCID: PMC10444869 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-023-40892-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2023] [Accepted: 08/15/2023] [Indexed: 08/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Electrocatalytic C - N bond formation from inorganic nitrogen wastes is an emerging sustainable method for synthesizing organic amines but is limited in reaction scope. Integrating heterogeneous and homogeneous catalysis for one-pot reactions to construct C - N bonds is highly desirable. Herein, we report an aqueous pulsed electrochemistry-mediated transformation of nitrite and arylboronic acids to arylamines with high yields. The overall process involves nitrite electroreduction to ammonia over a Cu nanocoral cathode and subsequent coupling of NH3 with arylboronic acids catalyzed by in situ dissolved Cu(II) under a switched anodic potential. This pulsed protocol also promotes the migration of nucleophilic ArB(OH)3- and causes the consumption of OH- near the cathode surface, accelerating C - N formation and suppressing phenol byproducts. Cu(II) can be recycled via facile electroplating. The wide substrate scope, ready synthesis of 15N-labelled arylamines, and methodological expansion to cycloaddition and Click reactions highlight the great promise.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meng He
- Department of Chemistry, School of Science, Institute of Molecular Plus, Tianjin University, Tianjin, 300072, China
| | - Yongmeng Wu
- Department of Chemistry, School of Science, Institute of Molecular Plus, Tianjin University, Tianjin, 300072, China.
| | - Rui Li
- Department of Chemistry, School of Science, Institute of Molecular Plus, Tianjin University, Tianjin, 300072, China
| | - Yuting Wang
- Department of Chemistry, School of Science, Institute of Molecular Plus, Tianjin University, Tianjin, 300072, China
| | - Cuibo Liu
- Department of Chemistry, School of Science, Institute of Molecular Plus, Tianjin University, Tianjin, 300072, China
| | - Bin Zhang
- Department of Chemistry, School of Science, Institute of Molecular Plus, Tianjin University, Tianjin, 300072, China.
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18
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Wang C, Yang N, Li C, He J, Li H. Tuning Benzylic C-H Functionalization of (Thio)xanthenes with Electrochemistry. Molecules 2023; 28:6139. [PMID: 37630392 PMCID: PMC10459638 DOI: 10.3390/molecules28166139] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2023] [Revised: 08/13/2023] [Accepted: 08/14/2023] [Indexed: 08/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Here, we report a tunable electrochemical benzylic C-H functionalization of (thio)xanthenes with terminal alkynes and nitriles in the absence of any catalyst or external chemical oxidant. The benzylic C-H functionalization can be well controlled by varying the electrochemical conditions, affording the specific coupling products via C-C and C-N bond formation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Changji Wang
- School of Chemical Engineering, Anhui University of Science and Technology, 168 Taifeng Road, Huainan 232001, China
| | - Na Yang
- Key Laboratory of Green and Precise Synthetic Chemistry and Applications, Ministry of Education, School of Chemistry and Materials Science, Huaibei Normal University, Huaibei 235000, China; (N.Y.); (C.L.)
| | - Chao Li
- Key Laboratory of Green and Precise Synthetic Chemistry and Applications, Ministry of Education, School of Chemistry and Materials Science, Huaibei Normal University, Huaibei 235000, China; (N.Y.); (C.L.)
| | - Jian He
- Hefei New Online Technology Co., Ltd., Hefei 235000, China;
| | - Hongji Li
- Key Laboratory of Green and Precise Synthetic Chemistry and Applications, Ministry of Education, School of Chemistry and Materials Science, Huaibei Normal University, Huaibei 235000, China; (N.Y.); (C.L.)
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19
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Lepori M, Schmid S, Barham JP. Photoredox catalysis harvesting multiple photon or electrochemical energies. Beilstein J Org Chem 2023; 19:1055-1145. [PMID: 37533877 PMCID: PMC10390843 DOI: 10.3762/bjoc.19.81] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2023] [Accepted: 07/07/2023] [Indexed: 08/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Photoredox catalysis (PRC) is a cutting-edge frontier for single electron-transfer (SET) reactions, enabling the generation of reactive intermediates for both oxidative and reductive processes via photon activation of a catalyst. Although this represents a significant step towards chemoselective and, more generally, sustainable chemistry, its efficacy is limited by the energy of visible light photons. Nowadays, excellent alternative conditions are available to overcome these limitations, harvesting two different but correlated concepts: the use of multi-photon processes such as consecutive photoinduced electron transfer (conPET) and the combination of photo- and electrochemistry in synthetic photoelectrochemistry (PEC). Herein, we review the most recent contributions to these fields in both oxidative and reductive activations of organic functional groups. New opportunities for organic chemists are captured, such as selective reactions employing super-oxidants and super-reductants to engage unactivated chemical feedstocks, and scalability up to gram scales in continuous flow. This review provides comparisons between the two techniques (multi-photon photoredox catalysis and PEC) to help the reader to fully understand their similarities, differences and potential applications and to therefore choose which method is the most appropriate for a given reaction, scale and purpose of a project.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mattia Lepori
- Fakultät für Chemie und Pharmazie, Universität Regensburg, Universitatsstraße 31, 93040 Regensburg, Germany
| | - Simon Schmid
- Fakultät für Chemie und Pharmazie, Universität Regensburg, Universitatsstraße 31, 93040 Regensburg, Germany
| | - Joshua P Barham
- Fakultät für Chemie und Pharmazie, Universität Regensburg, Universitatsstraße 31, 93040 Regensburg, Germany
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20
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Dorchies F, Grimaud A. Fine tuning of electrosynthesis pathways by modulation of the electrolyte solvation structure. Chem Sci 2023; 14:7103-7113. [PMID: 37416712 PMCID: PMC10321496 DOI: 10.1039/d3sc01889j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2023] [Accepted: 05/23/2023] [Indexed: 07/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Electrosynthesis is a method of choice for designing new synthetic routes owing to its ability to selectively conduct reactions at controlled potentials, high functional group tolerance, mild conditions and sustainability when powered by renewables. When designing an electrosynthetic route, the selection of the electrolyte, which is composed of a solvent, or a mixture of solvents, and a supporting salt, is a prerequisite. The electrolyte components, generally assumed to be passive, are chosen because of their adequate electrochemical stability windows and to ensure the solubilization of the substrates. However, very recent studies point towards an active role of the electrolyte in the outcome of electrosynthetic reactions, challenging its inert character. Particular structuring of the electrolyte at nano- and micro-scales can occur and impact the yield and selectivity of the reaction, which is often overlooked. In the present Perspective, we highlight how mastering the electrolyte structure, both in bulk and at electrochemical interfaces, introduces an additional level of control for the design of new electrosynthetic methods. For this purpose, we focus our attention on oxygen-atom transfer reactions using water as the sole oxygen source in hybrid organic solvent/water mixtures, these reactions being emblematic of this new paradigm.
