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Gupta OP, Singh A, Pandey V, Sendhil R, Khan MK, Pandey A, Kumar S, Hamurcu M, Ram S, Singh G. Critical assessment of wheat biofortification for iron and zinc: a comprehensive review of conceptualization, trends, approaches, bioavailability, health impact, and policy framework. Front Nutr 2024; 10:1310020. [PMID: 38239835 PMCID: PMC10794668 DOI: 10.3389/fnut.2023.1310020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2023] [Accepted: 11/21/2023] [Indexed: 01/22/2024] Open
Abstract
Addressing global hidden hunger, particularly in women of childbearing age and children under five, presents a significant challenge, with a focus on iron (Fe) and zinc (Zn) deficiency. Wheat, a staple crop in the developing world, is crucial for addressing this issue through biofortification efforts. While extensive research has explored various approaches to enhance Fe and Zn content in wheat, there remains a scarcity of comprehensive data on their bioavailability and impact on human and animal health. This systematic review examines the latest trends in wheat biofortification approaches, assesses bioavailability, evaluates the effects of biofortified wheat on health outcomes in humans and animals, and analyzes global policy frameworks. Additionally, a meta-analysis of per capita daily Fe and Zn intake from average wheat consumption was conducted. Notably, breeding-based approaches have led to the release of 40 biofortified wheat varieties for commercial cultivation in India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Mexico, Bolivia, and Nepal, but this progress has overlooked Africa, a particularly vulnerable continent. Despite these advancements, there is a critical need for large-scale systematic investigations into the nutritional impact of biofortified wheat, indicating a crucial area for future research. This article can serve as a valuable resource for multidisciplinary researchers engaged in wheat biofortification, aiding in the refinement of ongoing and future strategies to achieve the Sustainable Development Goal of eradicating hunger and malnutrition by 2030.
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Affiliation(s)
- Om Prakash Gupta
- Division of Quality and Basic Sciences, ICAR-Indian Institute of Wheat and Barley Research, Karnal, Haryana, India
| | - Ajeet Singh
- Division of Quality and Basic Sciences, ICAR-Indian Institute of Wheat and Barley Research, Karnal, Haryana, India
| | - Vanita Pandey
- Division of Quality and Basic Sciences, ICAR-Indian Institute of Wheat and Barley Research, Karnal, Haryana, India
| | - Ramadas Sendhil
- Division of Social Sciences, ICAR-Indian Institute of Wheat and Barley Research, Karnal, Haryana, India
| | - Mohd. Kamran Khan
- Department of Soil Science and Plant Nutrition, Selcuk University, Konya, Türkiye
| | - Anamika Pandey
- Department of Soil Science and Plant Nutrition, Selcuk University, Konya, Türkiye
| | - Sunil Kumar
- Division of Quality and Basic Sciences, ICAR-Indian Institute of Wheat and Barley Research, Karnal, Haryana, India
| | - Mehmet Hamurcu
- Department of Soil Science and Plant Nutrition, Selcuk University, Konya, Türkiye
| | - Sewa Ram
- Division of Quality and Basic Sciences, ICAR-Indian Institute of Wheat and Barley Research, Karnal, Haryana, India
| | - Gyanendra Singh
- Division of Quality and Basic Sciences, ICAR-Indian Institute of Wheat and Barley Research, Karnal, Haryana, India
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Knez M, Stangoulis JCR. Dietary Zn deficiency, the current situation and potential solutions. Nutr Res Rev 2023; 36:199-215. [PMID: 37062532 DOI: 10.1017/s0954422421000342] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
Zinc (Zn) deficiency is a worldwide problem, and this review presents an overview of the magnitude of Zn deficiency with a particular emphasis on present global challenges, current recommendations for Zn intake, and factors that affect dietary requirements. The challenges of monitoring Zn status are clarified together with the discussion of relevant Zn bioaccessibility and bioavailability issues. Modern lifestyle factors that may exacerbate Zn deficiency and new strategies of reducing its effects are presented. Biofortification, as a potentially useful strategy for improving Zn status in sensitive populations, is discussed. The review proposes potential actions that could deliver promising results both in terms of monitoring dietary and physiological Zn status as well as in alleviating dietary Zn deficiency in affected populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marija Knez
- College of Science and Engineering, Flinders University, GPO Box 2100, AdelaideSA5001, Australia
- Center of Research Excellence in Nutrition and Metabolism, University of Belgrade, Institute for Medical Research, National Institute of the Republic of Serbia, 11000Belgrade, Serbia
| | - James C R Stangoulis
- College of Science and Engineering, Flinders University, GPO Box 2100, AdelaideSA5001, Australia
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3
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Li G, Wang Y, Liu H, Qin S, Sui F, Fu H, Duan R, Li C, Zhao P. A comparison study of physiological response and TaZIPs expression in seedlings of two wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) cultivars with contrasting grain zinc accumulation. PLANT SCIENCE : AN INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL PLANT BIOLOGY 2022; 318:111237. [PMID: 35351309 DOI: 10.1016/j.plantsci.2022.111237] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2021] [Revised: 02/02/2022] [Accepted: 02/20/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Screening and breeding of high-Zn-accumulating wheat cultivars have received increasing attention in recent years. However, the exact mechanism of Zn uptake and accumulation in wheat is not fully understood. Here, we investigated the physiological responses and TaZIPs gene expression in a low (Zhengmai0856, ZM0856) and a high (Aikang58, AK58) grain-Zn-accumulating wheat cultivars under hydroponic conditions with different levels of Zn supply. Results showed that AK58 was a Zn sensitive cultivar with better growth advantage, while ZM0856 was a Zn tolerant cultivar with higher capacity of Zn uptake. In addition, gene expression analysis showed that, the expression levels of the TaZIP3, TaZIP5, and TaZIP7 in roots were increased in both cultivars under Zn deficiency. In shoots, TaZIP3 and TaZIP6 transcript accumulation was lower in AK58 than ZM0856, whereas TaZIP7 showed the opposite effect. Moreover, multivariate statistical analysis (Pearson's correlation and PCA) showed that the mechanisms involved in Zn uptake and translocation was closely related to subcellular biosynthesis and ZIP gene expression regulation, whereas adequate Zn supply improved the Zn uptake and root-to-shoot translocation. These novel findings might be helpful for the molecular-assisted selecting and breeding of Zn-rich wheat cultivars.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guangxin Li
