Chemical characterization of Sacha Inchi (Plukenetia volubilis L.) oil

Peptide fractions from Sacha inchi induced apoptosis in HepG2 cells via P53 activation and a mitochondria-mediated pathway

BACKGROUND

Sacha inchi is known for its high protein content and medicinal properties. Bioactive peptides have been reported to have therapeutic potential in various human diseases. However, there is a lack of research evaluating the pharmacological value of peptides derived from Sacha inchi. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate the anti-hepatoma effect of Sacha inchi peptides (SPs) and their underlying mechanism.

RESULTS

The study found that treatment with SPs significantly reduced the proliferation of HepG2 cells by inducing apoptosis and arresting the cell cycle at the G0/G1 phase. SPs also induced HepG2 cell apoptosis by increasing the levels of proteins such as Bax, Caspase-3 and P53. The study identified nine novel peptides in SPs, of which LLEPDVR, ALVEKAKAS and TGDGSLRPY exhibited higher cell proliferative inhibition rates compared to other peptides.

CONCLUSION

The findings of this study suggest that Sacha inchi peptides have potential pharmacological effects in the treatment of liver cancer. SPs effectively suppress the cell cycle and facilitate cell apoptosis, indicating their anti-hepatoma effect. The novel peptides identified in SPs may have therapeutic value for liver cancer treatment. © 2023 Society of Chemical Industry.

The Effects of Different Roasting Methods on the Phenolic Contents, Antioxidant Potential, and In Vitro Inhibitory Activities of Sacha Inchi Seeds

Roasted sacha inchi seeds are now commercialized as a health food product, but the influence of roasting methods on their proclaimed health effects has yet to be explored. This study investigated the total phenolic contents (TPCs), antioxidant potential, and inhibitory activities of raw and roasted sacha inchi seeds in vitro. Individual phenolics in raw seeds were also identified in an attempt to explain the bioactivities of the seeds. The results suggested that roasting in a cooking pan, vacuum oven, and tray dryer had distinct impact on TPC in sacha inchi seeds, and thus differentially altered their antioxidant and inhibitory properties. Seeds that underwent roasting exhibited 1.5-2.7-fold higher antioxidant potentials than raw seeds. Certain roasting methods provided the products with anti-α-amylase and anti-cholinesterase activities, while inhibitions of these enzymes were not detected in raw seeds. Roasted seeds also possessed superior anti-lipase and anti-glycation activities when compared with raw seeds (up to 1.7- and 4.8-fold, respectively). The inhibitory properties observed in the seed samples might be attributed to their p-coumaric acid, ferulic acid, and quercetin, as these potential enzyme inhibitors were predominant in raw seeds. The overall results showed that pan-roasting could be used to obtain relatively high health benefits from the antioxidant and inhibitory activities of sacha inchi seeds. The information obtained from this study may serve as the basis for the proper processing of sacha inchi seeds to optimize their functional food and nutraceutical applications.

Evaluating the Potential of Plukenetia volubilis Linneo (Sacha Inchi) in Alleviating Cardiovascular Disease Risk Factors: A Mini Review

Plukenetia volubilis Linneo or Sacha Inchi (SI), a traditional natural remedy indigenous to Peru and Brazil, has garnered global attention due to its exceptional nutritional composition. Its protective effects against various non-communicable diseases, notably cardiovascular disease (CVD), have become a subject of interest in recent research. This comprehensive review summarizes the existing evidence from 15 relevant articles concerning the impact of SI on common CVD risk factors, including dyslipidemia, obesity, diabetes, and hypertension. The relevant articles were derived from comprehensive searches on PubMed, Scopus, Google Scholar, and Web of Science using predefined criteria and keywords related to the topic. Overall, SI demonstrated positive effects in attenuating dyslipidemia, obesity, diabetes, and hypertension. The multifaceted mechanisms responsible for the protective effects of SI against these CVD risk factors are primarily attributed to its antioxidative and anti-inflammatory properties. While preclinical studies dominate the current scientific literature on SI, there are limited clinical trials to corroborate these findings. Therefore, future well-designed, large-scale randomized clinical trials are highly recommended to establish the efficacy of SI and determine its optimal dosage, potential drug and food interactions, and practical integration into preventive strategies and dietary interventions for the high-risk populations.