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Affiliation(s)
- Florian Dorchies
- Chimie du Solide et de l'Energie, UMR 8260, Collège de France 75231 Paris Cedex 05 France
- Réseau sur le Stockage Electrochimique de l'Energie (RS2E) CNRS FR3459 80039 Amiens Cedex France
| | - Alexis Grimaud
- Chimie du Solide et de l'Energie, UMR 8260, Collège de France 75231 Paris Cedex 05 France
- Réseau sur le Stockage Electrochimique de l'Energie (RS2E) CNRS FR3459 80039 Amiens Cedex France
- Department of Chemistry, Merkert Chemistry Center, Boston College 2609 Beacon Street, Chestnut Hill MA 02467 USA
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21
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Hioki Y, Costantini M, Griffin J, Harper KC, Merini MP, Nissl B, Kawamata Y, Baran PS. Overcoming the limitations of Kolbe coupling with waveform-controlled electrosynthesis. Science 2023; 380:81-87. [PMID: 37023204 DOI: 10.1126/science.adf4762] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 29.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/08/2023]
Abstract
The Kolbe reaction forms carbon-carbon bonds through electrochemical decarboxylative coupling. Despite more than a century of study, the reaction has seen limited applications owing to extremely poor chemoselectivity and reliance on precious metal electrodes. In this work, we present a simple solution to this long-standing challenge: Switching the potential waveform from classical direct current to rapid alternating polarity renders various functional groups compatible and enables the reaction on sustainable carbon-based electrodes (amorphous carbon). This breakthrough enabled access to valuable molecules that range from useful unnatural amino acids to promising polymer building blocks from readily available carboxylic acids, including biomass-derived acids. Preliminary mechanistic studies implicate the role of waveform in modulating the local pH around the electrodes and the crucial role of acetone as an unconventional reaction solvent for Kolbe reaction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuta Hioki
- Department of Chemistry, Scripps Research, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
- Science and Innovation Center, Mitsubishi Chemical Corporation, Aoba-ku, Yokohama, Kanagawa, 227-8502, Japan
| | | | - Jeremy Griffin
- Abbvie Process Research and Development, North Chicago, IL 60064, USA
| | - Kaid C Harper
- Abbvie Process Research and Development, North Chicago, IL 60064, USA
| | | | - Benedikt Nissl
- Department of Chemistry, Scripps Research, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
| | - Yu Kawamata
- Department of Chemistry, Scripps Research, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
| | - Phil S Baran
- Department of Chemistry, Scripps Research, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
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22
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Bai L, Fu B, Jiang X. A one-step gram-scale protocol for stereoselective domino dimerization to asperazine A analogs. STAR Protoc 2023; 4:102114. [PMID: 36861828 PMCID: PMC9985029 DOI: 10.1016/j.xpro.2023.102114] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2022] [Revised: 12/23/2022] [Accepted: 01/24/2023] [Indexed: 03/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Here, we present an efficient protocol for stereoselective 4N-based domino dimerization in one single step, establishing a 22-membered library of asperazine A analogs. We describe steps for performing a gram-scale 2N-monomer to access the unsymmetrical 4N-dimer. We detail the synthesis of the desired dimer 3a as a yellow solid in 78% yield. This process demonstrates the 2-(iodomethyl)cyclopropane-1,1-dicarboxylate to be an iodine cation source. The protocol is limited to unprotected aniline of 2N-monomer. For complete details on the use and execution of this protocol, please refer to Bai et al. (2022).1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leiyang Bai
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Green Chemistry and Chemical Process, Institute of Eco-Chongming, School of Chemistry and Molecular Engineering, East China Normal University, 3663 North Zhongshan Road, Shanghai 200062, P. R. China
| | - Bei Fu
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Green Chemistry and Chemical Process, Institute of Eco-Chongming, School of Chemistry and Molecular Engineering, East China Normal University, 3663 North Zhongshan Road, Shanghai 200062, P. R. China
| | - Xuefeng Jiang
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Green Chemistry and Chemical Process, Institute of Eco-Chongming, School of Chemistry and Molecular Engineering, East China Normal University, 3663 North Zhongshan Road, Shanghai 200062, P. R. China; State Key Laboratory of Organometallic Chemistry, Shanghai Institute of Organic Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 345 Lingling Road, Shanghai 200032, P. R. China; State Key Laboratory of Elemento-organic Chemistry, Nankai University, Tianjin 300071, P. R. China.
