In Situ Monitoring of Electrooxidation Processes at Gold Single Crystal Surfaces Using Shell-Isolated Nanoparticle-Enhanced Raman Spectroscopy

Surface Extraction Process During Initial Oxidation of Pt(111): Effect of Hydrophilic/Hydrophobic Cations in Alkaline Media

The surface oxidation states of the metal electrodes affect the activity, selectivity, and stability of the electrocatalysts. Oxide formation and reduction on such electrodes must be comprehensively understood to achieve next-generation electrocatalysts with outstanding performance and stability. Herein, the initial electrochemical oxidation of Pt(111) in alkaline media containing hydrophilic and hydrophobic cations is investigated by X-ray crystal truncation rod (CTR) scattering, infrared (IR) spectroscopy, and nanoparticle-based surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS). Structural determination using X-ray CTR revealed surface buckling and Pt extraction at the initial stage of surface oxidation, depending on the cationic species. Vibrational spectroscopy is performed to identify the potential- and cation-dependent formation of three oxide species (IR-active OHad, Raman-active OHad/Oad(H2O), and Raman-active Oad). Hydrophilic alkali metal cations (Li+) inhibit surface roughening via irreversible oxide formation. Hydrophilic Li+ can strongly stabilize IR-active OHad, hindering the extraction of Pt surface atoms. Interestingly, bulky hydrophobic cations such as tetramethylammonium (TMA+) cation also reduce the extent of irreversible oxidation despite the absence of IR-active OHad. Hydrophobic TMA+ inhibits the formation of Raman-active OHad/Oad(H2O) associated with Pt extraction. In contrast, the moderate hydrophilicity of K+ has no protective effect against irreversible oxidation. Moderate hydrophilicity enables the coadsorption of Raman-active OHad/Oad(H2O) and Raman-active Oad. The electrostatic repulsion between Raman-active OHad/Oad(H2O) and neighboring Raman-active Oad promotes Pt extraction. These results provide insights into controlling the surface structures of electrocatalysts using cationic species during the oxide formation and reduction processes.

Sixty years of electrochemical optical spectroscopy: a retrospective

Sixty years ago, Reddy, Devanatan, and Bockris performed the first in situ electrochemical ellipsometry experiment, which ushered in a new era in the study of electrochemistry, using optical spectroscopy. After six decades of development, electrochemical optical spectroscopy, particularly electrochemical vibrational spectroscopy, has advanced from a phase of immaturity with few methods and limited applications to a phase of maturity with excellent substrate generality and significantly improved resolutions. Here, we divide the development of electrochemical optical spectroscopy into four phases, focusing on the proof-of-concept of different electrochemical optical spectroscopy studies, the emergence of plasmonic enhancement-based electrochemical optical spectroscopic (in particular vibrational spectroscopic) methods, the realization of electrochemical vibrational spectroscopy on well-defined surfaces, and the efforts to achieve operando spectroelectrochemical applications. Finally, we discuss the future development trend of electrochemical optical spectroscopy, as well as examples of new methodology and research paradigms for operando spectroelectrochemistry.

Raman Spectra of Electrified Si-Water Interfaces: First-Principles Simulations

We investigate the Raman spectra of liquid water in contact with a semiconductor surface using first-principles molecular dynamics simulations. We focus on a hydrogenated silicon-water interface and compute the Raman spectra from time correlation functions of the polarizability. We establish a relationship between Raman spectral signatures and structural properties of the liquid at the interface, and we identify the vibrational impacts of an applied electric field. We show that negative bias leads to a reduction of the number of hydrogen bonds (HBs) formed between the surface and the topmost water layer and an enhancement of the HB interactions between water molecules. Instead, positive bias leads to an enhancement of both the HB interactions between water and the surface and between water molecules, creating a semi-ordered interfacial layer. Our work provides molecular-level insights into electrified semiconductor/water interfaces and the identification of specific structural features through Raman spectroscopy.

Direct Capturing and Regulating Key Intermediates for High-Efficiency Oxygen Evolution Reactions

Developing efficient oxygen evolution reaction (OER) electrocatalysts can greatly advance the commercialization of proton exchange membrane (PEM) water electrolysis. However, the unclear and disputed reaction mechanism and structure-activity relationship of OER pose significant obstacles. Herein, the active site and intermediate for OER on AuIr nanoalloys are simultaneously identified and correlated with the activity, through the integration of in situ shell-isolated nanoparticle-enhanced Raman spectroscopy and X-ray absorption spectroscopy. The AuIr nanoalloys display excellent OER performance with an overpotential of only 246 mV to achieve 10 mA cm-2 and long-term stability under strong acidic conditions. Direct spectroscopic evidence demonstrates that * OO adsorbed on IrOx sites is the key intermediate for OER, and it is generated through the O-O coupling of adsorbed oxygen species directly from water, providing clear support for the adsorbate evolution mechanism. Moreover, the Raman information of the * OO intermediate can serve as a universal "in situ descriptor" that can be obtained both experimentally and theoretically to accelerate the catalyst design. It unveils that weakening the interactions of * OO on the catalysts and facilitating its desorption would boost the OER performance. This work deepens the mechanistic understandings on OER and provides insightful guidance for the design of more efficient OER catalysts.