Chemical Composition, Fatty Acid Profile, and Optimization of the Sacha Inchi (Plukenetia volubilis L.) Seed-Roasting Process Using Response Surface Methodology: Assessment of Oxidative Stability and Antioxidant Activity

This study aimed to optimize the roasting conditions for sacha inchi (Plukenetia volubilis L.) seeds using the central composite design (CCD) of the response surface methodology (RSM). The antioxidant activity and oxidation indicators (peroxide and TBA values) were assessed, along with the impact of roasting on the fatty acid profile and chemical characterization of the seeds using gas chromatography. The results demonstrated that roasting partially increased the indicators of lipid oxidation in the oil extracted from roasted seeds, as well as the antioxidant activity of the seeds. The optimal roasting conditions were determined using CCD and RSM, resulting in an optimized temperature of 134.28 °C and 18.84 min. The fatty acid contents were not significantly affected by the roasting intensity, whereas a higher presence of amino acids was found in the seeds roasted at 140 °C for 15 min. In conclusion, it is suggested that the optimal roasting conditions for enhancing amino acid presence, improving antioxidant activity, and maintaining oxidative stability in sacha inchi seeds fall within the temperature range of 134-140 °C and a roasting duration of 15-20 min.

Mechanistic Understanding of the Antiviral Properties of Pistachios and Zeaxanthin against HSV-1

The search for alternative clinical treatments to fight resistance and find alternative antiviral treatments for the herpes simplex virus (HSV) is of great interest. Plants are rich sources of novel antiviral, pharmacologically active agents that provide several advantages, including reduced side effects, less resistance, low toxicity, and different mechanisms of action. In the present work, the antiviral activity of Californian natural raw (NRRE) and roasted unsalted (RURE) pistachio polyphenols-rich extracts was evaluated against HSV-1 using VERO cells. Two different extraction methods, with or without n-hexane, were used. Results showed that n-hexane-extracted NRRE and RURE exerted an antiviral effect against HSV-1, blocking virus binding on the cell surface, affecting viral DNA synthesis as well as accumulation of ICP0, UL42, and Us11 viral proteins. Additionally, the identification and quantification of phenolic compounds by RP-HPLC-DAD confirmed that extraction with n-hexane exclusively accumulated tocopherols, carotenoids, and xanthophylls. Amongst these, zeaxanthin exhibited strong antiviral activity against HSV-1 (CC50: 16.1 µM, EC50 4.08 µM, SI 3.96), affecting both the viral attachment and penetration and viral DNA synthesis. Zeaxanthin is a dietary carotenoid that accumulates in the retina as a macular pigment. The use of pistachio extracts and derivates should be encouraged for the topical treatment of ocular herpetic infections.

Fabrication of Sacha Inchi Oil-Loaded Microcapsules Employing Natural-Templated Lycopodium clavatum Spores and Their Pressure-Stimuli Release Behavior

Polymeric particles have attracted vast attention for use in various fields, especially as drug carriers and cosmetics, due to their excellent ability to protect active ingredients from the environment until reaching a target site. However, these materials are commonly produced from conventional synthetic polymers, which impose adverse effects on the environment due to their non-degradable nature, leading to waste accumulation and pollution in the ecosystem. This work aims to utilize naturally occurring Lycopodium clavatum spores to encapsulate sacha inchi oil (SIO), which contains active compounds with antioxidant activity, by applying a facile passive loading/solvent diffusion-assisted method. Sequential chemical treatments by acetone, potassium hydroxide, and phosphoric acid were employed to remove native biomolecules from the spores before encapsulation effectively. These are mild and facile processes compared to other synthetic polymeric materials. Scanning electron microscopy and Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy revealed the clean, intact, and ready-to-use microcapsule spores. After the treatments, the structural morphology of the treated spores remained significantly unchanged compared to the untreated counterparts. With an oil/spore ratio of 0.75:1.00 (SIO@spore-0.75), high encapsulation efficiency and capacity loading values of 51.2 and 29.3%, respectively, were obtained. Using antioxidant assay (DPPH), the IC₅₀ of SIO@spore-0.75 was 5.25 ± 3.04 mg/mL, similar to that of pure SIO (5.51 ± 0.31 mg/mL). Under pressure stimuli (1990 N/cm³, equivalent to a gentle press), a high amount of SIO was released (82%) from the microcapsules within 3 min. At an incubation time of 24 h, cytotoxicity tests showed a high cell viability of 88% at the highest concentration of the microcapsules (10 mg/mL), reflecting biocompatibility. The prepared microcapsules have a high potential for cosmetic applications, especially as functional scrub beads in facial washing products.

Isolation and identification of dipeptidyl peptidase-IV inhibitory peptides from Sacha inchi meal

BACKGROUND

Sacha inchi meal (SIM) is a by-product of oil processing. Our previous studies showed that SIM hydrolysates exhibited dipeptidyl peptidase-IV (DPP-IV) inhibition activity. The objective of the present work was to identify and characterize the bioactive peptides from protein hydrolysates of SIM; enzyme kinetics and peptide-enzyme interaction were also investigated.