- College of Resources and Environmental, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou 450002, China; Key Laboratory of Soil Pollution Control and Remediation of Henan Province, Zhengzhou 450002, China
| | - Yun Wang
- College of Resources and Environmental, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou 450002, China; Key Laboratory of Soil Pollution Control and Remediation of Henan Province, Zhengzhou 450002, China
| | - Hongen Liu
- College of Resources and Environmental, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou 450002, China; Key Laboratory of Soil Pollution Control and Remediation of Henan Province, Zhengzhou 450002, China
| | - Shiyu Qin
- College of Resources and Environmental, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou 450002, China; Key Laboratory of Soil Pollution Control and Remediation of Henan Province, Zhengzhou 450002, China
| | - Fuqing Sui
- College of Resources and Environmental, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou 450002, China; Key Laboratory of Soil Pollution Control and Remediation of Henan Province, Zhengzhou 450002, China
| | - Haichao Fu
- College of Resources and Environmental, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou 450002, China; Key Laboratory of Soil Pollution Control and Remediation of Henan Province, Zhengzhou 450002, China
| | - Ran Duan
- College of Resources and Environmental, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou 450002, China; Key Laboratory of Soil Pollution Control and Remediation of Henan Province, Zhengzhou 450002, China
| | - Chang Li
- College of Resources and Environmental, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou 450002, China; Key Laboratory of Soil Pollution Control and Remediation of Henan Province, Zhengzhou 450002, China.
| | - Peng Zhao
- College of Resources and Environmental, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou 450002, China; Key Laboratory of Soil Pollution Control and Remediation of Henan Province, Zhengzhou 450002, China.
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4
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Long Y, Wei X, Wu S, Wu N, Li QX, Tan B, Wan X. Plant Molecular Farming, a Tool for Functional Food Production. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2022; 70:2108-2116. [PMID: 35139640 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.1c07185] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
The demand of functional food is increasing for improving human health. Plant molecular farming (PMF) employs plants as bioreactors for the production of pharmaceuticals. Now PMF has been used to produce antibodies, vaccines, and medicinal proteins, but it has not been well-studied for production of nutraceuticals and functional food. In this perspective, we extend the concept of PMF, present an updated overview of PMF for functional food development, including the progress, problem, and strategy, and then speculate how to use the PMF strategy to produce functional foods, especially with four major staple food crops (rice, wheat, maize, and soybean). Finally, we discuss the opportunities and challenges of PMF on functional food production in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yan Long
- Zhongzhi International Institute of Agricultural Biosciences, Shunde Graduate School, Research Center of Biology and Agriculture, University of Science and Technology Beijing, Beijing 100024, People's Republic of China
- Beijing Beike Institute of Precision Medicine and Health Technology, Beijing 100192, People's Republic of China
- Beijing Engineering Laboratory of Main Crop Bio-Tech Breeding, Beijing International Science and Technology Cooperation Base of Bio-Tech Breeding, Beijing Solidwill Sci-Tech Company, Limited, Beijing 100192, People's Republic of China
| | - Xun Wei
- Zhongzhi International Institute of Agricultural Biosciences, Shunde Graduate School, Research Center of Biology and Agriculture, University of Science and Technology Beijing, Beijing 100024, People's Republic of China
- Beijing Beike Institute of Precision Medicine and Health Technology, Beijing 100192, People's Republic of China
- Beijing Engineering Laboratory of Main Crop Bio-Tech Breeding, Beijing International Science and Technology Cooperation Base of Bio-Tech Breeding, Beijing Solidwill Sci-Tech Company, Limited, Beijing 100192, People's Republic of China
| | - Suowei Wu
- Zhongzhi International Institute of Agricultural Biosciences, Shunde Graduate School, Research Center of Biology and Agriculture, University of Science and Technology Beijing, Beijing 100024, People's Republic of China
- Beijing Beike Institute of Precision Medicine and Health Technology, Beijing 100192, People's Republic of China
- Beijing Engineering Laboratory of Main Crop Bio-Tech Breeding, Beijing International Science and Technology Cooperation Base of Bio-Tech Breeding, Beijing Solidwill Sci-Tech Company, Limited, Beijing 100192, People's Republic of China
| | - Nana Wu
- Academy of National Food and Strategic Reserves Administration, Beijing 100037, People's Republic of China
| | - Qing X Li
- Department of Molecular Biosciences and Bioengineering, University of Hawaii at Manoa, Honolulu, Hawaii 96822, United States
| | - Bin Tan
- Academy of National Food and Strategic Reserves Administration, Beijing 100037, People's Republic of China
- School of Food Engineering, Harbin University of Commerce, Harbin, Heilongjiang 150076, People's Republic of China
| | - Xiangyuan Wan
- Zhongzhi International Institute of Agricultural Biosciences, Shunde Graduate School, Research Center of Biology and Agriculture, University of Science and Technology Beijing, Beijing 100024, People's Republic of China
- Beijing Beike Institute of Precision Medicine and Health Technology, Beijing 100192, People's Republic of China