Plasmon enhanced fluorescence from meticulously positioned gold nanoparticles, deposited by ultra sonic spray coating on organic light emitting diodes

Enhancement of the spontaneous emission of fluorophores aided by plasmonic nanoparticles (PNPs) prompts the growth of plasmonic organic light emitting diodes (OLEDs). Together with the spatial dependence of the fluorophore and PNPs on enhanced fluorescence, the surface coverage of the PNPs controls the charge transport in OLEDs. Hence, here, the spatial and surface coverage reliance of plasmonic gold nanoparticles is controlled by a roll-to-roll compatible ultrasonic spray coating technique. A 2-fold enhancement in the multi photon fluorescence is seen by two-photon fluorescence microscopy for a polystyrene sulfonate (PSS) stabilized gold nanoparticle located 10 nm away from the super yellow fluorophore. Fluorescence enhancement combined with ∼2% surface coverage of PNPs, provides a 33%, 20% and ∼40% increase in the electroluminescence, luminous efficacy and external quantum efficiency, respectively.

In Situ Spectroscopic Identification of the Electron-Transfer Intermediates of Photoelectrochemical Proton-Coupled Electron Transfer of Water Oxidation on Au

Experimental elucidation of the decoupling of electron and proton transfer at a molecular level is essential for thoroughly understanding the kinetics of heterogeneous (photo)electrochemical proton-coupled electron transfer water oxidation. Here we illustrate the electron-transfer intermediates of positively charged surface oxygenated species on Au (Au-OH⁺) and their correlations with the rate of water oxidation by in situ microphotoelectrochemical surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS) and ambient-pressure X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy. At the intermediate stage of water oxidation, a characteristic blue shift of the vibration of Au-OH species in laser-power-density-dependent measurements was assigned to the light-induced production of Au-OH⁺ in water oxidation. The photothermal effect was excluded according to the vibrational frequencies of Au-OH species as the temperature was increased in a variable-temperature SERS measurement. Density functional theory calculations evidenced that the frequency blue shift is from the positively charged Au-OH species. The photocurrent-dependent frequency blue shift indicated that Au-OH⁺ is the key electron-transfer intermediate in water oxidation by decoupled electron and proton transfer.

Surface Water as an Initial Proton Source for the Electrochemical CO Reduction Reaction on Copper Surfaces

We have employed in situ electrochemical shell-isolated nanoparticle-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SHINERS) and density functional theory (DFT) calculations to study the CO reduction reaction (CORR) on Cu single-crystal surfaces under various conditions. Coadsorbed and structure-/potential-dependent surface species, including *CO, Cu-O_ad , and Cu-OH_ad , were identified using electrochemical spectroscopy and isotope labeling. The relative abundance of *OH follows a "volcano" trend with applied potentials in aqueous solutions, which is yet absent in absolute alcoholic solutions. Combined with DFT calculations, we propose that the surface H₂ O can serve as a strong proton donor for the first protonation step in both the C₁ and C₂ pathways of CORR at various applied potentials in alkaline electrolytes, leaving adsorbed *OH on the surface. This work provides fresh insights into the initial protonation steps and identity of key interfacial intermediates formed during CORR on Cu surfaces.

Surface potential modulation as a tool for mitigating challenges in SERS-based microneedle sensors

Raman spectroscopic-based biosensing strategies are often complicated by low signal and the presence of multiple chemical species. While surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS) nanostructured platforms are able to deliver high quality signals by focusing the electromagnetic field into a tight plasmonic hot-spot, it is not a generally applicable strategy as it often depends on the specific adsorption of the analyte of interest onto the SERS platform. This paper describes a strategy to address this challenge by using surface potential as a physical binding agent in the context of microneedle sensors. We show that the potential-dependent adsorption of different chemical species allows scrutinization of the contributions of different chemical species to the final spectrum, and that the ability to cyclically adsorb and desorb molecules from the surface enables efficient application of multivariate analysis methods. We demonstrate how the strategy can be used to mitigate potentially confounding phenomena, such as surface reactions, competitive adsorption and the presence of molecules with similar structures. In addition, this decomposition helps evaluate criteria to maximize the signal of one molecule with respect to others, offering new opportunities to enhance the measurement of analytes in the presence of interferants.