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23
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Abstract
Proteolysis-targeting chimeras (PROTACs) have shown great therapeutic potential by degrading various disease-causing proteins, particularly those related to tumors. Therefore, the introduction of PROTACs has ushered in a new chapter of antitumor drug development, marked by significant advances over recent years. Herein, we describe recent developments in PROTAC technology, focusing on design strategy, development workflow, and future outlooks. We also discuss potential opportunities and challenges for PROTAC research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Minglei Li
- School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Shandong First Medical University & Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences, Jinan, 250117 Shandong, P. R. China
| | - Ying Zhi
- School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Shandong First Medical University & Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences, Jinan, 250117 Shandong, P. R. China
| | - Bo Liu
- School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Shandong First Medical University & Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences, Jinan, 250117 Shandong, P. R. China
| | - Qingqiang Yao
- School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Shandong First Medical University & Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences, Jinan, 250117 Shandong, P. R. China
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24
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Karipal Padinjare Veedu D, Connal LA, Malins LR. Tunable Electrochemical Peptide Modifications: Unlocking New Levels of Orthogonality for Side-Chain Functionalization. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2023; 62:e202215470. [PMID: 36336657 PMCID: PMC10107541 DOI: 10.1002/anie.202215470] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2022] [Revised: 11/02/2022] [Accepted: 11/03/2022] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Electrochemical transformations provide enticing opportunities for programmable, residue-specific peptide modifications. Herein, we harness the potential of amidic side-chains as underutilized handles for late-stage modification through the development of an electroauxiliary-assisted oxidation of glutamine residues within unprotected peptides. Glutamine building blocks bearing electroactive side-chain N,S-acetals are incorporated into peptides using standard Fmoc-SPPS. Anodic oxidation of the electroauxiliary in the presence of diverse alcohol nucleophiles enables the installation of high-value N,O-acetal functionalities. Proof-of-principle for an electrochemical peptide stapling protocol, as well as the functionalization of dynorphin B, an endogenous opioid peptide, demonstrates the applicability of the method to intricate peptide systems. Finally, the site-selective and tunable electrochemical modification of a peptide bearing two discretely oxidizable sites is achieved.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dhanya Karipal Padinjare Veedu
- Research School of Chemistry, Australian National University, Canberra, ACT 2601, Australia.,Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for Innovations in Peptide and Protein Science, Australian National University, Canberra, ACT 2601, Australia
| | - Luke A Connal
- Research School of Chemistry, Australian National University, Canberra, ACT 2601, Australia
| | - Lara R Malins
- Research School of Chemistry, Australian National University, Canberra, ACT 2601, Australia.,Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for Innovations in Peptide and Protein Science, Australian National University, Canberra, ACT 2601, Australia
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25
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Bortnikov EO, Smith BS, Volochnyuk DM, Semenov SN. Stirring-Free Scalable Electrosynthesis Enabled by Alternating Current. Chemistry 2023; 29:e202203825. [PMID: 36594259 DOI: 10.1002/chem.202203825] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2022] [Revised: 12/30/2022] [Accepted: 01/02/2023] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
Alternating current (AC) electrolysis is receiving increased interest as a versatile tool for mild and selective electrochemical transformations. This work demonstrates that AC can enable the concept of a stirring-free electrochemical reactor where the periodic switch of electrode polarity, inherent to AC, provides uniform electrolysis across the whole volume of the reactor. Such design implies a straightforward approach for scaling up electrosynthesis. This was demonstrated on the range of electrochemical transformations performed in three different RVC-packed reactors on up to a 50-mmol scale. Redox-neutral, oxidative, and reductive processes were successfully implemented using the suggested design and the applicable frequency ranges were further investigated for different types of reactions. The advantages of the AC-enabled design - such as the absence of stirring and a maximized surface area of the electrodes - provide the possibility for its universal application both for small-scale screening experimentation and large-scale preparative electrosynthesis without significant optimization needed in between.
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Affiliation(s)
- Evgeniy O Bortnikov
- Department of Molecular Chemistry and Materials Science, Weizmann Institute of Science, 234 Herzl Street, Rehovot, 7610001, Israel
| | - Barbara S Smith
- School of Biological and Health Systems Engineering, Arizona State University, 550 E. Orange Street, Tempe, Arizona, 85281, USA
| | | | - Sergey N Semenov
- Department of Molecular Chemistry and Materials Science, Weizmann Institute of Science, 234 Herzl Street, Rehovot, 7610001, Israel
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26
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Klein M, Waldvogel SR. Counter Electrode Reactions-Important Stumbling Blocks on the Way to a Working Electro-organic Synthesis. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2022; 61:e202204140. [PMID: 35668714 PMCID: PMC9828107 DOI: 10.1002/anie.202204140] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2022] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
Over the past two decades, electro-organic synthesis has gained significant interest, both in technical and academic research as well as in terms of applications. The omission of stoichiometric oxidizers or reducing agents enables a more sustainable route for redox reactions in organic chemistry. Even if it is well-known that every electrochemical oxidation is only viable with an associated reduction reaction and vice versa, the relevance of the counter reaction is often less addressed. In this Review, the importance of the corresponding counter reaction in electro-organic synthesis is highlighted and how it can affect the performance and selectivity of the electrolytic conversion. A selection of common strategies and unique concepts to tackle this issue are surveyed to provide a guide to select appropriate counter reactions for electro-organic synthesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin Klein