- Beijing Engineering Laboratory of Main Crop Bio-Tech Breeding, Beijing International Science and Technology Cooperation Base of Bio-Tech Breeding, Beijing Solidwill Sci-Tech Company, Limited, Beijing 100192, People's Republic of China
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Biological Application of a Fluorescent Zinc Sensing Probe for the Analysis of Zinc Bioavailability Using Caco-2 Cells as an In-Vitro Cellular Model. J Fluoresc 2020; 30:1553-1565. [PMID: 32946027 DOI: 10.1007/s10895-020-02608-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2020] [Accepted: 08/11/2020] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Zinc is essential for growth and development of all living organisms, especially human being. Deficiency of micronutrients like zinc and iron has been linked to the manifestation of hidden hunger. Therefore, it is imperative that development of some rapid screening method for bioavailable zinc in various crops and food commodities would be an essential addition in battle against zinc deficiency related hidden hunger. One such method could be the usage of fluorescence based zinc ion sensing probe which would be robust and convenient for estimating bioavailable zinc. To address this issue, NBD-TPEA, a highly sensitive zinc ion sensing probe, have been used in this study towards the development of a novel fluorescence based approach for the analysis of zinc bioavailability in Caco-2 cells as an in-vitro cellular model. The use of this probe showed dose dependent sensitivity towards increasing concentrations of zinc ion uptake by Caco-2 cells. It also showed specificity for zinc ion uptake as compared to other metal ions in-vitro. These observations correlated extremely well with zinc uptake analysis by cell imaging and conventional analytical technique like, ICP-MS. The developed assay was then tested in mushroom and some selected biofortified derivatives of wheat for determining the levels of their bioavailable zinc using Caco-2 cells. The data as obtained with these food samples in our developed bioassay correlated well with the other sophisticated analytical techniques thus validating our cell based assay. Hence, the developed assay could serve as a simple but sensitive tool for determining bioavailable zinc in various food samples.
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Zhang YY, Panozzo J, Hall MS, Ajlouni S. Bioaccessibility of Some Essential Minerals in Three Selected Australian Pulse Varieties Using an In Vitro Gastrointestinal Digestion Model. J Food Sci 2018; 83:2873-2881. [PMID: 30370926 DOI: 10.1111/1750-3841.14377] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2018] [Revised: 09/25/2018] [Accepted: 09/30/2018] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Australian produced pulse grains are exported worldwide, predominantly to developing countries where severe essential mineral deficiencies putatively subsist. An in vitro digestion model that simulates human gastric, intestinal and colonic digestion and fermentation, was used to examine the bioaccessibility of Fe, Mg, K, Ca, P, Zn, Mn, and Cu in commercially available cultivars of Australian field pea, lentil, and sweet lupin. The hull and dehulled seeds were prepared following a traditional cooking method, and quantities of bioaccessible minerals were assessed at each stage of in vitro digestion using ICP-OES elemental analyses. Results revealed that dehulled field pea (100 g dry weight) had the highest bioaccessible quantity of Fe (2.44 ± 0.73 mg), K (717.10 ± 56.66 mg), P (272.88 ± 9.30 mg), Zn (1.72.028 ± 0.28 mg), and Cu (0.41 ± 0.02 mg). Dehulled lupin was the best source of Mg (138.62 ± 1.53 mg) and Mn (1.28 ± 0.0.06 mg), and lentil hull showed the greatest Ca bioaccessible quantity (116.33 ± 16.73 mg/100 g dry weight). Additionally, the fed state digestion (11.7 mg bile/mL sample) increased the bioaccessibility of all elements significantly (P < 0.05) compared to fasted (1.95 mg bile/mL sample), except for Zn and Mn in lupin and lentils. These results demonstrated that dehulled seeds possess higher mineral bioaccessibility on a percentage basis compared with hulls, and that the fed state of in vitro digestion generally improved the mineral solubility significantly (P < 0.05). PRACTICAL APPLICATION: This research aimed to assess the prospective biological accessibility of various essential elements in three commercially available Australian pulses. Results of the study provided an insight into the contents of essential minerals in Australian pulses and illustrated the impact of traditional cooking of dehulled pulses on these minerals bioaccessibility. These findings will provide the consumers with information about some nutritional aspects of major Australian pulses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yianna Y Zhang
- School of Agriculture and Food, Faculty of Veterinary and Agricultural Sciences, The Univ. of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC 3052, Australia
| | - Joe Panozzo
- Agriculture Victoria Research, Horsham, VIC 3400, Australia
| | - Michael S Hall
- Trace Analysis for Chemical, Earth and Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary and Agricultural Sciences, The Univ. of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC 3052, Australia
| | - Said Ajlouni
- School of Agriculture and Food, Faculty of Veterinary and Agricultural Sciences, The Univ. of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC 3052, Australia
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7
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Vergara C, Araujo KEC, Urquiaga S, Santa-Catarina C, Schultz N, da Silva Araújo E, de Carvalho Balieiro F, Xavier GR, Zilli JÉ. Dark Septate Endophytic Fungi Increase Green Manure- 15N Recovery Efficiency, N Contents, and Micronutrients in Rice Grains. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2018; 9:613. [PMID: 29780402 PMCID: PMC5946629 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2018.00613] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2018] [Accepted: 04/18/2018] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