In situ spectroelectrochemical probing of CO redox landscape on copper single-crystal surfaces

Electrochemical reduction of CO₍₂₎ to value-added chemicals and fuels is a promising strategy to sustain pressing renewable energy demands and to address climate change issues. Direct observation of reaction intermediates during the CO₍₂₎ reduction reaction will contribute to mechanistic understandings and thus promote the design of catalysts with the desired activity, selectivity, and stability. Herein, we combined in situ electrochemical shell-isolated nanoparticle-enhanced Raman spectroscopy and ab initio molecular dynamics calculations to investigate the CORR process on Cu single-crystal surfaces in various electrolytes. Competing redox pathways and coexistent intermediates of CO adsorption (*CO_atop and *CO_bridge), dimerization (protonated dimer *HOCCOH and its dehydrated *CCO), oxidation (*CO₂^- and *CO₃^2-), and hydrogenation (*CHO), as well as Cu-O_ad/Cu-OH_ad species at Cu-electrolyte interfaces, were simultaneously identified using in situ spectroscopy and further confirmed with isotope-labeling experiments. With AIMD simulations, we report accurate vibrational frequency assignments of these intermediates based on the calculated vibrational density of states and reveal the corresponding species in the electrochemical CO redox landscape on Cu surfaces. Our findings provide direct insights into key intermediates during the CO₍₂₎RR and offer a full-spectroscopic tool (40-4,000 cm^-1) for future mechanistic studies.

In situ Raman spectroscopy reveals the structure evolution and lattice oxygen reaction pathway induced by the crystalline-amorphous heterojunction for water oxidation

One of the most successful approaches for balancing the high stability and activity of water oxidation in alkaline solutions is to use amorphous and crystalline heterostructures. However, due to the lack of direct evidence at the molecular level, the nano/micro processes of amorphous and crystalline heterostructure electrocatalysts, including self-reconstruction and reaction pathways, remain unknown. Herein, the Leidenfrost effect assisted electrospray approach combined with phase separation was used for the first time to create amorphous NiO_x/crystalline α-Fe₂O₃ (a-NiO_x/α-Fe₂O₃) nanowire arrays. The results of in situ Raman spectroscopy demonstrate that with the increase of the potential at the a-NiO_x/α-Fe₂O₃ interface, a significant accumulation of OH can be observed. Combining with XAS spectra and DFT calculations, we believe that more OH adsorption on the Ni centers can facilitate Ni²⁺ deprotonation to achieve the high-valence oxidation of Ni⁴⁺ according to HSAB theory (Fe³⁺ serves as a strong Lewis acid). This result promotes the electrocatalysts to follow the lattice oxygen activation mechanism. This work, for the first time, offers direct spectroscopic evidence for deepening the fundamental understanding of the Lewis acid effect of Fe³⁺, and reveals the synergistic effect on water oxidation via the unique amorphous and crystalline heterostructures.

The amorphous NiO_x/crystalline α-Fe₂O₃ heterojunctions were constructed and exhibited outstanding OER activities. Through the collaboration of multiple characterization techniques, the Lewis acid effect of Fe³⁺ was revealed at molecular level.

In Situ Monitoring of Dynamic Photocatalysis of Metal-Organic Frameworks by Three-Dimensional Shell-Isolated Nanoparticle-Enhanced Raman Spectroscopy

Metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) are promising as novel disinfectants due to the reactive oxygen species (ROS) produced in their photocatalytic processes. The optimal MOF is screened as the best disinfectant, representing high-efficacy production of ROS under photocatalytic conditions. However, current methods to screen abundant MOFs for disinfectant application are generally semiquantitative or ex situ methods [such as electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) measurements], so achieving a strategy that can quantitatively screen an optimal MOF in situ and is reliable is demanded. Herein, we developed a three-dimensional (3D) shell-isolated nanoparticle-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SHINERS) platform to study the dynamic photocatalytic processes of various MOFs (e.g., ZIF-67, ZIF-8, and UIO-66) in situ. This platform comprises silica shell-isolated gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) modified on silicon nanowire arrays (SiNWArs). The MOF is then self-assembled on the 3D-SHINERS substrate. Using this platform, we recorded dynamic spectroscopic evidence of ROS formation by various MOFs under sunlight irradiation. By dynamic comparison, ZIF-67 has the most robust photocatalytic efficiency, ∼1.7-fold stronger than that of ZIF-8 and ∼42.6-fold stronger than that of UIO-66. As expected, ZIF-67 displays the best antibacterial ability, up to 99% in the agar plate assay. This work provides a versatile platform for dynamically monitoring photocatalytic performance and screening antibacterial MOFs.

Visualizing an Electrochemically Induced Radical Cation of Bipyridine at Au(111)/Ionic Liquid Interfaces toward a Single-Molecule Switch

Room-temperature ionic liquids (RTILs) emerged as ideal solvents, and bipyridine as one of the most used ligands have been widely employed in surface science, catalysis, and molecular electronics. Herein, in situ shell-isolated nanoparticle-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SHINERS) and STM break junction (STM-BJ) technique has been employed to probe the electrochemical process of bipyridine at Au(111)/IL interfaces. It is interestingly found that these molecules undertake a redox process with a pair of well-defined reversible peaks in cyclic voltammograms (CVs). The spectroscopic evidence shows a radical cation generated with rising new Raman peaks related to parallel CC stretching of a positively charged pyridyl ring. Furthermore, these electrochemically charged bipyridine is also confirmed by electrochemical STM-BJ at the single-molecule level, which displays a binary conductance switch ratio of about 400% at the redox potentials. This present work offers a molecular-level insight into the pyridine-mediated reaction process and electron transport in RTILs.

