A Responsive Magnetic Resonance Imaging Contrast Agent for Detection of Excess Copper(II) in the Liver In Vivo

Thienopyrimidine-derived multifunctional fluorescence sensor for the detection of Cu2+, Fe3+, and PPi in different solvents

Hydrazine substituted thienopyrimidine, a new fluorophore, was used to synthesize a novel Schiff base R1 as a chemosensor via the condensation with p-formyltriphenylamine, and the structure was confirmed using nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (NMR) and mass spectrometry (MS) analysis. When treated with Cu2+ in dimethylsulfoxide (DMSO)/H2O buffer, R1 showed a phenomenon of fluorescence quenching, which was reversible with the action of ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA). When treated with Fe3+ in dimethylformamide (DMF)/H2O buffer, R1 exhibited the same phenomenon, but fluorescence was recovered with inorganic pyrophosphate (PPi) quantitatively. The complexation ratios for R1-Cu2+ and R1-Fe3+ were both 1:2, which were manifested by MS titrations and corresponding Job's plots. The limits of detection of R1 for Cu2+ and Fe3+ were 3.11 × 10-8 and 1.24 × 10-7 M, respectively. The sensing mechanism of R1 toward Cu2+ and Fe3+ was confirmed using density functional theory calculations and electrostatic potential analysis. Test strips of R1 were fabricated successfully for on-site detection of Cu2+ and Fe3+. In addition, R1 was applied to recognize Cu2+ and Fe3+ in actual water samples with satisfactory recovery.

A Bis(Aquated) Mn(II)-Based MRI Contrast Agent with a Rigid Hydroquinazoline Unit: Synthesis, Characterization, and in Vivo MR Imaging Study

Since the finding of nephrogenic systemic fibrosis (NFS) in patients with renal impairment and the long-term accumulation of Gd(III) ions in the central nervous system, the search for nongadolinium ion-based MRI contrast agents made of nutrient metal ions has drawn paramount attention. In this context, the development of Mn(II)-based MRI contrast agents has been a subject of interest for the last few decades. Herein, we report a pentadentate ligand (Li2[BenzPic2]) composed of two picolinate moieties and a rigid 1,2,3,4-tetrahydroquinazoline unit and the corresponding bis(aquated) Mn(II) complex (Complex 1). The complex exhibited high thermodynamic stability (log Kcond = 11.62) and kinetic inertness similar to that of the clinically approved Gd(III)-based contrast agent Magnevist. Complex 1 exerted longitudinal relaxivity (r1) of 5.32 mM-1 s-1 at 1.41 T, 37 °C, pH 7.4, and it increased by 3.6-fold in the presence of serum albumin protein, confirming a substantial rigidifying interaction (albumin association constant KA = 1.66 × 103 M-1) between the protein and the amphiphilic (log P = -0.45) contrast agent. An intravenous dose of 0.08 mmol/kg in a healthy mouse, excellent MRI signal intensity enhancement in the vasculature of the mouse liver, and brightened images of the gallbladder, kidney, and liver were realized.

Functionalized Green Carbon dots for Specific Detection of Copper in Human Serum Samples and Living Cells

Intracellular copper ion (Cu2+) is irreplaceable and essential in regulation of physiological and biological processes, while excessive copper from bioaccumulation may cause potential hazards to human health. Hence, effective and sensitive recognition is urgently significant to prevent over-intake of copper. In this work, a novel highly sensitive and green carbon quantum dots (Green-CQDs) were synthesized by a low-cost and facile one-step microwave auxiliary method, which utilized gallic acid, carbamide and PEG400 as carbon source, nitrogen source and surface passivation agent, respectively. The decreased fluorescence illustrated excellent linear relationship with the increasing of Cu2+ concentration in a wide range. Substantial surface amino and hydroxyl group introduced by PEG400 significantly improved selectivity and sensitivity of Green-CQDs. The surface amino chelation mechanism and fluorescence internal filtration effect were demonstrated by the restored fluorescence after addition of EDTA. Crucially, the nanosensor illustrated good cell permeability, high biocompatibility and recovery rate, significantly practical application in fluorescent imaging and biosensing of intracellular Cu2+ in HepG-2 cells, which revealed a potential and promising biological applications in early diagnosis and treatment of copper ion related disease.