- Department of ChemistryJohannes Gutenberg University MainzDuesbergweg 10–1455128MainzGermany
| | - Siegfried R. Waldvogel
- Department of ChemistryJohannes Gutenberg University MainzDuesbergweg 10–1455128MainzGermany
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27
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Hilt G, Jamshidi M, Fastie C. Applications of Alternating Current/Alternating Potential Electrolysis in Organic Synthesis. SYNTHESIS-STUTTGART 2022. [DOI: 10.1055/s-0042-1751367] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/14/2022]
Abstract
AbstractThis review summarises the rarely used method of alternating current electrolysis for the synthesis of organic products. Different waveforms have been investigated which opens the possibility for further influence the outcome of the electrolysis by variation of the frequency as well as the highest peak current. In recent years alternating current electrolysis has been applied in increasingly more complex transformations. Especially the functionalisation of (hetero)arenes, functional group manipulation, metathesis reactions, and transition-metal-catalysed cross-coupling reactions were reported in recent years and the results of these and some other investigations are summarized in this review article.1 Introduction1.1 Waveforms1.2 Objectives1.3 Early Examples of the Optimisation of Alternating Current Electrolysis2 Recent Applications of Alternating Current Electrolysis for Organic Synthesis2.1 Substitution Reaction on Arenes2.2 Nitrogen–Sulfur Bond Formation and Sulfur–Sulfur Bond Metathesis2.3 Oxidation and Reduction2.4 Cross-Coupling Reactions2.5 Frequency Optimisation3 Conclusion
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28
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Dhankhar J, Hofer MD, Linden A, Čorić I. Site-Selective C-H Arylation of Diverse Arenes Ortho to Small Alkyl Groups. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2022; 61:e202205470. [PMID: 35830351 DOI: 10.1002/anie.202205470] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2022] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
Catalytic systems for direct C-H activation of arenes commonly show preference for electronically activated and sterically exposed C-H sites. Here we show that a range of functionally rich and pharmaceutically relevant arene classes can undergo site-selective C-H arylation ortho to small alkyl substituents, preferably endocyclic methylene groups. The C-H activation is experimentally supported as being the selectivity-determining step, while computational studies of the transition state models indicate the relevance of non-covalent interactions between the catalyst and the methylene group of the substrate. Our results suggest that preference for C(sp2 )-H activation next to alkyl groups could be a general selectivity mode, distinct from common steric and electronic factors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jyoti Dhankhar
- Department of Chemistry, University of Zurich, Winterthurerstrasse 190, 8057, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Micha D Hofer
- Department of Chemistry, University of Zurich, Winterthurerstrasse 190, 8057, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Anthony Linden
- Department of Chemistry, University of Zurich, Winterthurerstrasse 190, 8057, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Ilija Čorić
- Department of Chemistry, University of Zurich, Winterthurerstrasse 190, 8057, Zurich, Switzerland
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29
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Lou TS, Kawamata Y, Ewing T, Correa‐Otero GA, Collins MR, Baran PS. Scalable, Chemoselective Nickel Electrocatalytic Sulfinylation of Aryl Halides with SO
2. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2022; 61:e202208080. [PMID: 35819400 PMCID: PMC9452475 DOI: 10.1002/anie.202208080] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Simple access to aryl sulfinates from aryl iodides and bromides is reported using an inexpensive Ni‐electrocatalytic protocol. The reaction exhibits a broad scope, uses stock solution of simple SO2 as sulfur source, and can be scaled up in batch and recycle flow settings. The limitations of this reaction are clearly shown and put into context by benchmarking with state‐of‐the‐art Pd‐based methods.
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Affiliation(s)
- Terry Shing‐Bong Lou
- Department of Chemistry Scripps Research 10550 North Torrey Pines Road La Jolla CA 92037 USA
| | - Yu Kawamata
- Department of Chemistry Scripps Research 10550 North Torrey Pines Road La Jolla CA 92037 USA
| | - Tamara Ewing
- Department of Chemistry Scripps Research 10550 North Torrey Pines Road La Jolla CA 92037 USA
| | | | - Michael R. Collins
- Oncology Medicinal Chemistry Department Pfizer Pharmaceuticals 10770 Science Center Drive San Diego CA 92121 USA
| | - Phil S. Baran
- Department of Chemistry Scripps Research 10550 North Torrey Pines Road La Jolla CA 92037 USA
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30
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Grillo G, Cintas P, Colia M, Calcio Gaudino E, Cravotto G. Process intensification in continuous flow organic synthesis with enabling and hybrid technologies. FRONTIERS IN CHEMICAL ENGINEERING 2022. [DOI: 10.3389/fceng.2022.966451] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Industrial organic synthesis is time and energy consuming, and generates substantial waste. Traditional conductive heating and mixing in batch reactors is no longer competitive with continuous-flow synthetic methods and enabling technologies that can strongly promote reaction kinetics. These advances lead to faster and simplified downstream processes with easier workup, purification and process scale-up. In the current Industry 4.0 revolution, new advances that are based on cyber-physical systems and artificial intelligence will be able to optimize and invigorate synthetic processes by connecting cascade reactors with continuous in-line monitoring and even predict solutions in case of unforeseen events. Alternative energy sources, such as dielectric and ohmic heating, ultrasound, hydrodynamic cavitation, reactive extruders and plasma have revolutionized standard procedures. So-called hybrid or hyphenated techniques, where the combination of two different energy sources often generates synergistic effects, are also worthy of mention. Herein, we report our consolidated experience of all of these alternative techniques.