RESULTS

From SIM hydrolysates, ten peptides responsible for the activity were identified: GPSRGF (GF-6), FPILSPDPA (FA-9), APYRRGGKI (AI-9), WPYH (WH-4), DPATWLALPT (DT-10), NPEDEFRQQ (NQ-9), APESKPVGV (AV-9), LEWRDR (LR-6), APVYWVQ (AQ-7) and LLMWPY (LY-6). The IC₅₀ values of five peptides (GF-6, WH-4, AQ-7, AV-9 and LY-6) with better inhibitory activity on DPP-IV were within the range of 23.43-128.40 μmol L^-1 . AQ-7 had the best activity, with an IC₅₀ value of 23.43 μmol L^-1 . Enzyme kinetics indicated the presence of various inhibition types (mixed, non-competitive and competitive). Isothermal titration microcalorimetry showed that the main forces of the binding sites between peptide (GF-6 or AQ-7) and DPP-IV were hydrogen bond, hydrophobic interaction and van der Waals force. The key residues involved in peptide-enzyme interaction were determined by molecular docking. Furthermore, at a concentration of 800 μmol L^-1 , GF-6 was found to significantly increase the glucose consumption in insulin-resistant HepG2 cells (P < 0.05) compared with the model group.

CONCLUSION

Sacha inchi meal-derived peptides displayed potent DPP-IV inhibition activity and could be used in the health food industry and as lead compounds for diabetes therapy. © 2023 Society of Chemical Industry.

Medicinal Plants in Peru as a Source of Immunomodulatory Drugs Potentially Useful Against COVID-19

The current COVID-19 pandemic, characterized by a highly contagious severe acute respiratory syndrome, led us to look for medicinal plants as an alternative to obtain new drugs, especially those with immunomodulatory abilities, capable of acting against the pulmonary infection caused by coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). Despite medical advances with COVID-19 drugs and vaccines, plant-based compounds could provide an array of suitable candidates to test against this virus, or at the very least, to alleviate some symptoms. Therefore, this review explores some plants widely used in Peru that show immunomodulatory properties or, even more, contain phytoconstituents potentially useful to prevent or alleviate the COVID-19 infection. More interestingly, the present review highlights relevant information from those plants to support the development of new drugs to boost the immune system. We used three criteria to choose nine vegetal species, and a descriptive search was then conducted from 1978 to 2021 on different databases, using keywords focused on the immune system that included information such as pharmacological properties, phytochemical, botanical, ethnobotanical uses, and some clinical trials. From these literature data, our results displayed considerable immunomodulation activity along with anti-inflammatory, antiviral, antioxidant, and antitumoral activities. Noticeably, these pharmacological activities are related with a wide variety of bioactive phytoconstituents (mixtures or isolated compounds) which may be beneficial in modulating the overt inflammatory response in severe COVID-19. Further scientific research on the pharmacological activities and clinical utilization of these potential plants are warranted.

Graphical Abstract

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s43450-023-00367-w.

Sacha Inchi (Plukenetia Volubilis L.): recent insight on phytochemistry, pharmacology, organoleptic, safety and toxicity perspectives

Sacha Inchi (Plukenetia Volubilis L.), SI, is the oleaginous plant of the Euphorbiaceous family originally cultivated in the Amazonian forest. It is traditionally appreciated and consumed as the healthful food. In vivo, in vitro and clinical studies have suggested the beneficial effects of SI for a variety of neuroprotection, dermatology, antidyslipidaemic, antioxidant and anti-inflammatory, antiproliferative and antitumor modulation activities. Many of these potential impacts are related to its bioactive compounds, particularly essential fatty acids, proteins and phytochemicals. However, there are some scientific evidences underlying the risk of toxicity associated with the high doses of SI seed oils. With the aforementioned, this review outlines a narrative review of SI, including its ethnobotanical components, phytochemistry profile, organoleptic and sensory evaluations. The essential development of its latest applications in the field of medicine, pharmacology, safety and toxicological issues, are laconically demonstrated. Moreover, the underlying challenges and upcoming prospective for the integration of SI use are detailed.