Activatable Probes for Ratiometric Imaging of Endogenous Biomarkers In Vivo

Dynamic variations in the concentration and abnormal distribution of endogenous biomarkers are strongly associated with multiple physiological and pathological states. Therefore, it is crucial to design imaging systems capable of real-time detection of dynamic changes in biomarkers for the accurate diagnosis and effective treatment of diseases. Recently, ratiometric imaging has emerged as a widely used technique for sensing and imaging of biomarkers due to its advantage of circumventing the limitations inherent to conventional intensity-dependent signal readout methods while also providing built-in self-calibration for signal correction. Here, the recent progress of ratiometric probes and their applications in sensing and imaging of biomarkers are outlined. Ratiometric probes are classified according to their imaging mechanisms, and ratiometric photoacoustic imaging, ratiometric optical imaging including photoluminescence imaging and self-luminescence imaging, ratiometric magnetic resonance imaging, and dual-modal ratiometric imaging are discussed. The applications of ratiometric probes in the sensing and imaging of biomarkers such as pH, reactive oxygen species (ROS), reactive nitrogen species (RNS), glutathione (GSH), gas molecules, enzymes, metal ions, and hypoxia are discussed in detail. Additionally, this Review presents an overview of challenges faced in this field along with future research directions.

Preparation and performance of biocompatible gadolinium polymer as liver-targeting magnetic resonance imaging contrast agent

A biocompatible macromolecule-conjugated gadolinium chelate complex (PAV2-EDA-DOTA-Gd) as a new liver-specific contrast agent for magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) was synthesized and evaluated. An aspartic acid-valine copolymer was used as a carrier and ethylenediamine as a chemical linker, and the aspartic acid-valine copolymer was covalently linked to the small molecule MRI contrast agent Gd-DOTA (Dotarem) to synthesize a large molecule contrast agent. In vitro MR relaxation showed that the T1-relaxivity of PAV2-EDA-DOTA-Gd (13.7 mmol-1 L s-1) was much higher than that of the small-molecule Gd-DOTA (4.9 mmol-1 L s-1). In vivo imaging of rats showed that the enhancement effect of PAV2-EDA-DOTA-Gd (55.37 ± 2.80%) on liver imaging was 2.6 times that of Gd-DOTA (21.12 ± 3.86%), and it produced a longer imaging window time (40-70 min for PAV2-EDA-DOTA-Gd and 10-30 min for Gd-DOTA). Preliminary safety experiments, such as cell experiments and tissue sectioning, showed that PAV2-EDA-DOTA-Gd had low toxicity and satisfactory biocompatibility. The results of this study indicated that PAV2-EDA-DOTA-Gd had high potential as a liver-specific MRI contrast agent.

All-in-One Zinc-Doped Prussian Blue Nanozyme for Efficient Capture, Separation, and Detection of Copper Ion (Cu2+ ) in Complicated Matrixes

Copper is a vital micronutrient for lives and an important ingredient for bactericides and fungicides. Given its indispensable biological and agricultural roles, there is an urgent need to develop simple, affordable, and reliable methods for detecting copper in complicated matrixes, particularly in underdeveloped regions where costly standardized instruments and sample dilution procedures hinder progress. The findings that zinc-doped Prussian blue nanoparticle (ZnPB NP) exhibits exceptional efficiency in capturing and isolating copper ions, and accelerates the generation of dissolved oxygen in a solution of H2 O2 with remarkable sensitivity and selectivity, the signal of which displays a positive correlation with the copper level due to the copper-enhanced catalase-like activity of ZnPB NP, are presented. Consequently, the ZnPB NP serves as an all-in-one sensor for copper ion. The credibility of the method for copper assays in human urine and farmland soil is shown by comparing it to the standard instrumentation, yielding a coefficient of correlation (R2 = 0.9890), but the cost is dramatically reduced. This ZnPB nanozyme represents a first-generation probe for copper ion in complicated matrixes, laying the groundwork for the future development of a practical copper sensor that can be applied in resource-constrained environments.