An understanding of the interaction between rice and dark septate endophytic (DSE) fungi, under green fertilization, may lead to sustainable agricultural practices. Nevertheless, this interaction is still poorly understood. Therefore, in this study, we aimed to evaluate the accumulation of macro- and micronutrients, dry matter, and protein and N recovery efficiency from Canavalia ensiformis (L.)-15N in rice inoculated with DSE fungi. An experiment under greenhouse conditions was conducted in a randomized complete block design comprising split-plots, with five replicates of rice plants potted in non-sterilized soil. Rice (Piauí variety) seedlings were inoculated with DSE fungi, A101 and A103, or left uninoculated (control) and transplanted into pots containing 12 kg of soil, which had previously been supplemented with dry, finely ground shoot biomass of C. ensiformis enriched with 2.15 atom % 15N. Two collections were performed in the experiment: one at 54 days after transplanting (DAT) and one at 130 DAT (at maturation). Growth indicators (at 54 DAT), grain yield, nutrient content, recovery efficiency, and the amount of N derived from C. ensiformis were quantified. At 54 DAT, the N content, chlorophyll content, and plant height of inoculated plants had increased significantly compared with the control, and these plants were more proficient in the use of N derived from C. ensiformis. At maturation, plants inoculated with A103 were distinguished by the recovery efficiency and amount of N derived from C. ensiformis and N content in the grain and shoot being equal to that in A101 inoculation and higher than that in the control, resulting in a higher accumulation of crude protein and dry matter in the full grain and panicle of DSE-rice interaction. In addition, Fe and Ni contents in the grains of rice inoculated with these fungi doubled with respect to the control, and in A103 inoculation, we observed Mn accumulation that was three times higher than in the other treatments. Our results suggest that the inoculation of rice with DSE fungi represents a strategy to improve green manure-N recovery, grain yield per plant, and grain quality in terms of micronutrients contents in cropping systems with a low N input.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carlos Vergara
- Departamento de Ciências do Solo, Universidade Federal Rural do Rio de Janeiro, Seropédica, Brazil
| | - Karla E. C. Araujo
- Departamento de Fitotecnia, Universidade Federal Rural do Rio de Janeiro, Seropédica, Brazil
| | | | - Claudete Santa-Catarina
- Centro de Biociências e Biotecnologia, Universidade Estadual do Norte Fluminense Darcy Ribeiro, Campos dos Goytacazes, Brazil
| | - Nivaldo Schultz
- Departamento de Ciências do Solo, Universidade Federal Rural do Rio de Janeiro, Seropédica, Brazil
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Knez M, Tako E, Glahn RP, Kolba N, de Courcy-Ireland E, Stangoulis JCR. Linoleic Acid:Dihomo-γ-Linolenic Acid Ratio Predicts the Efficacy of Zn-Biofortified Wheat in Chicken (Gallus gallus). JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2018; 66:1394-1400. [PMID: 29359556 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.7b04905] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
The amount of Zn absorbed from Zn-biofortified wheat material has been determined using an in vivo model of Zn absorption. The erythrocyte linoleic:dihomo -γ-linolenic acid (LA:DGLA) ratio was used as a biomarker of Zn status. Two groups of chickens (n = 15) were fed different diets: a high-Zn (46.5 μg Zn g-1) and a low-Zn wheat-based diet (32.8 μg Zn g-1). Dietary Zn intakes, body weight, serum Zn, and the erythrocyte fatty acid profile were measured, and tissues were taken for gene expression analysis. Serum Zn concentrations were greater in the high Zn group (p < 0.05). Duodenal mRNA expression of various Zn transporters demonstrated expression upregulation in the birds fed a low Zn diet (n = 15, p < 0.05). The LA:DGLA ratio was higher in the birds fed the low Zn diet (p < 0.05). The higher amount of Zn in the biofortified wheat resulted in a greater Zn uptake.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marija Knez
- College of Science and Engineering, Flinders University , GPO Box 2100, Adelaide SA 5001, Australia
| | - Elad Tako
- USDA/ARS, Robert W. Holley Centre for Agriculture and Health, Cornell University , Ithaca, New York 14853, United States
| | - Raymond P Glahn
- USDA/ARS, Robert W. Holley Centre for Agriculture and Health, Cornell University , Ithaca, New York 14853, United States
| | - Nikolai Kolba
- USDA/ARS, Robert W. Holley Centre for Agriculture and Health, Cornell University , Ithaca, New York 14853, United States
| | - Emma de Courcy-Ireland
- College of Science and Engineering, Flinders University , GPO Box 2100, Adelaide SA 5001, Australia
| | - James C R Stangoulis
- College of Science and Engineering, Flinders University , GPO Box 2100, Adelaide SA 5001, Australia
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9
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Garg M, Sharma N, Sharma S, Kapoor P, Kumar A, Chunduri V, Arora P. Biofortified Crops Generated by Breeding, Agronomy, and Transgenic Approaches Are Improving Lives of Millions of People around the World. Front Nutr 2018; 5:12. [PMID: 29492405 PMCID: PMC5817065 DOI: 10.3389/fnut.2018.00012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 183] [Impact Index Per Article: 30.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2017] [Accepted: 01/29/2018] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Biofortification is an upcoming, promising, cost-effective, and sustainable technique of delivering micronutrients to a population that has limited access to diverse diets and other micronutrient interventions. Unfortunately, major food crops are poor sources of micronutrients required for normal human growth. The manuscript deals in all aspects of crop biofortification which includes-breeding, agronomy, and genetic modification. It tries to summarize all the biofortification research that has been conducted on different crops. Success stories of biofortification include lysine and tryptophan rich quality protein maize (World food prize 2000), Vitamin A rich orange sweet potato (World food prize 2016); generated by crop breeding, oleic acid, and stearidonic acid soybean enrichment; through genetic transformation and selenium, iodine, and zinc supplementation. The biofortified food crops, especially cereals, legumes, vegetables, and fruits, are providing sufficient levels of micronutrients to targeted populations. Although a greater emphasis is being laid on transgenic research, the success rate and acceptability of breeding is much higher. Besides the challenges biofortified crops hold a bright future to address the malnutrition challenge.