Effects of Maturity and Thermal Treatment on Phenolic Profiles and In Vitro Health-Related Properties of Sacha Inchi Leaves

Sacha inchi (Plukenetia volubilis L.) has been adopted as a novel economic crop with well-studied nutritional and bioactive benefits for human health. Sacha inchi seeds and oil have high commercial value but scant research has focused on its leaves. This study investigated and compared phenolic compositions, antioxidant potentials and in vitro health-related properties of both young and mature sacha inchi leaves after freeze-drying and oven-drying processes. Results showed that p-coumaric acid, 4-hydroxybenzoic acid, ferulic acid and gallic acid were predominantly detected in both young and mature leaves that also exhibited similar total phenolic contents (TPCs), while higher TPCs were detected in freeze-dried than in oven-dried leaves. Mature leaves exhibited higher antioxidant potential than young leaves after freeze-drying, while the opposite results were observed for oven-drying. Overall in vitro health-related activities were higher in mature leaves compared to young leaves regardless of the drying process. Knowledge gained from this study can be used to encourage prospective utilization of sacha inchi leaves as a source of health-promoting compounds. This, in turn, will increase the commercial value of the leaves and provide a wider market variety of sacha inchi products.

Lipid composition of the Amazonian 'Mountain Sacha Inchis' including Plukenetia carolis-vegae Bussmann, Paniagua & C.Téllez

Several Amazonian species of Plukenetia are remarkably rich sources of polyunsaturated fatty acids, in particular α-linolenic acid. The lipid composition of the large-seeded, recently described ‘Mountain Sacha Inchi’ Plukenetia carolis-vegae is reported here for the first time, and compared with Plukenetia huayllabambana, two cultivars of Plukenetia volubilis, and a newly developed hybrid between P. volubilis and P. carolis-vegae. All species and cultivars had a very high content of polyunsaturated fatty acids, 82.6–86.7% of total fatty acids, and at least 46.6% α-linolenic acid of total fatty acids. The highest content was found in P. carolis-vegae which had 57.4%. The exceptionally high α-linolenic acid content suggests that P. carolis-vegae may be an important plant-derived dietary source of this essential fatty acid and that the species has considerable potential for further domestication and commercialisation of its seeds and seed oil. A TAG analysis was carried out for the two P. volubilis cultivars, in which LLnLn and LnLL were most prevalent, and for P. huayllabambana, in which LLnLn constituted the largest fraction, followed by LnLnLn, indicating that this large-seeded species also has interesting dietary properties.

Effects of dietary sacha inchi (Plukenetia volubilis L.) oil and medicinal plant powder supplementation on growth performance, carcass traits, and breast meat quality of colored broiler chickens raised in Vietnam

The present study aimed to investigate the effects of replacing dietary soybean oil (SBO) with sacha inchi (Plukenetia volubilis L.) oil (SIO) supplemented or not with medicinal plant powder (MP, 60% cinnamon twig, and 40% star anise fruits) on broiler performance, carcass traits, and omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid (n-3 PUFA) content of breast meat. A total of 288 Ho × Luong Phuong broiler chickens (age and average body weight: 6 weeks old and 877 ± 13.4 g) were equally divided into three groups (6 replicates of 16 birds each), balanced by BW and sex. Each group was randomly allocated to one of three dietary treatments: a 2% SBO diet (CON), a 2% SIO diet (SI), and a diet supplemented with 2% SIO and 1% MP (SIM). The experiment lasted for 70 days. Broiler performance, carcass traits, and technological meat quality were not affected by the diets (P > 0.05). However, colored broiler chickens fed the SIM diet had increased empty gizzard percentage (P < 0.05) compared to those fed the CON diet. Especially, the n-3 PUFA content of breast meat from broiler chickens fed diets containing SIO was higher than those of birds fed CON diet (P < 0.01). A significant decrease in cholesterol content was observed (P < 0.01) in broilers fed SIM diet compared to those fed CON diet. In conclusion, replacing 2% SBO with 2% SIO and 1% MP supplementation in broiler diets increased n-3 PUFA content and decreased cholesterol content in breast meat, without negative effects on bird performance, carcass characteristics, and meat quality. Therefore, a combination of SIO and MP can be used as an effective strategy to ameliorate the meat quality of finishing broiler chickens by enhancing n-3 PUFA content and reducing the cholesterol content of breast meat.

Enhancement of omega-3 content in sacha inchi seed oil extracted with supercritical carbon dioxide in semi-continuous process

Sacha inchi seed oil is a promising substance for applications in food, pharmaceutical, and nutraceutical industries because of its valuable components, particularly omega-3. In this research, sacha inchi oil was extracted from the seed kernels using supercritical carbon dioxide (CO₂) extraction compared with Soxhlet extraction. The influences of extraction time, type of solvents (hexane, ethanol, butanol, and i-propanol), and solvent volume on the oil yield and compositions were investigated in the Soxhlet. In the supercritical CO₂ extraction, the effects of extraction time, temperature, and pressure were evaluated. The physicochemical properties of sacha inchi oils extracted with supercritical CO₂ were characterized. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) equipped with energy dispersive X-ray analysis (EDX), Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) were also carried out. The results showed the advantage of using supercritical CO₂ extraction to increase the omega-3 content in the extracted oil within a shorter extraction time. The omega-3 content of 46.08% was obtained from the supercritical CO₂ extraction at 400 bar and 60 °C. Supercritical CO₂ extraction is a safe and environmentally friendly method that yields a toxic-free oil.