Cuproptosis: Harnessing Transition Metal for Cancer Therapy

Transition metal elements, such as copper, play diverse and pivotal roles in oncology. They act as constituents of metalloenzymes involved in cellular metabolism, function as signaling molecules to regulate the proliferation and metastasis of tumors, and are integral components of metal-based anticancer drugs. Notably, recent research reveals that excessive copper can also modulate the occurrence of programmed cell death (PCD), known as cuprotosis, in cancer cells. This modulation occurs through the disruption of tumor cell metabolism and the induction of proteotoxic stress. This discovery uncovers a mode of interaction between transition metals and proteins, emphasizing the intricate link between copper homeostasis and tumor metabolism. Moreover, they provide innovative therapeutic strategies for the precise diagnosis and treatment of malignant tumors. At the crossroads of chemistry and oncology, we undertake a comprehensive review of copper homeostasis in tumors, elucidating the molecular mechanisms underpinning cuproptosis. Additionally, we summarize current nanotherapeutic approaches that target cuproptosis and provide an overview of the available laboratory and clinical methods for monitoring this process. In the context of emerging concepts, challenges, and opportunities, we emphasize the significant potential of nanotechnology in the advancement of this field.

Chemical Amplification-Enabled Topological Modification of Nucleic Acid Aptamers for Enhanced Cancer-Targeted Theranostics

Site-specific chemical conjugation has long been a challenging endeavor in the field of ligand-directed modification to produce homogeneous conjugates for precision medicine. Here, we develop a chemical amplification-enabled topological modification (Chem-ATM) methodology to establish a versatile platform for the programmable modification of nucleic acid aptamers with designated functionalities. Differing from conventional conjugation strategies, a three-dimensional artificial base is designed in Chem-ATM as a chemical amplifier, giving access to structurally and functionally diversified conjugation of aptamers, with precise control over loading capacity but in a sequence-independent manner. Meanwhile, the sp3 hybridized atom-containing amplifier enables planar-to-stereo conformational transformation of the entire conjugate, eliciting high steric hindrance against enzymatic degradation in complex biological environments. The versatility of Chem-ATM is successfully demonstrated by its delivery of anticancer drugs and imaging agents for enhanced therapy and high-contrast noninvasive tumor imaging in xenograft and orthotopic tumor models. This study offers a different perspective for ligand-directed chemical conjugation to enrich the molecular toolbox for bioimaging and drug development.

Mn(II) complex impregnated porous silica nanoparticles as Zn(II)-responsive "Smart" MRI contrast agent for pancreas imaging

Type-1 and type-2 diabetes mellitus are metabolic disorders governed by the functional efficiency of pancreatic β-cells. The activities of the cells toward insulin production, storage, and secretion are accompanied by Zn(II) ions. Thus, for non-invasive pathology of the cell, developing Zn(II) ion-responsive MRI-contrast agents has earned considerable interest. In this report, we have synthesized a seven-coordinate, mono(aquated) Mn(II) complex (1), which is impregnated within a porous silica nanosphere of size 13.2 nm to engender the Mn(II)-based MRI contrast agent, complex 1@SiO2NP. The surface functionalization of the nanosphere by the Py2Pic organic moiety for the selective binding of Zn(II)-ions yields complex 1@SiO2-Py2PicNP, which exhibits r1 = 13.19 mM-1 s-1. The relaxivity value elevates to 20.38 mM-1 s-1 in the presence of 0.6 mM BSA protein at pH 7.4. Gratifyingly, r1 increases linearly with the increase of Zn(II) ion concentration and reaches 39.01 mM-1 s-1 in the presence of a 40 fold excess of the ions. Thus, Zn(II)-responsive contrast enhancement in vivo is envisaged by employing the nanoparticle. Indeed, a contrast enhancement in the pancreas is observed when complex 1@SiO2-Py2PicNP and a glucose stimulus are administered in fasted healthy C57BL/6 mice at 7 T.