Plasmonic Core-Shell Nanomaterials and their Applications in Spectroscopies

Plasmonic core-shell nanostructures have attracted considerable attention in the scientific community recently due to their highly tunable optical properties. Plasmon-enhanced spectroscopies are one of the main applications of plasmonic nanomaterials. When excited by an incident laser of suitable wavelength, strong and highly localized electromagnetic (EM) fields are generated around plasmonic nanomaterials, which can significantly boost excitation and/or radiation processes that amplify Raman, fluorescence, or nonlinear signals and improve spectroscopic sensitivity. Herein, recent developments in plasmon-enhanced spectroscopies utilizing core-shell nanostructures are reviewed, including shell-isolated nanoparticle-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SHINERS), plasmon-enhanced fluorescence spectroscopy, and plasmon-enhanced nonlinear spectroscopy.

Advances of surface-enhanced Raman and IR spectroscopies: from nano/microstructures to macro-optical design

Raman and infrared (IR) spectroscopy are powerful analytical techniques, but have intrinsically low detection sensitivity. There have been three major steps (i) to advance the optical system of the light excitation, collection, and detection since 1920s, (ii) to utilize nanostructure-based surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) and surface-enhanced infrared absorption (SEIRA) since 1990s, and (iii) to rationally couple (i) and (ii) for maximizing the total detection sensitivity since 2010s. After surveying the history of SERS and SEIRA, we outline the principle of plasmonics and the different mechanisms of SERS and SEIRA. We describe various interactions of light with nano/microstructures, localized surface plasmon, surface plasmon polariton, and lightning-rod effect. Their coupling effects can significantly increase the surface sensitivity by designing nanoparticle-nanoparticle and nanoparticle-substrate configuration. As the nano/microstructures have specific optical near-field and far-field behaviors, we focus on how to systematically design the macro-optical systems to maximize the excitation efficiency and detection sensitivity. We enumerate the key optical designs in particular ATR-based operation modes of directional excitation and emission from visible to IR spectral region. We also present some latest advancements on scanning-probe microscopy-based nanoscale spectroscopy. Finally, prospects and further developments of this field are given with emphasis on emerging techniques and methodologies.

A novel SERS substrate with high reusability for sensitive detection of miRNA 21

Electrochemistry combining with Surface Enhanced Raman Spectroscopy (EC-SERS) is a hot area which can achieve real-time analysis of the electrochemical product. In this work, a high-performance reusable Raman substrate was fabricated via electrochemical reduction for miRNA 21 assay. In this strategy, 2'-hydroxymethyl-3, 4-thylenedioxythiophene (EDOT-OH) was electropolymerized to form PEDOT-OH (Red), which acted as a part of SERS substrate and a Raman probe at the same time. The Raman intensity of PEDOT-OH was different between the reduction (Red) and oxidation state (Ox). When it is oxidized, the signal of the PEDOT-OH (Ox) on the electrode surface can be restored by applying a reduction voltage. In view of this feature, a Raman enhanced substrate displaying signal changes is constructed and the constructed Raman substrate can be recycled quickly and efficiently. Combining with double-amplification strategy, the SERS platform can detect miRNA 21 from 100 fM to 1 μM. The Raman substrate can be reused at least 15 times and solves the current problems of poor reusability and troublesome restoration of present reusable Raman substrate. As a result, it indicates that the reusable Raman substrate with high performance and non-destructive property will broaden the application of EC-SERS and SERS analysis.

Spectroscopically clean Au nanoparticles for catalytic decomposition of hydrogen peroxide

Au nanoparticles synthesized from colloidal techniques have the capability in many applications such as catalysis and sensing. Au nanoparticles function as both catalyst and highly sensitive SERS probe can be employed for sustainable and green catalytic process. However, capping ligands that are necessary to stabilize nanoparticles during synthesis are negative for catalytic activity. In this work, a simple effective mild thermal treatment to remove capping ligands meanwhile preserving the high SERS sensitivity of Au nanoparticles is reported. We show that under the optimal treatment conditions (250 °C for 2 h), 50 nm Au nanoparticles surfaces are free from any capping molecules. The catalytic activity of treated Au nanoparticles is studied through H₂O₂ decomposition, which proves that the treatment is favorable for catalytic performance improvement. A reaction intermediate during H₂O₂ decomposition is observed and identified.