Biological Activity of Sacha Inchi (Plukenetia volubilis Linneo) and Potential Uses in Human Health: A Review

Sacha inchi (Plukenetia volubilis Linneo) is an ancestral plant originating in the Amazon jungle that has been adopted as a food source due to its high nutritional value, which has gradually been recognized to have potential benefits for human health. Diverse prospective studies have evaluated the effect of consuming components from the plant, derivatives from its seeds, leaves and shell on preventing the risk of cardiovascular disease, chronic inflammatory disease, dermatitis and controlling tumor proliferation, especially given its recognized high content of essential fatty acids, phenolic compounds and vitamin E, showing antioxidant, hypolipidemic, immunomodulation and emollient activity, as well as the capacity to remove heavy metals from aqueous solutions. This review offers a complete description of the existing information on the use and biological activity of P. volubilis L., based on its essential lipid components and evidenced on its use in the field of human health, in prevention, therapeutic and nutritional contexts, along with industrial uses, making it a promising bioresource.

Sacha inchi (Plukenetia volubilis L.): An emerging source of nutrients, omega-3 fatty acid and phytochemicals

Sacha inchi (Plukenetia volubilis) (SI) is an oleaginous plant producing oil and protein-rich seeds. It has been cultivated for centuries and is native to the tropical rainforest of the Amazon region of South America including parts of Peru and northwestern Brazil. At present, SI seeds are emerging as a potential source of macro- and micronutrients, α-linolenic acid and phytochemicals. This review attempts to elucidate the nutrients, phytonutrients, safety, toxicity, health benefits and food applications of SI seed. Recent scientific studies have associated the consumption of SI seed/oil with reduced risk of chronic inflammatory diseases. However, lack of awareness and in-depth understanding has resulted in it being neglected both at the consumer and industrial level. In all, SI is an underutilized and undervalued oleaginous crop which not only has the potential to mitigate food and nutritional insecurity but also offers humongous opportunities for the development of novel value-added food products.

Antiviral Activity of Metabolites from Peruvian Plants against SARS-CoV-2: An In Silico Approach

(1) Background: The COVID-19 pandemic lacks treatments; for this reason, the search for potential compounds against therapeutic targets is still necessary. Bioinformatics tools have allowed the rapid in silico screening of possible new metabolite candidates from natural resources or repurposing known ones. Thus, in this work, we aimed to select phytochemical candidates from Peruvian plants with antiviral potential against three therapeutical targets of SARS-CoV-2. (2) Methods: We applied in silico technics, such as virtual screening, molecular docking, molecular dynamics simulation, and MM/GBSA estimation. (3) Results: Rutin, a compound present in Peruvian native plants, showed affinity against three targets of SARS-CoV-2. The molecular dynamics simulation demonstrated the high stability of receptor-ligand systems during the time of the simulation. Our results showed that the Mpro-Rutin system exhibited higher binding free energy than PLpro-Rutin and N-Rutin systems through MM/GBSA analysis. (4) Conclusions: Our study provides insight on natural metabolites from Peruvian plants with therapeutical potential. We found Rutin as a potential candidate with multiple pharmacological properties against SARS-CoV-2.

Changes in stability, tocopherols, fatty acids and antioxidant capacity of sacha inchi (Plukenetia volubilis) oil during French fries deep-frying

Sacha inchi (Plukenetia volubilis) oil (SI) is appreciated for its nutritional and sensorial characteristics. The aim of this study was to evaluate SI changes during French fries deep-frying at 170 °C or 180 °C up to 119 and 50 min, respectively; commercial soybean oil (SO) was tested as control. SI had high α-linolenic acid (53.8%), linoleic acid (33.4%) and total tocopherols (2540.1 mg/kg). During frying tocopherol content, oil stability and antioxidant capacity (ABTS, DPPH) decreased following zero-order kinetics; γ-tocopherol showed the strongest decrease. Notwithstanding the high SI unsaturation and the commercial antioxidant (TBHQ) in SO, SI showed slightly higher or similar hydrolysis (free fatty acids and diacylglycerols), similar primary (K₂₃₂, oxidized-triacylglycerols) and lower secondary (K₂₆₈, triacylglycerol oligopolymers) oxidation. Because of the high tocopherol content, SI showed lower degradation than SO. Thus, SI is suitable for short-term deep-frying; additionally, it may enhance the nutritional value and the flavour of fried foods.