The adjacent effect between Gd(III) and Cu(II) in layered double hydroxide nanoparticles synergistically enhances T1-weighted magnetic resonance imaging contrast

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is one key technology in modern diagnostic medicine. However, the development of high-relaxivity contrast agents with favorable properties for imaging applications remains a challenging task. In this work, dual Gd(III) and Cu(II) doped-layered double hydroxide (GdCu-LDH) nanoparticles show significantly higher longitudinal relaxivity compared with sole-metal-based LDH (Gd-LDH and Cu-LDH) nanoparticles. This relaxation enhancement in GdCu-LDH is also much greater than the simple addition of the relaxivity rate of the two paramagnetic ions in Gd-LDH and Cu-LDH, presumably attributed to synergistic T₁ shortening between adjacent Gd(III) and Cu(II) in the LDH host layers (adjacent effect). Moreover, our GdCu-LDH nanoparticles exhibit a pH-ultrasensitive property in MRI performance and show much clearer MR imaging for tumor tissues in mice than Gd-LDH and Cu-LDH at the equivalent doses. Thus, these novel Gd/Cu-co-doped LDH nanoparticles provide higher potential for accurate cancer diagnosis in clinic application. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report that two paramagnetic metal ions in one nanoparticle synergistically improve the T₁-MRI contrast.

Designing Protein-Based Probes for Sensing Biological Analytes with Magnetic Resonance Imaging

Genetically encoded sensors provide unique advantages for monitoring biological analytes with molecular and cellular-level specificity. While sensors derived from fluorescent proteins represent staple tools in biological imaging, these probes are limited to optically accessible preparations owing to physical curbs on light penetration. In contrast to optical methods, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) may be used to noninvasively look inside intact organisms at any arbitrary depth and over large fields of view. These capabilities have spurred the development of innovative methods to connect MRI readouts with biological targets using protein-based probes that are in principle genetically encodable. Here, we highlight the state-of-the-art in MRI-based biomolecular sensors, focusing on their physical mechanisms, quantitative characteristics, and biological applications. We also describe how innovations in reporter gene technology are creating new opportunities to engineer MRI sensors that are sensitive to dilute biological targets.

Metal-Organic Frameworks Encapsulating Carbon Dots Enable Fast Speciation of Mono- and Divalent Copper

Copper is an essential element to play significant roles in human health associated to the strong redox properties of Cu(I) and Cu(II). The concurrent monitoring of copper species in biological matrixes is highly desired. Herein, a dual-channel fluorescence nanoprobe was designed for the speciation of mono- and divalent copper by conjugating carbon dots (CDs) with Eu-based metal-organic frameworks (Eu-MOFs). The obtained Eu-MOFs@CD nanoprobe exhibits fluorescence at λ_ex/λ_em = 380/454 nm from CDs and λ_ex/λ_em = 275/615 nm from Eu-MOFs. Bathocuproine disulfonate (BCS) specifically chelates Cu⁺ to produce a BCS-Cu⁺ adduct with absorption at 480 nm, which quenches the fluorescence of CDs at 454 nm due to the inner filter effect. On the other hand, Cu²⁺ quenches the fluorescence of Eu-MOFs due to the replacement of Eu³⁺ by Cu²⁺. Thus, Eu-MOFs@CDs enable extremely fast detection of Cu⁺ and Cu²⁺ within 1 min. Furthermore, the nanoprobe is demonstrated by monitoring the variation of Cu⁺ and Cu²⁺ in the degradation process of copper nanoparticles and Cu-based MOFs.

Synthesis and characterization of a stable and inert MnII-based ZnII responsive MRI probe for molecular imaging of glucose stimulated zinc secretion (GSZS)

A ZnII responsive MnII-based MRI contrast agent, [Mn(PC2A-DPA)], has been synthesized, investigated and applied in imaging studies. It shows high stability and excellent inertness and can be used to visualize glucose triggered ZnII release by MRI.