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31
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Zhang LM, Yuan DF, Fu ZH, Li HR, Li M, Wen LR, Zhang LB. Electrochemical synthesis of α-thiocyanato-α-carbonyl sulfoxonium ylides. Tetrahedron Lett 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tetlet.2022.154165] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/14/2022]
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32
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Xi XJ, Hu J, Chen HY, Xu JJ. Rapid identification of the short-lived intermediates in alternating-current electrolysis by mass spectrometry. Chem Commun (Camb) 2022; 58:10233-10236. [PMID: 36004520 DOI: 10.1039/d2cc04363g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Herein, we report the rapid mass spectrometric identification of the short-lived intermediates generated under AC electrolysis via combining bipolar electrochemistry with nanoelectrospray ionization in a hybrid ultramicroelectrode/ion emitter. The key reactive intermediates involved in the C-O/O-H cross-metathesis between 4-alkoxy anilines and alcohols were successfully captured and identified for the first time, providing direct evidence for the previously proposed mechanism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiao-Jun Xi
- State Key Laboratory of Analytical Chemistry for Life Science, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210023, P. R. China.
| | - Jun Hu
- State Key Laboratory of Analytical Chemistry for Life Science, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210023, P. R. China.
| | - Hong-Yuan Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Analytical Chemistry for Life Science, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210023, P. R. China.
| | - Jing-Juan Xu
- State Key Laboratory of Analytical Chemistry for Life Science, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210023, P. R. China.
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33
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Site‐Selective C–H Arylation of Diverse Arenes Ortho to Small Alkyl Groups. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2022. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.202205470] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
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34
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Lou TSB, Kawamata Y, Ewing T, Correa-Otero GA, Collins MR, Baran PS. Scalable, Chemoselective Nickel Electrocatalytic Sulfinylation of Aryl Halides with SO2. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2022. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.202208080] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Yu Kawamata
- The Scripps Research Institute Chemistry 10950 N. Torrey Pines Rd 92037 La Jolla UNITED STATES
| | - Tamara Ewing
- The Scripps Research Institute chemistry UNITED STATES
| | | | - Michael R. Collins
- Pfizer Global Pharmaceuticals: Pfizer Inc Oncology Medicinal Chemistry Department UNITED STATES
| | - Phil S. Baran
- The Scripps Research Institute Department of Chemistry 10550 North Torrey pines RoadBCC-169 92037 La Jolla UNITED STATES
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35
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Mesoporous Magnetic Cysteine Functionalized Chitosan Nanocomposite for Selective Uranyl Ions Sorption: Experimental, Structural Characterization, and Mechanistic Studies. Polymers (Basel) 2022; 14:polym14132568. [PMID: 35808614 PMCID: PMC9268972 DOI: 10.3390/polym14132568] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2022] [Revised: 06/19/2022] [Accepted: 06/20/2022] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Nuclear power facilities are being expanded to satisfy expanding worldwide energy demand. Thus, uranium recovery from secondary resources has become a hot topic in terms of environmental protection and nuclear fuel conservation. Herein, a mesoporous biosorbent of a hybrid magnetic–chitosan nanocomposite functionalized with cysteine (Cys) was synthesized via subsequent heterogeneous nucleation for selectively enhanced uranyl ion (UO22+) sorption. Various analytical tools were used to confirm the mesoporous nanocomposite structural characteristics and confirm the synthetic route. The characteristics of the synthesized nanocomposite were as follows: superparamagnetic with saturation magnetization (MS: 25.81 emu/g), a specific surface area (SBET: 42.56 m2/g) with a unipore mesoporous structure, an amine content of ~2.43 mmol N/g, and a density of ~17.19/nm2. The experimental results showed that the sorption was highly efficient: for the isotherm fitted by the Langmuir equation, the maximum capacity was about 0.575 mmol U/g at pH range 3.5–5.0, and Temperature (25 ± 1 °C); further, there was excellent selectivity for UO22+, likely due to the chemical valent difference. The sorption process was fast (~50 min), simulated with the pseudo-second-order equation, and the sorption half-time (t1/2) was 3.86 min. The sophisticated spectroscopic studies (FTIR and XPS) revealed that the sorption mechanism was linked to complexation and ion exchange by interaction with S/N/O multiple functional groups. The sorption was exothermic, spontaneous, and governed by entropy change. Desorption and regeneration were carried out using an acidified urea solution (0.25 M) that was recycled for a minimum of six cycles, resulting in a sorption and desorption efficiency of over 91%. The as-synthesized nanocomposite’s high stability, durability, and chemical resistivity were confirmed over multiple cycles using FTIR and leachability. Finally, the sorbent was efficiently tested for selective uranium sorption from multicomponent acidic simulated nuclear solution. Owing to such excellent performance, the Cys nanocomposite is greatly promising in the uranium recovery field.
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36
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Endo H, Ochi M, Rahman MA, Hamada T, Kawano T, Nokami T. Synthesis of cyclic α-1,4-oligo- N-acetylglucosamine 'cyclokasaodorin' via a one-pot electrochemical polyglycosylation-isomerization-cyclization process. Chem Commun (Camb) 2022; 58:7948-7951. [PMID: 35748909 DOI: 10.1039/d2cc02287g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Electrochemical synthesis of unnatural cyclic oligosaccharides composed of N-acetylglucosamine with α-1,4-glycosidic linkages has been accomplished. A thioglycoside monomer equipped with the 2,3-oxazolidinone protecting group was used to prepare linear oligosaccharides by electrochemical polyglycosylation. In the same pot, isomerization of the linear oligosaccharides and intramolecular electrochemical glycosylation for cyclization were also conducted sequentially to obtain the precursor of the cyclic α-1,4-oligo-N-acetylglucosamine 'cyclokasaodorin'.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hirofumi Endo
- Department of Chemistry and Biotechnology, Tottori University, 4-101 Koyamacho Minami, Tottori City, 680-8552 Tottori, Japan.
| | - Masaharu Ochi
- Department of Chemistry and Biotechnology, Tottori University, 4-101 Koyamacho Minami, Tottori City, 680-8552 Tottori, Japan.
| | - Md Azadur Rahman
- Department of Chemistry and Biotechnology, Tottori University, 4-101 Koyamacho Minami, Tottori City, 680-8552 Tottori, Japan.