Effects of Ultrasonic Operating Parameters and Emulsifier System on Sacha Inchi Oil Nanoemulsion Characteristics

The objective of this study was to investigate the effect of ultrasonic operating conditions, i.e., ultrasonic mode, amplitude, total ultrasonic duration time, and emulsifier system in producing an optimum oil-in-water of sacha inchi oil nanoemulsions (SIO-NEs). Physicochemical characteristics (including average droplet size, polydispersity index (PDI), zeta potential, and viscosity) were the evaluated response variables. Smaller droplet size was obtained from SIO-NEs prepared by ultrasonic pulse application (15s ON and 10s OFF) with an ultrasonic amplitude level of 60%. In contrast, excess energy produced by ultrasonication amplitudes of more than 60% resulted in larger average droplet size and PDI. A decrease in the absolute value of zeta potential and a lower viscosity of SIO-NEs were also observed in conjunction with the high amplitude level of the ultrasonication process. An ultrasonication duration time of longer than 10 minutes did not significantly reduce the droplet size. Five emulsifier systems were evaluated in this study, including Pluronic^®L-31, Brij^®C-10, Tween^®80, Tween^®80/Pluronic^®L-31, and Brij^®C-10/Pluronic^®L-31. The results revealed that the Brij^®C-10/Pluronic^®L-31 mixture produced the smallest droplet size (148 nm) with the lowest PDI (0.210), viscosity (3.35 cPs), and zeta potential (－31.09 mV). The concentration of the Brij^®C-10/Pluronic^®L-31 mixture, used as an emulsifier of SIO-NEs, varied from 1.5% to 9%. Based on the present findings, the most suitable concentration of mixed emulsifier used was deemed as 3% (w/v). The selected SIO-NEs were stored under room temperature to determine their droplet size stability, with the constant slightly increasing within 90 days of storage.

Sacha inchi (Plukenetia volubilis L.)-from lost crop of the Incas to part of the solution to global challenges?

The underutilized, oleaginous crop Plukenetia volubilis L. has a remarkable lipid composition and a large potential for further domestication, alleviation of malnutrition, and integration into sustainable food production systems. Current global challenges include climate change, increasing population size, lack of food security, malnutrition, and degradation of arable lands. In this context, a reformation of our food production systems is imperative. Underutilized crops, or orphan crops, can provide valuable traits for this purpose, e.g., climate change resilience, nutritional benefits, cultivability on marginal lands, and improvement of income opportunities for smallholders. Plukenetia volubilis L. (Euphorbiaceae)-sacha inchi-is a 'lost crop' of the Incas native to the Amazon basin. Its oleaginous seeds are large, with a high content of ω-3, and -6 fatty acids (ca. 50.5, and 34.1%, of the lipid fraction, respectively), protein, and antioxidants. Culinarily, the seeds are nut-like and the crop has been associated with humans since Incan times. Research has particularly been undertaken in seed biochemistry, and to some extent in phylogeny, genetics, and cultivation ecology, but attention has been unevenly distributed, causing knowledge gaps in areas such as ethnobotany, allergenicity, and sustainable cultivation practices. Recently, seed size evolution and molecular drivers of the fatty acid synthesis and composition have been studied, however, further research into the lipid biosynthesis is desirable. Targeted breeding has not been undertaken but might be especially relevant for yield, sensory qualities, and cultivation with low environmental impact. Similarly, studies of integration into sustainable management systems are of highest importance. Here, present knowledge on P. volubilis is reviewed and a general framework for conducting research on underutilized crops with the aim of integration into sustainable food production systems is presented.

Investigating C[double bond, length as m-dash]C positions and hydroxylation sites in lipids using Paternò-Büchi functionalization mass spectrometry