Fast Ion-Chelate Dissociation Rate for In Vivo MRI of Labile Zinc with Frequency-Specific Encodability

Fast ion-chelate dissociation rates and weak ion-chelate affinities are desired kinetic and thermodynamic features for imaging probes to allow reversible binding and to prevent deviation from basal ionic levels. Nevertheless, such properties often result in poor readouts upon ion binding, frequently result in low ion specificity, and do not allow the detection of a wide range of concentrations. Herein, we show the design, synthesis, characterization, and implementation of a Zn²⁺-probe developed for MRI that possesses reversible Zn²⁺-binding properties with a rapid dissociation rate (k_off = 845 ± 35 s^–1) for the detection of a wide range of biologically relevant concentrations. Benefiting from the implementation of chemical exchange saturation transfer (CEST), which is here applied in the ¹⁹F-MRI framework in an approach termed ion CEST (iCEST), we demonstrate the ability to map labile Zn²⁺ with spectrally resolved specificity and with no interference from competitive cations. Relying on fast k_off rates for enhanced signal amplification, the use of iCEST allowed the designed fluorinated chelate to experience weak Zn²⁺-binding affinity (K_d at the mM range), but without compromising high cationic specificity, which is demonstrated here for mapping the distribution of labile Zn²⁺ in the hippocampal tissue of a live mouse. This strategy for accelerating ion-chelate k_off rates for the enhancement of MRI signal amplifications without affecting ion specificity could open new avenues for the design of additional probes for other metal ions beyond zinc.

Metal-based environment-sensitive MRI contrast agents

Interactions of paramagnetic metal complexes with their biological environment can modulate their magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) contrast-enhancing properties in different ways, and this has been widely exploited to create responsive probes that can provide biochemical information. We survey progress in two rapidly growing areas: the MRI detection of biologically important metal ions, such as calcium, zinc, and copper, and the use of transition metal complexes as smart MRI agents. In both fields, new imaging technologies, which take advantage of other nuclei (¹⁹F) and/or paramagnetic contact shift effects, emerge beyond classical, relaxation-based applications. Most importantly, in vivo imaging is gaining ground, and the promise of molecular MRI is becoming reality, at least for preclinical research.

A near-infrared fluorescent probe for monitoring viscosity in living cells, zebrafish and mice

A novel NIF fluorescent probe, ZM-V, was designed, in which interior imidazole and benzopyrene moieties serve as rotators, which can spin around multiple C–C bonds in the conjugated skeleton.

From Zn(II) to Cu(II) Detection by MRI Using Metal-Based Probes: Current Progress and Challenges

Zinc and copper are essential cations involved in numerous biological processes, and variations in their concentrations can cause diseases such as neurodegenerative diseases, diabetes and cancers. Hence, detection and quantification of these cations are of utmost importance for the early diagnosis of disease. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) responsive contrast agents (mainly Lanthanide(+III) complexes), relying on a change in the state of the MRI active part upon interaction with the cation of interest, e.g., switch ON/OFF or vice versa, have been successfully utilized to detect Zn2+ and are now being developed to detect Cu2+. These paramagnetic probes mainly exploit the relaxation-based properties (T1-based contrast agents), but also the paramagnetic induced hyperfine shift properties (paraCEST and parashift probes) of the contrast agents. The challenges encountered going from Zn2+ to Cu2+ detection will be stressed and discussed herein, mainly involving the selectivity of the probes for the cation to detect and their responsivity at physiologically relevant concentrations. Depending on the response mechanism, the use of fast-field cycling MRI seems promising to increase the detection field while keeping a good response. In vivo applications of cation responsive MRI probes are only in their infancy and the recent developments will be described, along with the associated quantification problems. In the case of relaxation agents, the presence of another method of local quantification, e.g., synchrotron X-Ray fluorescence, single-photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) or positron emission tomography (PET) techniques, or 19F MRI is required, each of which has its own advantages and disadvantages.