In Situ Surface-Enhanced Raman Spectroscopy Characterization of Electrocatalysis with Different Nanostructures

As energy demands increase, electrocatalysis serves as a vital tool in energy conversion. Elucidating electrocatalytic mechanisms using in situ spectroscopic characterization techniques can provide experimental guidance for preparing high-efficiency electrocatalysts. Surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS) can provide rich spectral information for ultratrace surface species and is extremely well suited to studying their activity. To improve the material and morphological universalities, researchers have employed different kinds of nanostructures that have played important roles in the development of SERS technologies. Different strategies, such as so-called borrowing enhancement from shell-isolated modes and shell-isolated nanoparticle-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SHINERS)-satellite structures, have been proposed to obtain highly effective Raman enhancement, and these methods make it possible to apply SERS to various electrocatalytic systems. Here, we discuss the development of SERS technology, focusing on its applications in different electrocatalytic reactions (such as oxygen reduction reactions) and at different nanostructure surfaces, and give a brief outlook on its development.

Biocompliant Composite Au/pHEMA Plasmonic Scaffolds for 3D Cell Culture and Noninvasive Sensing of Cellular Metabolites

The field of 3D printing is an area of active research, with a substantial focus given to the design and construction of customized tools for applications in technology. There exists a particular need in these developing areas of opportunity for new multi-functional soft materials that are biologically compatible for the growth and directed culturing of cells. Herein, a composite material consisting of gold nanoparticles with useful plasmonic properties embedded within a highly hydrophilic poly-2-hydroxyethylmethacrylate matrix is described and characterized. This composite material serves dual functions as both host framework scaffold for cell lines such as pre-osteoblasts as well as a plasmonic biosensor for in situ measurements of living cells. The plasmonic properties of this system are characterized as a function of the material properties and related to compositional features of the material through a proposed light-directed mechanism. This chemistry provides a tunable, 3D printable plasmonic composite material of encapsulated gold nanoparticles in a biologically-compliant, acrylate-based hydrogel matrix. Surface-enhanced Raman scattering studies of 3D-microcultures supported by the scaffolds are carried out and the strong influence of perm-selective molecular diffusion in its analytical responses is established. Most notably, specific, largely hydrophilic, cellular metabolites are detected within the supported live cultures.

Spectroscopic Verification of Adsorbed Hydroxy Intermediates in the Bifunctional Mechanism of the Hydrogen Oxidation Reaction

Elucidating hydrogen oxidation reaction (HOR) mechanisms in alkaline conditions is vital for understanding and improving the efficiency of anion-exchange-membrane fuel cells. However, uncertainty remains around the alkaline HOR mechanism owing to a lack of direct in situ evidence of intermediates. In this study, in situ electrochemical surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS) and DFT were used to study HOR processes on PtNi alloy and Pt surfaces, respectively. Spectroscopic evidence indicates that adsorbed hydroxy species (OH_ad ) were directly involved in HOR processes in alkaline conditions on the PtNi alloy surface. However, OH_ad species were not observed on the Pt surface during the HOR. We show that Ni doping promoted hydroxy adsorption on the platinum-alloy catalytic surface, improving the HOR activity. DFT calculations also suggest that the free energy was decreased by hydroxy adsorption. Consequently, tuning OH adsorption by designing bifunctional catalysts is an efficient method for promoting HOR activity.

Role of OH Intermediates during the Au Oxide Electro-Reduction at Low pH Elucidated by Electrochemical Surface-Enhanced Raman Spectroscopy and Implicit Solvent Density Functional Theory

Molecular understanding of the electrochemical oxidation of metals and the electro-reduction of metal oxides is of pivotal importance for the rational design of catalyst-based devices where metal(oxide) electrodes play a crucial role. Operando monitoring and reliable identification of reacting species, however, are challenging tasks because they require surface-molecular sensitive and specific experiments under reaction conditions and sophisticated theoretical calculations. The lack of molecular insight under operating conditions is largely due to the limited availability of operando tools and to date still hinders a quick technological advancement of electrocatalytic devices. Here, we present a combination of advanced density functional theory (DFT) calculations considering implicit solvent contributions and time-resolved electrochemical surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (EC-SERS) to identify short-lived reaction intermediates during the showcase electro-reduction of Au oxide (AuOx) in sulfuric acid over several tens of seconds. The EC-SER spectra provide evidence for temporary Au-OH formation and for the asynchronous adsorption of (bi)sulfate ions at the surface during the reduction process. Spectral intensity fluctuations indicate an OH/(bi)sulfate turnover period of 4 s. As such, the presented EC-SERS potential jump approach combined with implicit solvent DFT simulations allows us to propose a reaction mechanism and prove that short-lived Au-OH intermediates also play an active role during the AuOx electro-reduction in acidic media, implying their potential relevance also for other electrocatalytic systems operating at low pH, like metal corrosion, the oxidation of CO, HCOOH, and other small organic molecules, and the oxygen evolution reaction.