Lipid oxidation plays a major role in biochemical processes and nutrition. Structural changes during oxidation can lead to alterations of lipid functions. Rancidification and production of secondary lipid messengers are well-known examples for the impact of oxidation on lipid function. Especially lipids with a high degree of unsaturation are prone to oxidize. In order to investigate structural changes of lipids upon oxidation, we here introduce a photochemical Paternò-Büchi functionalization workflow and subsequent mass spectrometric analysis for analysis of unsaturated, oxidized lipids. Results for hydroxylated fatty acids and triglycerides containing isolated and conjugated C[double bond, length as m-dash]C bonds will be presented making use of 3-acetylpyridine as a photochemically active compound. Photochemical derivatization is performed in nano-electrospray emitter tips in 30 s resulting in the formation of oxetanes without inducing light-triggered oxidation of analytes. Collisional-activation of photoproducts facilitates selective cleavage of oxetane moieties. Resulting fragment ions not only allow the determination of C[double bond, length as m-dash]C bond locations for isolated and conjugated C[double bond, length as m-dash]C bonds but also restrict the site of oxidation. By registering the mass shift in some fragment ions of +15.99 Da due to hydroxylation, the oxidized sections of lipids can be identified. In order to demonstrate its analytical robustness, the method is applied to determine the structural impact of non-selective ambient oxidation on fatty acids, triglycerides and complex triglyceride mixtures obtained from Sacha inchi oil.

Glycerolipid Composition and Advanced Physicochemical Considerations of Sacha Inchi Oil toward Cosmetic Products Formulation

Sacha inchi oil is a premier raw material with highly nutritional and functional features for the foodstuff, pharmaceutical, beauty, and personal care industries. One of the most important facts about this oil is the huge chemical content of unsaturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids. However, the current available information on the characterization of the triglyceride composition and the advance physicochemical parameters relevant to emulsion development is limited. Therefore, this research focused on providing a detailed description of the lipid composition using high-resolution tandem mass spectrometry and thorough physicochemical characterization to find the value of the required hydrophilic–lipophilic balance (HLB). For this, a study in the interfacial tension was evaluated, followed by the assessment of different parameters such as creaming index, droplet size, viscosity, zeta potential, pH, and electrical conductivity for a series emulsified at thermal stress condition. The results show that fatty acids are arranged into glycerolipids and the required HLB to achieve the maximum physical stability is around 8.

Identification of polyunsaturated triacylglycerols and CC location isomers in sacha inchi oil by photochemical reaction mass spectrometry combined with nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy

Sacha inchi oil is derived from the seeds of Plukenetia volubilis L. and has great nutritional value due to its high contents of active polyunsaturated triacylglycerols (PUTAGs). In this study, we developed a methodology combined Paternò-Büchi reaction nanoelectrospray ionization mass spectrometry (PB-nanoESI-MS) and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) to identify CC locations and isomers of PUTAGs in sacha inchi oil. Benzophenone was used as the PB reagent, and the optimized solvent composition (methanol:chloroform = 9:1) allowed for PUTAGs and their PB products to be detected with higher intensities. In addition, we made efforts to interpret the MS² spectra for identification lipid species. A series of C₅₇-PUTAGs and C₅₉-PUTAGs were detected and identified via high-resolution PB-nanoESI-MS, and the predominant PUTAGs were TAG 18:1(Δ9)_18:3(Δ9,12,15)_18:3(Δ9,12,15) and TAG 18:2(Δ9,12)_18:2(Δ9,12)_18:3 (Δ9,12,15), which demonstrated that the PB-nanoESI-MS approach in this study provides help in promoting the development of structural determination of triacylglycerols in food chemistry.

Quality, stability, carotenoids and chromatic parameters of commercial Sacha inchi oil originating from Peruvian cultivars

Sacha inchi oil is a high-quality product with market potential and a wealth of bioactive compounds beneficial for food and health. The main objective of this work was to evaluate three quality parameters, stability, chromatic parameters and total carotenoids of commercial oils obtained from Sacha inchi seeds. The free acidity and peroxide value of all samples studied were in ranges of 0.16-1.86 (% α-linolenic acid) and 1.87-17.47 (meq O₂/kg), respectively. While K₂₃₂ value for the samples ranged from 1.96 to 2.29, the K₂₇₀ value was between 0.08 to 0.20 and ∆K in the range of - 0.005 to 0.005. Regarding color, Sacha inchi oils showed high h _ab and low C ab ∗ values, and the L ^* values were from 91 to near 100 units. Samples were located in the second quadrant of the CIELAB a ^* b ^*-color diagram. These characteristics corresponds to low-vivid light-yellow colors. Carotenoid content of Sacha inchi oils was 0.31-9.10 mg/kg. The oxidative stability using Rancimat (100 °C, 20 L/h air flow rate) of these oils presented an average value of 5.6 h. Pearson's coefficients indicate a very high correlation coefficient between the values of Car (carotenoid) versus b ^* (yellow area) (r = 0.991). The results of this study provide better understanding of the quality, stability, chromatic intensities and carotenoid contents of Sacha inchi oil that is marketed in Peru.