| | - Tomoaki Hamada
- Koganei Corporation, 3-11-28 Midorimachi, Koganei City, 184-8533 Tokyo, Japan
| | - Takahiro Kawano
- Koganei Corporation, 3-11-28 Midorimachi, Koganei City, 184-8533 Tokyo, Japan
| | - Toshiki Nokami
- Department of Chemistry and Biotechnology, Tottori University, 4-101 Koyamacho Minami, Tottori City, 680-8552 Tottori, Japan. .,Centre for Research on Green Sustainable Chemistry, Faculty of Engineering, Tottori University, 4-101 Koyamacho Minami, Tottori City, 680-8552 Tottori, Japan
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37
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Shi Z, Li N, Wang WZ, Lu HK, Yuan Y, Li Z, Ye KY. Electrochemical 5- exo-dig aza-cyclization of 2-alkynylbenzamides toward 3-hydroxyisoindolinone derivatives. Org Biomol Chem 2022; 20:4320-4323. [PMID: 35593414 DOI: 10.1039/d2ob00637e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Preparation of biologically relevant 3-hydroxyisoindolinones from readily available 2-alkynylbenzamides is an appealing synthetic approach. However, such kinds of compounds preferably undergo O-attacked 5-exo-dig/6-endo-dig cyclizations. Herein, we report an electrochemically generated amidyl radical proceeding via a highly selective N-attacked 5-exo-dig radical cyclization to form 3-hydroxyisoindolinone derivatives. This reaction features simple operation, good selectivity, and broad substrate scope. Moreover, gram-scale preparation and synthetic elaborations imply the potential applicability of this protocol for the synthesis of diverse isoindolinone derivatives.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhaojiang Shi
- Institute of Pharmaceutical Science and Technology, College of Chemistry, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou 350108, China.
| | - Nan Li
- Institute of Pharmaceutical Science and Technology, College of Chemistry, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou 350108, China.
| | - Wei-Zhen Wang
- Institute of Pharmaceutical Science and Technology, College of Chemistry, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou 350108, China.
| | - Hao-Kuan Lu
- Institute of Pharmaceutical Science and Technology, College of Chemistry, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou 350108, China.
| | - Yaofeng Yuan
- Institute of Pharmaceutical Science and Technology, College of Chemistry, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou 350108, China.
| | - Zhen Li
- Institute of Molecular Aggregation Science, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, China
| | - Ke-Yin Ye
- Institute of Pharmaceutical Science and Technology, College of Chemistry, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou 350108, China. .,State Key Laboratory of Physical Chemistry of Solid Surfaces, Xiamen University, Xiamen 361005, China
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38
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Keith JA, McKone JR, Snyder JD, Tang MH. Deeper learning in electrocatalysis: realizing opportunities and addressing challenges. Curr Opin Chem Eng 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.coche.2022.100824] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
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39
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Gunasekera D, Mahajan JP, Wanzi Y, Rodrigo S, Liu W, Tan T, Luo L. Controlling One- or Two-Electron Oxidation for Selective Amine Functionalization by Alternating Current Frequency. J Am Chem Soc 2022; 144:9874-9882. [PMID: 35622985 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.2c02605] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Here, we report a unique electrosynthetic method that enables the selective one-electron oxidation of tertiary amines to generate α-amino radical intermediates over two-electron oxidation to iminium cations, providing easy access to arylation products by simply applying an optimal alternating current (AC) frequency. More importantly, we have discovered an electrochemical descriptor from cyclic voltammetry studies to predict the optimal AC frequency for various amine substrates, circumventing the time-consuming trial-and-error methods for optimizing reaction conditions. This new development in AC electrolysis provides an alternative strategy to solving challenging chemoselectivity problems in synthetic organic chemistry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Disni Gunasekera
- Department of Chemistry, Wayne State University, Detroit, Michigan 48202, United States
| | - Jyoti P Mahajan
- Department of Chemistry, Wayne State University, Detroit, Michigan 48202, United States
| | - Yanick Wanzi
- Department of Chemistry, Wayne State University, Detroit, Michigan 48202, United States
| | - Sachini Rodrigo
- Department of Chemistry, Wayne State University, Detroit, Michigan 48202, United States
| | - Wei Liu
- Laboratory of Theoretical and Computational Nanoscience, CAS Center for Excellence in Nanoscience, National Center for Nanoscience and Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China
| | - Ting Tan
- Laboratory of Theoretical and Computational Nanoscience, CAS Center for Excellence in Nanoscience, National Center for Nanoscience and Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China
| | - Long Luo
- Department of Chemistry, Wayne State University, Detroit, Michigan 48202, United States
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40
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Chen W, Ni S, Wang Y, Pan Y. Electrochemical-Promoted Nickel-Catalyzed Reductive Allylation of Aryl Halides. Org Lett 2022; 24:3647-3651. [PMID: 35579336 DOI: 10.1021/acs.orglett.2c01247] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Compared with conventional reductive coupling, reductive coupling under electrochemical conditions without external reductants is greener, milder, and more efficient and is of increasing interest to organic chemists. In this work, we report the sacrificial anode, nickel-catalyzed electrochemical allylation reaction of aryl and alkyl halides. The reaction can be applied to a range of allylation reagents such as trifluoroalkenes, oxalates, and acetates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wangzhe Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Coordination Chemistry, Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Advanced Organic Materials, Collaborative Innovation Center of Advanced Microstructures, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210023, China
| | - Shengyang Ni
- State Key Laboratory of Coordination Chemistry, Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Advanced Organic Materials, Collaborative Innovation Center of Advanced Microstructures, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210023, China
| | - Yi Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Coordination Chemistry, Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Advanced Organic Materials, Collaborative Innovation Center of Advanced Microstructures, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210023, China