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Affiliation(s)
- Monika Garg
- National Agri-Food Biotechnology Institute, Mohali, Punjab, India
| | - Natasha Sharma
- National Agri-Food Biotechnology Institute, Mohali, Punjab, India
| | - Saloni Sharma
- National Agri-Food Biotechnology Institute, Mohali, Punjab, India
| | - Payal Kapoor
- National Agri-Food Biotechnology Institute, Mohali, Punjab, India
| | - Aman Kumar
- National Agri-Food Biotechnology Institute, Mohali, Punjab, India
| | | | - Priya Arora
- National Agri-Food Biotechnology Institute, Mohali, Punjab, India
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Srinivasa J, Arun B, Mishra VK, Singh GP, Velu G, Babu R, Vasistha NK, Joshi AK. Zinc and iron concentration QTL mapped in a Triticum spelta × T. aestivum cross. TAG. THEORETICAL AND APPLIED GENETICS. THEORETISCHE UND ANGEWANDTE GENETIK 2014; 127:1643-51. [PMID: 24865507 DOI: 10.1007/s00122-014-2327-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2013] [Accepted: 05/05/2014] [Indexed: 05/10/2023]
Abstract
Ten QTL underlying the accumulation of Zn and Fe in the grain were mapped in a set of RILs bred from the cross Triticum spelta × T. aestivum . Five of these loci (two for Zn and three for Fe) were consistently detected across seven environments. The genetic basis of accumulation in the grain of Zn and Fe was investigated via QTL mapping in a recombinant inbred line (RIL) population bred from a cross between Triticum spelta and T. aestivum. The concentration of the two elements was measured from grain produced in three locations over two consecutive cropping seasons and from a greenhouse trial. The range in Zn and Fe concentration across the RILs was, respectively, 18.8-73.5 and 25.3-59.5 ppm, and the concentrations of the two elements were positively correlated with one another (rp =+0.79). Ten QTL (five each for Zn and Fe accumulation) were detected, mapping to seven different chromosomes. The chromosome 2B and 6A grain Zn QTL were consistently expressed across environments. The proportion of the phenotype explained (PVE) by QZn.bhu-2B was >16 %, and the locus was closely linked to the SNP marker 1101425|F|0, while QZn.bhu-6A (7.0 % PVE) was closely linked to DArT marker 3026160|F|0. Of the five Fe QTL detected, three, all mapping to chromosome 1A were detected in all seven environments. The PVE for QFe.bhu-3B was 26.0 %.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jayasudha Srinivasa
- Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding, Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India
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11
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Joy EJM, Ander EL, Young SD, Black CR, Watts MJ, Chilimba ADC, Chilima B, Siyame EWP, Kalimbira AA, Hurst R, Fairweather-Tait SJ, Stein AJ, Gibson RS, White PJ, Broadley MR. Dietary mineral supplies in Africa. PHYSIOLOGIA PLANTARUM 2014; 151:208-29. [PMID: 24524331 PMCID: PMC4235459 DOI: 10.1111/ppl.12144] [Citation(s) in RCA: 121] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2013] [Revised: 11/25/2013] [Accepted: 11/29/2013] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
Dietary micronutrient deficiencies (MNDs) are widespread, yet their prevalence can be difficult to assess. Here, we estimate MND risks due to inadequate intakes for seven minerals in Africa using food supply and composition data, and consider the potential of food-based and agricultural interventions. Food Balance Sheets (FBSs) for 46 countries were integrated with food composition data to estimate per capita supply of calcium (Ca), copper (Cu), iron (Fe), iodine (I), magnesium (Mg), selenium (Se) and zinc (Zn), and also phytate. Deficiency risks were quantified using an estimated average requirement (EAR) 'cut-point' approach. Deficiency risks are highest for Ca (54% of the population), followed by Zn (40%), Se (28%) and I (19%, after accounting for iodized salt consumption). The risk of Cu (1%) and Mg (<1%) deficiency are low. Deficiency risks are generally lower in the north and west of Africa. Multiple MND risks are high in many countries. The population-weighted mean phytate supply is 2770 mg capita(-1) day(-1). Deficiency risks for Fe are lower than expected (5%). However, 'cut-point' approaches for Fe are sensitive to assumptions regarding requirements; e.g. estimates of Fe deficiency risks are 43% under very low bioavailability scenarios consistent with high-phytate, low-animal protein diets. Fertilization and breeding strategies could greatly reduce certain MNDs. For example, meeting HarvestPlus breeding targets for Zn would reduce dietary Zn deficiency risk by 90% based on supply data. Dietary diversification or direct fortification is likely to be needed to address Ca deficiency risks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edward J M Joy