Observation of inhomogeneous plasmonic field distribution in a nanocavity

The progress of plasmon-based technologies relies on an understanding of the properties of the enhanced electromagnetic fields generated by the coupling nanostrucutres^1-6. Plasmon-enhanced applications include advanced spectroscopies^7-10, optomechanics¹¹, optomagnetics¹² and biosensing^13-17. However, precise determination of plasmon field intensity distribution within a nanogap remains challenging. Here, we demonstrate a molecular ruler made from a set of viologen-based, self-assembly monolayers with which we precisely measures field distribution within a plasmon nanocavity with ~2-Å spatial resolution. We observed an unusually large plasmon field intensity inhomogeneity that we attribute to the formation of a plasmonic comb in the nanocavity. As a consequence, we posit that the generally adopted continuous media approximation for molecular monolayers should be used carefully.

Speciation of Cu Surfaces During the Electrochemical CO Reduction Reaction

Cu-catalyzed selective electrocatalytic upgrading of carbon dioxide/monoxide to valuable multicarbon oxygenates and hydrocarbons is an attractive strategy for combating climate change. Despite recent research on Cu-based catalysts for the CO₂ and CO reduction reactions, surface speciation of the various types of Cu surfaces under reaction conditions remains a topic of discussion. Herein, in situ surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS) is employed to investigate the speciation of four commonly used Cu surfaces, i.e., Cu foil, Cu micro/nanoparticles, electrochemically deposited Cu film, and oxide-derived Cu, at potentials relevant to the CO reduction reaction in an alkaline electrolyte. Multiple oxide and hydroxide species exist on all Cu surfaces at negative potentials, however, the speciation on the Cu foil is distinct from that on micro/nanostructured Cu. The surface speciation is demonstrated to correlate with the initial degree of oxidation of the Cu surface prior to the exposure to negative potentials. Combining reactivity and spectroscopic results on these four types of Cu surfaces, we conclude that the oxygen containing surface species identified by Raman spectroscopy are unlikely to be active in facilitating the formation of C₂₊ oxygenates in the CO reduction reaction.

Core-Shell Nanostructure-Enhanced Raman Spectroscopy for Surface Catalysis

ConspectusThe rational design of highly efficient catalysts relies on understanding their structure-activity relationships and reaction mechanisms at a molecular level. Such an understanding can be obtained by in situ monitoring of dynamic reaction processes using surface-sensitive techniques. Surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS) can provide rich structural information with ultrahigh surface sensitivity, even down to the single-molecule level, which makes it a promising tool for the in situ study of catalysis. However, only a few metals (like Au, Ag, and Cu) with particular nanostructures can generate strong SERS effects. Thus, it is almost impossible to employ SERS to study transition metals (like Pt, Pd, Ru, etc.) and other nonmetal materials that are usually used in catalysis (material limitation). Furthermore, SERS is also unable to study model single crystals with atomically flat surface structures or practical nanocatalysts (morphology limitation). These limitations have significantly hindered the applications of SERS in catalysis over the past four decades since its discovery, preventing SERS from becoming a widely used technique in catalysis. In this Account, we summarize the extensive efforts done by our group since the 1980s, particularly in the past decade, to overcome the material and morphology limitations in SERS. Particular attention has been paid to the work using core-shell nanostructures as SERS substrates, because they provide high Raman enhancement and are highly versatile for application on different catalytic materials. Different SERS methodologies for catalysis developed by our group, including the "borrowing" strategy, shell-isolated nanoparticle-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SHINERS), and SHINERS-satellite strategy, are discussed in this account, with an emphasis on their principles and applications. These methodologies have successfully overcome the long-standing limitations of traditional SERS, enabling in situ tracking of catalysis at model single-crystal surfaces and practical nanocatalysts that can hardly be studied by SERS. Using these methodologies, we systematically studied a series of fundamentally important reactions, such as oxygen reduction reaction, hydrogen evolution reaction, electrooxidation, CO oxidation, and selective hydrogenation. As such, direct spectroscopic evidence of key intermediates that can hardly be detected by other traditional techniques was obtained. Combined with density functional theory and other in situ techniques, the reaction mechanisms and structure-activity relationships of these catalytic reactions were revealed at a molecular level. Furthermore, the future of SERS in catalysis has also been proposed in this work, which we believe should be focused on the in situ dynamic studies at the single-molecule, or even single-atom, level using techniques with ultrahigh sensitivity or spatial resolution, for example, single-molecule SERS or tip-enhanced Raman spectroscopy. In summary, core-shell nanostructure-enhanced Raman spectroscopies are shown to greatly boost the application of SERS in catalysis, from model systems like single-crystal surfaces to practical nanocatalysts, liquid-solid interfaces to gas-solid interfaces, and electrocatalysis to heterogeneous catalysis to photocatalysis. Thus, we believe this Account would attract increasing attention to SERS in catalysis and opens new avenues for catalytic studies.