Activity-Based Sensing with a Metal-Directed Acyl Imidazole Strategy Reveals Cell Type-Dependent Pools of Labile Brain Copper

Copper is a required nutrient for life and particularly important to the brain and central nervous system. Indeed, copper redox activity is essential to maintaining normal physiological responses spanning neural signaling to metabolism, but at the same time copper misregulation is associated with inflammation and neurodegeneration. As such, chemical probes that can track dynamic changes in copper with spatial resolution, especially in loosely bound, labile forms, are valuable tools to identify and characterize its contributions to healthy and disease states. In this report, we present an activity-based sensing (ABS) strategy for copper detection in live cells that preserves spatial information by a copper-dependent bioconjugation reaction. Specifically, we designed copper-directed acyl imidazole dyes that operate through copper-mediated activation of acyl imidazole electrophiles for subsequent labeling of proximal proteins at sites of elevated labile copper to provide a permanent stain that resists washing and fixation. To showcase the utility of this new ABS platform, we sought to characterize labile copper pools in the three main cell types in the brain: neurons, astrocytes, and microglia. Exposure of each of these cell types to physiologically relevant stimuli shows distinct changes in labile copper pools. Neurons display translocation of labile copper from somatic cell bodies to peripheral processes upon activation, whereas astrocytes and microglia exhibit global decreases and increases in intracellular labile copper pools, respectively, after exposure to inflammatory stimuli. This work provides foundational information on cell type-dependent homeostasis of copper, an essential metal in the brain, as well as a starting point for the design of new activity-based probes for metals and other dynamic signaling and stress analytes in biology.

An Oxidation-Enhanced Magnetic Resonance Imaging Probe for Visual and Specific Detection of Singlet Oxygen Generated in Photodynamic Cancer Therapy In Vivo

Singlet oxygen is regarded as the primary cytotoxic agent in cancer photodynamic therapy (PDT). Despite the advances in optical methods to image singlet oxygen, it remains a challenge for in vivo application due to the limited tissue penetration depth of light. Up to date, no singlet oxygen-specific magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) probe has been reported. Herein, a T₂ -weighted MRI probe is reported to visually detect singlet oxygen generated in PDT in vitro and in vivo. The MRI probe Ce6/Fe₃ O₄ -M is constructed by co-encapsulation of photosensitizer Ce6 and Fe₃ O₄ nanoparticles in mPEG₂₀₀₀ -TK-C₁₆ micelles. Thioketal (TK) linker in the probe is highly sensitive to singlet oxygen, but lowly sensitive to other reactive oxygen species (ROS) existing in physiological and pathological environments. Singlet oxygen, generated with light irradiation, triggers the cleavage of TK, which leads to loss of surface polyethylene glycol, increment of the hydrophobicity, and aggregation of Fe₃ O₄ nanoparticles. Subsequently, negatively enhanced T₂ -weighted MRI signal is obtained for visual detection of singlet oxygen in the solution, cancer cells, and in vivo. This oxidation responsive MRI probe is expected to hold great promise in evaluating the ability of photosensitizers to generate singlet oxygen and in predicting the therapeutic efficacies of PDT in vivo.

Uniform Fe3O4/Gd2O3-DHCA nanocubes for dual-mode magnetic resonance imaging

The multimodal magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) technique has been extensively studied over the past few years since it offers complementary information that can increase diagnostic accuracy. Simple methods to synthesize contrast agents are necessary for the development of multimodal MRI. Herein, uniformly distributed Fe₃O₄/Gd₂O₃ nanocubes for T ₁-T ₂ dual-mode MRI contrast agents were successfully designed and synthesized. In order to increase hydrophilicity and biocompatibility, the nanocubes were coated with nontoxic 3,4-dihydroxyhydrocinnamic acid (DHCA). The results show that iron (Fe) and gadolinium (Gd) were homogeneously distributed throughout the Fe₃O₄/Gd₂O₃-DHCA (FGDA) nanocubes. Relaxation time analysis was performed on the images obtained from the 3.0 T scanner. The results demonstrated that r ₁ and r ₂ maximum values were 67.57 ± 6.2 and 24.2 ± 1.46 mM^-1·s^-1, respectively. In vivo T ₁- and T ₂-weighted images showed that FGDA nanocubes act as a dual-mode contrast agent enhancing MRI quality. Overall, these experimental results suggest that the FGDA nanocubes are interesting tools that can be used to increase MRI quality, enabling accurate clinical diagnostics.