- School of Biosciences, University of Nottingham, Sutton Bonington CampusLoughborough LE12 5RD, UK
- British Geological SurveyKeyworth, Nottingham NG12 5GG, UK
| | - E Louise Ander
- British Geological SurveyKeyworth, Nottingham NG12 5GG, UK
| | - Scott D Young
- School of Biosciences, University of Nottingham, Sutton Bonington CampusLoughborough LE12 5RD, UK
| | - Colin R Black
- School of Biosciences, University of Nottingham, Sutton Bonington CampusLoughborough LE12 5RD, UK
| | | | - Allan D C Chilimba
- Ministry of Agriculture and Food SecurityLunyangwa Research Station, P.O. Box 59, Mzuzu, Malawi
| | - Benson Chilima
- Community Health Sciences Unit, Ministry of HealthPrivate Bag 65, Lilongwe, Malawi
| | - Edwin W P Siyame
- Department of Human Nutrition and Health, Lilongwe University of Agriculture and Natural ResourcesP.O. Box 219, Lilongwe, Malawi
| | - Alexander A Kalimbira
- Department of Human Nutrition and Health, Lilongwe University of Agriculture and Natural ResourcesP.O. Box 219, Lilongwe, Malawi
| | - Rachel Hurst
- Norwich Medical School, University of East AngliaNorwich NR4 7TJ, UK
| | | | | | - Rosalind S Gibson
- Department of Human Nutrition, University of OtagoP.O. Box 56, Dunedin, New Zealand
| | - Philip J White
- Ecological Sciences, The James Hutton InstituteInvergowrie, Dundee DD2 5DA, UK
| | - Martin R Broadley
- School of Biosciences, University of Nottingham, Sutton Bonington CampusLoughborough LE12 5RD, UK
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Teklić T, Lončarić Z, Kovačević V, Singh BR. Metallic trace elements in cereal grain – a review: how much metal do we eat? Food Energy Secur 2013. [DOI: 10.1002/fes3.24] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Tihana Teklić
- Department of Agroecology Faculty of Agriculture University J. J. Strossmayer in Osijek Kralja Petra Svačića 1d 31000 Osijek Croatia
| | - Zdenko Lončarić
- Department of Agroecology Faculty of Agriculture University J. J. Strossmayer in Osijek Kralja Petra Svačića 1d 31000 Osijek Croatia
| | - Vlado Kovačević
- Department for Plant Production Faculty of Agriculture University J. J. Strossmayer in Osijek Kralja Petra Svačića 1d 31000 Osijek Croatia
| | - Bal Ram Singh
- Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences Norwegian University of Life Sciences PO Box 5003 1432 As Norway
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Sperotto RA, Ricachenevsky FK, Waldow VDA, Fett JP. Iron biofortification in rice: it's a long way to the top. PLANT SCIENCE : AN INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL PLANT BIOLOGY 2012; 190:24-39. [PMID: 22608517 DOI: 10.1016/j.plantsci.2012.03.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 85] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2011] [Revised: 03/08/2012] [Accepted: 03/13/2012] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
Rice and most staple cereals contain low iron (Fe) levels, most of which is lost during grain processing. Populations with monotonous diets consisting mainly of cereals are especially prone to Fe deficiency, which affects about two billion people. Supplementation or food fortification programs have not always been successful. Crop Fe fertilization is also not very effective due to Fe soil insolubility. An alternative solution is Fe biofortification by generating cultivars that efficiently mobilize, uptake and translocate Fe to the edible parts. Here, we review the strategies used for the Fe biofortification of rice, including conventional breeding and directed genetic modification, which offer the most rapid way to develop Fe-rich rice plants. While classical breeding is able to modify the contents of inhibitors of Fe absorption, transgenic approaches have focused on enhanced Fe uptake from soil, xylem and phloem loading and grain sink strength. A comprehensive table is provided in which the percentages of the recommended dietary Fe intake reached by independently developed transgenic plants are calculated. In this review we also emphasize that the discovery of new QTLs and genes related to Fe biofortification is extremely important, but interdisciplinary research is needed for future success in this area.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raul Antonio Sperotto
- Centro de Ciências Biológicas e da Saúde, Centro Universitário UNIVATES, 95900-000, Lajeado, RS, Brazil.