Controlled fabrication of gold nanobipyramids/polypyrrole for shell-isolated nanoparticle-enhanced Raman spectroscopy to detect γ-aminobutyric acid

Shell-isolated nanoparticle-enhanced Raman Spectroscopy (SHINERS) has been a non-destructive, highly sensitive, specific and powerful sensing method. Detection of γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) and glutamate, main neurotransmitters in the human brain, is important to diagnosis the neurological disorder. The purpose of this study is preparing a simple, rapid and inexpensive fabrication of Au nanobipyramids/polymer core/shell as a SHINERS-based biosensor to detect different neurotransmitters such as GABA and glutamate with high sensitivity and specificity. Au nanobipyramids/polymer core/shell was fabricated by using two steps process. In the first Au nanobipyramids with longitude and latitude axial of about 100 nm and 10 nm, respectively, was prepared based on the chemical reduction of Au ions by using sodium borohydride as a reducing agent. Then a thin layer of polypyrrole was used for decorating the Au nanobipyramids by using direct polymerization in the presence of Au nanobipyramids. The sensor composed Au nanobipyramids with a thin layer of polypyrrole that could measure GABA within a wide range of concentrations in the presence of human serum. And this sensor was used for direct monitoring of GABA and glutamate. The proposed biosensor can be applied to monitor the level of neurotransmitters accurately for the diagnosis of various neurological disorders with optical signal enhancement.

Deep Eutectic Solvent-Assisted Synthesis of Au Nanostars Supported on Graphene Oxide as an Efficient Substrate for SERS-Based Molecular Sensing

The development of hybrid nanostructures of graphene oxide (GO) and metal nanoparticles (NPs) is of paramount interest for highly flexible surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) substrate-based molecular sensing. In this work, we report a simple and eco-friendly synthesis strategy for the synthesis of a three-dimensional (3D) GO/gold nanostar (3D GO/Au NS) hybrid nanocomposite using deep eutectic solvent (DES) for SERS-based molecular sensing. The 3D GO/Au NS hybrid nanocomposite was obtained by a two-step synthetic process. In the first step, the GO nanosheets of thickness ∼1.25 nm were homogeneously dispersed in choline chloride/urea (molar ratio of 1:2)-derived DES, followed by functionalization of -NH groups using 3-aminopropyltriethoxysilane. Afterward, the presynthesized Au NSs of size ranging between 150-200 nm were then covalently attached on the -NH-functionalized GO nanosheets mediated by DES at 60 °C to obtain 3D GO/Au NS hybrid nanocomposites. Importantly, the SERS substrate fabricated using the 3D GO/Au NS hybrid nanocomposite exhibits highly enhanced SERS activity with an enhancement factor of 1.7 × 10⁵ and high sensitivity for the detection of crystal violet with a concentration up to 10^-11 M. The green synthetic approach presented here can be expected to be promising for the large-scale fabrication of GO-metal NP-based hybrid nanostructures for their potential applications in SERS-based sensing.

Present and Future of Surface-Enhanced Raman Scattering

The discovery of the enhancement of Raman scattering by molecules adsorbed on nanostructured metal surfaces is a landmark in the history of spectroscopic and analytical techniques. Significant experimental and theoretical effort has been directed toward understanding the surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) effect and demonstrating its potential in various types of ultrasensitive sensing applications in a wide variety of fields. In the 45 years since its discovery, SERS has blossomed into a rich area of research and technology, but additional efforts are still needed before it can be routinely used analytically and in commercial products. In this Review, prominent authors from around the world joined together to summarize the state of the art in understanding and using SERS and to predict what can be expected in the near future in terms of research, applications, and technological development. This Review is dedicated to SERS pioneer and our coauthor, the late Prof. Richard Van Duyne, whom we lost during the preparation of this article.

Coherent Vibrational Spectroscopy of Electrochemical Interfaces with Plasmonic Nanogratings

The fundamental understanding of electrochemistry urges accurate knowledge of all interfacial properties at the molecular level, but the retrieval of such information is a real challenge. Optical spectroscopies facilitated by surface plasmon enhancement can shed light on this field, yet past studies relied on either highly inhomogeneous "hot spots" or planar plasmon modes with limited enhancement. Here we report an in situ sum-frequency vibrational spectroscopy scheme using plasmonic nanogratings, which enable strong, coherent surface plasmon excitation even on planar electrodes. With two classical reactions, the gold oxidation and pyridine adsorption in water, we demonstrate the realization of coherent vibrational spectroscopy in the strong absorption region, revealing the polar orientation and ordering of interfacial species that are crucial toward the mechanistic understanding of electrochemical phenomena.

Water oxidation intermediates on iridium oxide electrodes probed by in situ electrochemical SHINERS

Shell-isolated nanoparticle-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SHINERS) is applied to the study of a state-of-the-art water oxidation electrocatalyst, IrO_x, during oxygen evolution.

Shell isolated nanoparticle enhanced Raman spectroscopy for renewable energy electrocatalysis

This review covers the use of shell isolated nanoparticle enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SHINERS) to investigate heterogeneous electrocatalytic processes.