| | - Yi Pan
- State Key Laboratory of Coordination Chemistry, Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Advanced Organic Materials, Collaborative Innovation Center of Advanced Microstructures, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210023, China
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41
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Wang D, Jiang T, Wan H, Chen Z, Qi J, Yang A, Huang Z, Yuan Y, Lei A. Alternating Current Electrolysis Enabled Formal C-O/O-H Cross-Metathesis of 4-Alkoxy Anilines with Alcohols. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2022; 61:e202201543. [PMID: 35201639 DOI: 10.1002/anie.202201543] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2022] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
While multiple bond metathesis reactions, for example olefin metathesis, have seen considerable recent progress, direct metathesis of traditionally inert C-O single bonds is extremely rare and particularly challenging. Undoubtedly, metathesis reaction of C-O bonds is one of the most ideal routes for the value-added upgrading of molecules involving C-O bonds. Reported here is a new protocol to achieve the formal C-O/O-H cross-metathesis via alternating current electrolysis. Featuring mild reaction conditions, the protocol allows readily available 4-alkoxy anilines and alcohols to be converted into a wide range of valuable products in highly regioselective and chemoselective manner. Moreover, the present strategy can be used in the late-stage modification of pharmaceuticals as well as biologically active compounds, which demonstrated the potential application.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daoxin Wang
- National Research Center for Carbohydrate Synthesis, Jiangxi Normal University, Nanchang, 330022, P. R. China
| | - Tengfei Jiang
- National Research Center for Carbohydrate Synthesis, Jiangxi Normal University, Nanchang, 330022, P. R. China
| | - Hao Wan
- National Research Center for Carbohydrate Synthesis, Jiangxi Normal University, Nanchang, 330022, P. R. China
| | - Ziyue Chen
- National Research Center for Carbohydrate Synthesis, Jiangxi Normal University, Nanchang, 330022, P. R. China
| | - Junchao Qi
- National Research Center for Carbohydrate Synthesis, Jiangxi Normal University, Nanchang, 330022, P. R. China
| | - Anqi Yang
- National Research Center for Carbohydrate Synthesis, Jiangxi Normal University, Nanchang, 330022, P. R. China
| | - Zhiliang Huang
- College of Chemistry and Molecular Sciences, The Institute for Advanced Studies (IAS), Wuhan University, Wuhan, 430072, P. R. China
| | - Yong Yuan
- College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Northwest Normal University, Lanzhou, Gansu 730070, China
| | - Aiwen Lei
- National Research Center for Carbohydrate Synthesis, Jiangxi Normal University, Nanchang, 330022, P. R. China.,College of Chemistry and Molecular Sciences, The Institute for Advanced Studies (IAS), Wuhan University, Wuhan, 430072, P. R. China
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42
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Sosič I, Bricelj A, Steinebach C. E3 ligase ligand chemistries: from building blocks to protein degraders. Chem Soc Rev 2022; 51:3487-3534. [PMID: 35393989 DOI: 10.1039/d2cs00148a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 24.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
In recent years, proteolysis-targeting chimeras (PROTACs), capable of achieving targeted protein degradation, have proven their great therapeutic potential and usefulness as molecular biology tools. These heterobifunctional compounds are comprised of a protein-targeting ligand, an appropriate linker, and a ligand binding to the E3 ligase of choice. A successful PROTAC induces the formation of a ternary complex, leading to the E3 ligase-mediated ubiquitination of the targeted protein and its proteasomal degradation. In over 20 years since the concept was first demonstrated, the field has grown substantially, mainly due to the advancements in the discovery of non-peptidic E3 ligase ligands. Development of small-molecule E3 binders with favourable physicochemical profiles aided the design of PROTACs, which are known for breaking the rules of established guidelines for discovering small molecules. Synthetic accessibility of the ligands and numerous successful applications led to the prevalent use of cereblon and von Hippel-Lindau as the hijacked E3 ligase. However, the pool of over 600 human E3 ligases is full of untapped potential, which is why expanding the artillery of E3 ligands could contribute to broadening the scope of targeted protein degradation. In this comprehensive review, we focus on the chemistry aspect of the PROTAC design process by providing an overview of liganded E3 ligases, their chemistries, appropriate derivatisation, and synthetic approaches towards their incorporation into heterobifunctional degraders. By covering syntheses of both established and underexploited E3 ligases, this review can serve as a chemistry blueprint for PROTAC researchers during their future ventures into the complex field of targeted protein degradation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Izidor Sosič
- Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Ljubljana, SI-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Aleša Bricelj
- Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Ljubljana, SI-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Christian Steinebach
- Pharmaceutical Institute, Pharmaceutical & Medicinal Chemistry, University of Bonn, An der Immenburg 4, D-53121 Bonn, Germany
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43
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Hayashi K, Griffin J, Harper KC, Kawamata Y, Baran PS. Chemoselective (Hetero)Arene Electroreduction Enabled by Rapid Alternating Polarity. J Am Chem Soc 2022; 144:5762-5768. [PMID: 35347984 PMCID: PMC9216236 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.2c02102] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Conventional chemical and even electrochemical Birch-type reductions suffer from a lack of chemoselectivity due to a reliance on alkali metals or harshly reducing conditions. This study reveals that a simpler avenue is available for such reductions by simply altering the waveform of current delivery, namely rapid alternating polarity (rAP). The developed method solves these issues, proceeding in a protic solvent, and can be easily scaled up without any metal additives or stringently anhydrous conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kyohei Hayashi
- Department of Chemistry, Scripps Research, 10550 North Torrey Pines Road, La Jolla, California 92037, United States
| | - Jeremy Griffin
- Abbvie Process Research and Development, 1401 North Sheridan Road, North Chicago, Illinois 60064, United States