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Wang YX, Specht A, Horst WJ. Stable isotope labelling and zinc distribution in grains studied by laser ablation ICP-MS in an ear culture system reveals zinc transport barriers during grain filling in wheat. THE NEW PHYTOLOGIST 2011; 189:428-37. [PMID: 20946419 DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-8137.2010.03489.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
Zinc (Zn) deficiency has been recognized as a potential risk for human health in many developing regions where staple food with low micronutrient density represents a major proportion of the diet. The success of strategies to increase Zn content in the edible part of crops requires better understanding of Zn transport to, and distribution within, the grains. The transfer of Zn from the growth medium to wheat (Triticum aestivum) grains in an ear culture system was investigated by using the stable Zn isotope (70) Zn, and the spatial distribution of Zn within the grains was studied by laser ablation-inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS). Zinc was readily transported in the stem up to the rachis. More Zn accumulated in the stem when higher amounts of Zn were supplied to the medium. Once Zn was transported into the grain, Zn accumulated particularly in the crease vascular tissue. The gradient of (70) Zn concentration between crease vascular tissue, aleurone layer and endosperm demonstrates that Zn is distributed within grain through the crease phloem. These results suggest that two barriers of Zn transport into wheat grains may exist: between the stem tissue rachis and the grain, and the maternal and filial tissues in the grain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Y X Wang
- Key Laboratory of Crop Genetics & Physiology of Jiangsu Province, Yangzhou University, 12 Wenhui Road, 225009 Yangzhou, China
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15
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Genotypic and environmental differences in grain contents of Zn, Fe, Mn and Cu and how they relate to wheat yield. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2010. [DOI: 10.3724/sp.j.1011.2010.00982] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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16
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Zhang Y, Shi R, Rezaul KM, Zhang F, Zou C. Iron and zinc concentrations in grain and flour of winter wheat as affected by foliar application. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2010; 58:12268-74. [PMID: 21073194 DOI: 10.1021/jf103039k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/09/2023]
Abstract
Human deficiencies of iron (Fe) and zinc (Zn) are worldwide problems. Biofortification of wheat could reduce Fe and Zn deficiencies in societies that depend on wheat consumption. This study investigated the effects of foliar application of Fe with or without Zn on the concentrations of Fe and Zn in grain and especially in flour of three wheat cultivars. On average, grain Fe concentration was increased significantly from 29.5 mg kg(-1) in the control to 37.8, 35.9, or 34.9 mg kg(-1) by application of FeSO4, ferric citrate plus ZnSO4, or ferric citrate, respectively. As expected, grain Zn concentration was increased from 29.0 mg kg(-1) in the control to 45.7 or 39.6 mg kg(-1) by application of ferric citrate plus ZnSO4 or a complex of micronutrients. Although the Fe and Zn concentrations in flour were inherently lower than in bran and shorts made by experimental mill, the concentrations in flour were simultaneously increased from 10.4 to 12.4 mg kg(-1) for Fe and from 11.8 to 17.4 mg kg(-1) for Zn by application of ferric citrate plus ZnSO4. Importantly, Fe was peripherally localized within grain fractions and strictly limited to transport to endosperm, making it more difficult to increase the quantity of Fe in flour products by foliar Fe application, but the situation with Zn is promising because Zn is more readily transported to the endosperm than Fe. The current study increases the understanding of agronomic biofortification.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yueqiang Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Plant-Soil Interaction, MOE, and Key Laboratory of Plant Nutrition, MOA, Department of Plant Nutrition, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, People's Republic of China
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17
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New hypotheses for the health-protective mechanisms of whole-grain cereals: what is beyond fibre? Nutr Res Rev 2010; 23:65-134. [PMID: 20565994 DOI: 10.1017/s0954422410000041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 593] [Impact Index Per Article: 42.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Epidemiological studies have clearly shown that whole-grain cereals can protect against obesity, diabetes, CVD and cancers. The specific effects of food structure (increased satiety, reduced transit time and glycaemic response), fibre (improved faecal bulking and satiety, viscosity and SCFA production, and/or reduced glycaemic response) and Mg (better glycaemic homeostasis through increased insulin secretion), together with the antioxidant and anti-carcinogenic properties of numerous bioactive compounds, especially those in the bran and germ (minerals, trace elements, vitamins, carotenoids, polyphenols and alkylresorcinols), are today well-recognised mechanisms in this protection. Recent findings, the exhaustive listing of bioactive compounds found in whole-grain wheat, their content in whole-grain, bran and germ fractions and their estimated bioavailability, have led to new hypotheses. The involvement of polyphenols in cell signalling and gene regulation, and of sulfur compounds, lignin and phytic acid should be considered in antioxidant protection. Whole-grain wheat is also a rich source of methyl donors and lipotropes (methionine, betaine, choline, inositol and folates) that may be involved in cardiovascular and/or hepatic protection, lipid metabolism and DNA methylation. Potential protective effects of bound phenolic acids within the colon, of the B-complex vitamins on the nervous system and mental health, of oligosaccharides as prebiotics, of compounds associated with skeleton health, and of other compounds such as alpha-linolenic acid, policosanol, melatonin, phytosterols and para-aminobenzoic acid also deserve to be studied in more depth. Finally, benefits of nutrigenomics to study complex physiological effects of the 'whole-grain package', and the most promising ways for improving the nutritional quality of cereal products are discussed.
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Gómez-Galera S, Rojas E, Sudhakar D, Zhu C, Pelacho AM, Capell T, Christou P. Critical evaluation of strategies for mineral fortification of staple food crops. Transgenic Res 2009; 19:165-80. [PMID: 19685153 DOI: 10.1007/s11248-009-9311-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 98] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2009] [Accepted: 07/25/2009] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Staple food crops, in particular cereal grains, are poor sources of key mineral nutrients. As a result, the world's poorest people, generally those subsisting on a monotonous cereal diet, are also those most vulnerable to mineral deficiency diseases. Various strategies have been proposed to deal with micronutrient deficiencies including the provision of mineral supplements, the fortification of processed food, the biofortification of crop plants at source with mineral-rich fertilizers and the implementation of breeding programs and genetic engineering approaches to generate mineral-rich varieties of staple crops. This review provides a critical comparison of the strategies that have been developed to address deficiencies in five key mineral nutrients-iodine, iron, zinc, calcium and selenium-and discusses the most recent advances in genetic engineering to increase mineral levels and bioavailability in our most important staple food crops.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sonia Gómez-Galera
- Department of Vegetal Production and Forestry Science, ETSEA, University of Lleida, 25198 Lleida, Spain.