Reactivity mapping of nanoscale defect chemistry under electrochemical reaction conditions

Electrocatalysts often show increased conversion at nanoscale chemical or topographic surface inhomogeneities, resulting in spatially heterogeneous reactivity. Identifying reacting species locally with nanometer precision during chemical conversion is one of the biggest quests in electrochemical surface science to advance (electro)catalysis and related fields. Here, we demonstrate that electrochemical tip-enhanced Raman spectroscopy can be used for combined topography and reactivity imaging of electro-active surface sites under reaction conditions. We map the electrochemical oxidation of Au nanodefects, a showcase energy conversion and corrosion reaction, with a chemical spatial sensitivity of about 10 nm. The results indicate the reversible, concurrent formation of spatially separated Au₂O₃ and Au₂O species at defect-terrace and protrusion sites on the defect, respectively. Active-site chemical nano-imaging under realistic working conditions is expected to be pivotal in a broad range of disciplines where quasi-atomistic reactivity understanding could enable strategic engineering of active sites to rationally tune (electro)chemical device properties.

Identifying reacting species locally with nanometer precision is a major challenge in electrochemical surface science. Using operando Raman nanoscopy, authors image the reversible, concurrent formation of nanometer-spatially separated Au₂O₃ and Au₂O species during Au nanodefect oxidation.

In situ Spectroscopic Insight into the Origin of the Enhanced Performance of Bimetallic Nanocatalysts towards the Oxygen Reduction Reaction (ORR)

It is vital to understand the oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) mechanism at the molecular level for the rational design and synthesis of high activity fuel-cell catalysts. Surface enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS) is a powerful technique capable of detecting the bond vibrations of surface species in the low wavenumber range, however, using it to probe practical nanocatalysts remains extremely challenging. Herein, shell-isolated nanoparticle-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SHINERS) was used to investigate ORR processes on the surface of bimetallic Pt₃ Co nanocatalyst structures. Direct spectroscopic evidence of *OOH suggests that ORR undergoes an associative mechanism on Pt₃ Co in both acidic and basic environments. Density functional theory (DFT) calculations show that the weak *O adsorption arise from electronic effect on the Pt₃ Co surface accounts for enhanced ORR activity. This work shows SHINERS is a promising technique for the real-time observation of catalytic processes.

Early Stages of Electrochemical Oxidation of Cu(111) and Polycrystalline Cu Surfaces Revealed by in Situ Raman Spectroscopy

Investigating the chemical nature of the adsorbed intermediate species on well-defined Cu single crystal substrates is crucial in understanding many electrocatalytic reactions. Herein, we systematically study the early stages of electrochemical oxidation of Cu(111) and polycrystalline Cu surfaces in different pH electrolytes using in situ shell-isolated nanoparticle-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SHINERS). On Cu(111), for the first time, we identified surface OH species which convert to chemisorbed "O" before forming Cu₂O in alkaline (0.01 M KOH) and neutral (0.1 M Na₂SO₄) electrolytes; while at the Cu(poly) surface, we only detected the presence of surface hydroxide. Whereas, in a strongly acidic solution (0.1 M H₂SO₄), sulfate replaces the hydroxyl/oxy species. This results improves the understanding of the reaction mechanisms of various electrocatalytic reactions.

In Situ Analysis of Surface Catalytic Reactions Using Shell-Isolated Nanoparticle-Enhanced Raman Spectroscopy

Electrochemistry and heterogeneous catalysis continue to attract enormous interest. In situ surface analysis is a dynamic research field capable of elucidating the catalytic mechanisms of reaction processes. Shell-isolated nanoparticle-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SHINERS) is a nondestructive technique that has been cumulatively used to probe and analyze catalytic-reaction processes, providing important spectral evidence about reaction intermediates produced on catalyst surfaces. In this perspective, we review recent electrochemical- and heterogeneous-catalysis studies using SHINERS, highlight its advantages, summarize the flaws and prospects for improving the SHINERS technique, and give insight into its future research directions.

Plasmon-Triggered Hot-Spot Excitation on SERS Substrates for Bacterial Inactivation and in Situ Monitoring

Bacterial sensing and inactivating is one of the key steps to prevent bacterial propagation and transfer. Here, using Ag nanoparticle-grafted tungsten oxide films (WO₃/Ag), we developed a multifunctional platform that may act as a surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy substrate for sensitively capturing and counting bacteria. Moreover, we demonstrated that the use of photon-triggered surface plasmon resonance of Ag on the WO₃ surface resulted in a significantly improved photocatalytic activity under visible light (638 nm). The photogenerated reactive oxygen species have been shown to be efficient in the inactivation of bacteria, and the bacteria inactivation process could be monitored in situ by Raman spectroscopy. On the basis of the obtained Raman results and fluorescence measurements of green fluorescence protein expressing bacteria, the active species triggered by hot spots was demonstrated to account for broken cell walls. The bacterial cell contents subsequently leaked out, leading to cell degradation. Potentially, our work may provide a promising strategy for capturing and monitoring the bactericidal process at low concentration and, specifically, may help in the investigation of related inactivation approaches and mechanisms.