| | - Kaid C. Harper
- Abbvie Process Research and Development, 1401 North Sheridan Road, North Chicago, Illinois 60064, United States
| | - Yu Kawamata
- Department of Chemistry, Scripps Research, 10550 North Torrey Pines Road, La Jolla, California 92037, United States
| | - Phil S. Baran
- Department of Chemistry, Scripps Research, 10550 North Torrey Pines Road, La Jolla, California 92037, United States
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44
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Wang D, Jiang T, Wan H, Chen Z, Qi J, Yang A, Huang Z, Yuan Y, Lei A. Alternating Current Electrolysis Enabled Formal C−O/O−H Cross‐Metathesis of 4‐Alkoxy Anilines with Alcohols. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2022. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.202201543] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Daoxin Wang
- National Research Center for Carbohydrate Synthesis Jiangxi Normal University Nanchang 330022 P. R. China
| | - Tengfei Jiang
- National Research Center for Carbohydrate Synthesis Jiangxi Normal University Nanchang 330022 P. R. China
| | - Hao Wan
- National Research Center for Carbohydrate Synthesis Jiangxi Normal University Nanchang 330022 P. R. China
| | - Ziyue Chen
- National Research Center for Carbohydrate Synthesis Jiangxi Normal University Nanchang 330022 P. R. China
| | - Junchao Qi
- National Research Center for Carbohydrate Synthesis Jiangxi Normal University Nanchang 330022 P. R. China
| | - Anqi Yang
- National Research Center for Carbohydrate Synthesis Jiangxi Normal University Nanchang 330022 P. R. China
| | - Zhiliang Huang
- College of Chemistry and Molecular Sciences The Institute for Advanced Studies (IAS) Wuhan University Wuhan 430072 P. R. China
| | - Yong Yuan
- College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering Northwest Normal University Lanzhou Gansu 730070 China
| | - Aiwen Lei
- National Research Center for Carbohydrate Synthesis Jiangxi Normal University Nanchang 330022 P. R. China
- College of Chemistry and Molecular Sciences The Institute for Advanced Studies (IAS) Wuhan University Wuhan 430072 P. R. China
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45
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Wu S, Kaur J, Karl TA, Tian X, Barham JP. Synthetische molekulare Photoelektrochemie: neue synthetische Anwendungen, mechanistische Einblicke und Möglichkeiten zur Skalierung. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2022. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.202107811] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Shangze Wu
- Universität Regensburg Fakultät für Chemie und Pharmazie 93040 Regensburg Deutschland
| | - Jaspreet Kaur
- Universität Regensburg Fakultät für Chemie und Pharmazie 93040 Regensburg Deutschland
| | - Tobias A. Karl
- Universität Regensburg Fakultät für Chemie und Pharmazie 93040 Regensburg Deutschland
| | - Xianhai Tian
- Universität Regensburg Fakultät für Chemie und Pharmazie 93040 Regensburg Deutschland
| | - Joshua P. Barham
- Universität Regensburg Fakultät für Chemie und Pharmazie 93040 Regensburg Deutschland
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46
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Lamb C, Shi J, Wilden JD, Macmillan D. Novel electrochemically-mediated peptide dethiylation in processes relevant to native chemical ligation. Org Biomol Chem 2022; 20:7343-7350. [DOI: 10.1039/d2ob01499h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Here we explore electrochemical dethiylation in processes relevant to Native Chemical Ligation (NCL). NCL’s reliance on the redox active amino acid cysteine and β-mercaptoamine derivatives suggests a potential role for...
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47
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Norcott PL. Current Electrochemical Approaches to Selective Deuteration. Chem Commun (Camb) 2022; 58:2944-2953. [DOI: 10.1039/d2cc00344a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
The selective deuteration of organic molecules through electrochemistry is proving to be an effective alternative to conventional 2H labelling strategies, which traditionally require high temperatures, high pressures of deuterium gas...
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48
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Zhong J, Ding C, Kim H, McCallum T, Ye K. Alternating current electrolysis: a photoredox catalysis mimic and beyond. GREEN SYNTHESIS AND CATALYSIS 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.gresc.2022.01.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022] Open
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49
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Mackay AS, Payne RJ, Malins LR. Electrochemistry for the Chemoselective Modification of Peptides and Proteins. J Am Chem Soc 2021; 144:23-41. [PMID: 34968405 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.1c11185] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Although electrochemical strategies for small-molecule synthesis are flourishing, this technology has yet to be fully exploited for the mild and chemoselective modification of peptides and proteins. With the growing number of diverse peptide natural products being identified and the emergence of modified proteins as therapeutic and diagnostic agents, methods for electrochemical modification stand as alluring prospects for harnessing the reactivity of polypeptides to build molecular complexity. As a mild and inherently tunable reaction platform, electrochemistry is arguably well-suited to overcome the chemo- and regioselectivity issues which limit existing bioconjugation strategies. This Perspective will showcase recently developed electrochemical approaches to peptide and protein modification. The article also highlights the wealth of untapped opportunities for the production of homogeneously modified biomolecules, with an eye toward realizing the enormous potential of electrochemistry for chemoselective bioconjugation chemistry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Angus S Mackay
- School of Chemistry, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia.,Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for Innovations in Peptide and Protein Science, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia
| | - Richard J Payne
- School of Chemistry, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia.,Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for Innovations in Peptide and Protein Science, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia
| | - Lara R Malins
- Research School of Chemistry, Australian National University, Canberra, ACT 2601, Australia.,Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for Innovations in Peptide and Protein Science, Australian National University, Canberra, ACT 2601, Australia
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