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White PJ, Broadley MR. Biofortification of crops with seven mineral elements often lacking in human diets--iron, zinc, copper, calcium, magnesium, selenium and iodine. THE NEW PHYTOLOGIST 2009; 182:49-84. [PMID: 19192191 DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-8137.2008.02738.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 748] [Impact Index Per Article: 49.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
The diets of over two-thirds of the world's population lack one or more essential mineral elements. This can be remedied through dietary diversification, mineral supplementation, food fortification, or increasing the concentrations and/or bioavailability of mineral elements in produce (biofortification). This article reviews aspects of soil science, plant physiology and genetics underpinning crop biofortification strategies, as well as agronomic and genetic approaches currently taken to biofortify food crops with the mineral elements most commonly lacking in human diets: iron (Fe), zinc (Zn), copper (Cu), calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), iodine (I) and selenium (Se). Two complementary approaches have been successfully adopted to increase the concentrations of bioavailable mineral elements in food crops. First, agronomic approaches optimizing the application of mineral fertilizers and/or improving the solubilization and mobilization of mineral elements in the soil have been implemented. Secondly, crops have been developed with: increased abilities to acquire mineral elements and accumulate them in edible tissues; increased concentrations of 'promoter' substances, such as ascorbate, beta-carotene and cysteine-rich polypeptides which stimulate the absorption of essential mineral elements by the gut; and reduced concentrations of 'antinutrients', such as oxalate, polyphenolics or phytate, which interfere with their absorption. These approaches are addressing mineral malnutrition in humans globally.
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Affiliation(s)
- Philip J White
- The Scottish Crop Research Institute, Invergowrie, Dundee DD2 5DA, UK
| | - Martin R Broadley
- Plant and Crop Sciences Division, School of Biosciences, University of Nottingham, Sutton Bonington Campus, Loughborough LE12 5RD, UK
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Speciation of Phytate Ion in Aqueous Solution. Thermodynamic Parameters for Zinc(II) Sequestration at Different Ionic Strengths and Temperatures. J SOLUTION CHEM 2008. [DOI: 10.1007/s10953-008-9357-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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De Stefano C, Milea D, Porcino N, Sammartano S. Speciation of phytate ion in aqueous solution. Sequestering ability toward mercury(II) cation in NaClaq at different ionic strengths. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2006; 54:1459-66. [PMID: 16478274 DOI: 10.1021/jf0522208] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
Abstract
As a contribution to understanding the speciation of mercury in the environment and to the study of the sequestering ability of phytate (Phy) toward heavy metal and organometal cations, this paper describes the results of an investigation (at t = 25 degrees C by potentiometry, ISE-H+ glass electrode) of its interactions with mercury(II) cation in NaCl aqueous solutions at different ionic strengths (I = 0.15 and 1.0 mol L(-1)), in the pH range 2.5 < or = pH < or = 9.5 and considering metal-to-ligand ratios of 1:1 < or = Hg/Phy < or = 4:1. The formation of 11 HgiHjPhy(12-2i-j)(- species with i = 1 and 0 < or = j < or = 7 and i = 2 and 0 < or = j < or = 2 was observed. Their complex formation constant values proved to be fairly dependent on ionic strength. The speciation of phytic acid and mercury(II) is also dependent on the metal-to-ligand ratio; the dependence of the stability of phytate-mercury(II) species on the phytate protonation step was modeled, and an empirical predictive relationship was proposed. From the results obtained, phytate has very good sequestering ability toward Hg2+, even in the presence of considerable excesses of chloride ion, that is, another ligand strongly interacting with mercury; this supports future studies both on the use of plants that naturally synthesize it for phytoremediation purposes and on its direct application in remediation techniques.
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Affiliation(s)
- Concetta De Stefano
- Dipartimento di Chimica Inorganica, Chimica Analitica e Chimica Fisica, Università di Messina, Salita Sperone 31, I-98166 Messina (Vill. S. Agata), Italy
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McClung JP, Stahl CH, Marchitelli LJ, Morales-Martinez N, Mackin KM, Young AJ, Scrimgeour AG. Effects of dietary phytase on body weight gain, body composition and bone strength in growing rats fed a low-zinc diet. J Nutr Biochem 2005; 17:190-6. [PMID: 16214325 DOI: 10.1016/j.jnutbio.2005.07.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2005] [Revised: 06/30/2005] [Accepted: 07/12/2005] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Phytic acid, a major phosphorous storage compound found in foodstuffs, is known to form insoluble complexes with nutritionally essential minerals, including zinc (Zn). Phytases are enzymes that catalyze the removal of these minerals from phytic acid, improving their bioavailability. The objective of the present study was to determine the ability of dietary phytase to affect body weight, body composition, and bone strength in growing rats fed a high phytic acid, low Zn diet. Rats (n = 20) were fed either a control (AIN-93) or phytase supplemented (Natuphos, BASF, 1,500 phytase units (FTU)/kg) diet for a period of 8 weeks. Phytase supplementation resulted in increased (P<.05) bone and plasma Zn, but no change in plasma inorganic phosphorous or bone levels of Ca, Fe, or Mg. The addition of phytase to the diets resulted in a 22.4% increase (P<.05) in body weight at the end of the study as compared with rats fed a control diet. Dual x-ray absorptiometry (DXA) revealed that phytase supplementation resulted in increase lean body mass (LBM, P<.001) and increased bone mineral content (BMC, P<.001) as compared with feeding the control diet. Bone studies indicated that femurs and tibias from phytase supplemented rats had greater mass (P<.05) and were stronger (P<.05) than rats fed the control diet. This data suggest that the addition of phytase to low Zn diets results in improved Zn status, which may be responsible for beneficial effects on growth, body composition, and bone strength.
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Affiliation(s)
- James P McClung
- Military Nutrition Division, U.S. Army Research Institute of Environmental Medicine (USARIEM), Natick, MA 01760, USA
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