Characterization of commercial Sacha inchi oil according to its composition: tocopherols, fatty acids, sterols, triterpene and aliphatic alcohols

Sacha inchi oil (SIO) is one of the largest vegetable oil exports in Peru, used for consumption, in the food industry, cosmetics, and pharmaceuticals; it represents a significant economic income for producers. This study addresses the characterization and quantification of fatty acids, tocopherols, sterols, and alcohols of commercial Sacha inchi oils from Peru. Some of the SIO samples received had a high substance consistency, while others differed in the compounds studied. The results showed that some of the commercialized oils present high levels of γ-tocopherol and δ-tocopherol, while other samples had variable fatty acid compositions; especially in α-linolenic, linoleic, oleic and palmitic acids. Fourteen sterols and eleven alcohols were identified (β-sitosterol, stigmasterol, campesterol, Δ5-avenasterol, triterpene alcohol, lanosterol isomer 1 and cycloartenol) being the major components. Some SIO samples presented the following ratios: The δ-tocopherol/γ-tocopherol ratio was 0.33-0.81, ω-6/ω-3 ratio was 0.77 and a stigmasterol/campesterol ratio of 3.13. The presence of brassicasterol in some commercial oils indicates the addition of rapeseed or canola oil. Tocopherols, fatty acids, sterols and alcohol data provided a classification of SIO samples, by an efficient k-means clustering algorithm analysis. The ANOVA found significant differences between clusters for palmitic acid, oleic acid, γ-tocopherol, δ-tocopherol, campesterol and stigmasterol; these compounds could be used as markers of authenticity in commercial Sacha inchi oils.

Rapid and direct determination of fatty acids and glycerides profiles in Schisandra chinensis oil by using UPLC-Q/TOF-MSE

Fatty acids and glycerides are globally accepted quality and nutrition indicators of oils. Schisandra chinensis (S. chinensis) is a good functional oil source, with an oil content of 10-50% (dry weight). In this study, the UPLC-Q/TOF-MS^E technique was developed to profile FFA and glycerides in the S. chinensis oils directly. The results showed that all of the 36 FFA calibration equations of the mixture standard had good linear relationships (R² > 0.99). The limit of detection for the tested compounds ranged from 0.0001 to 0.0200 μg/mL, while the limit of quantification ranged from 0.0005 to 0.1300 μg/mL. In total, seventeen FFAs, six diglycerides and 20 triglycerides were identified. Linoleic, oleic, stearic and palmitic acids were the most abundant FFAs in the S. chinensis oils. It was also found that S. chinensis oil is rich in the L-L, L-L-L, O-L-L and O-L-O glycerides. These results will be helpful for the use of this technique in physicochemical evaluation and for further application development.

Safety assessment of Plukenetia volubilis (Inca peanut) seeds, leaves, and their products

Plukenetia volubilis or Inca peanut is a promising plant with high economic value. Its seeds can be pressed for oil production or roasted and served as a snack, while the dried leaves can be used to make a kind of tea. Although the oil from the cold-pressed seeds has been proven to be safe for human consumption, little information is known about the other parts of the plant regarding safety. Thus, the aim of this study was to investigate the naturally occurring phytotoxins, including saponins, total alkaloids, and lectins in fresh and roasted Inca peanut seeds and leaves. In addition, cytotoxicity on several normal cell types including human peripheral blood mononuclear cells, human embryonic kidney cells, human hepatic stellate cells, and mouse fibroblasts as well as in vivo mutagenic properties was studied. This study showed that fresh Inca peanut seeds and leaves contain saponins, alkaloids, and lectins. However, roasting enables the reduction in alkaloids, saponins, and possibly lectins, suggesting that these phytotoxins become unstable under heat. Furthermore, Inca peanut seeds and leaves, especially after roasting, are safe to a variety of normal cell lines and do not induce DNA mutations in Drosophila expressing high biotransformation system. In conclusion, the data in this study indicated that high and chronic consumption of fresh seeds and leaves should be avoided. Heat processing should be applied before the consumption of Inca peanut seeds and leaves in order to reduce phytotoxins and potential health risks.

Sacha inchi (Plukenetia volubilis L.): Nutritional composition, biological activity, and uses

Sacha inchi (Plukenetia volubilis L.) is native to the Peruvian Amazon and is recognised in other parts of the world as a sustainable crop with viable commercial applications. In recent years, there has been growing interest in developing the sacha inchi plant as a novel source of oil rich in unsaturated fatty acids. This review presents information on the major and minor chemical components, health effects and utilization of different parts (seeds, seed shells and leaves) of this plant. In particular, the physicochemical properties and oxidative stability of sacha inchi seed oil are described. The whole sacha inchi plant has been utilized to generate nutritional, cosmetic and pharmaceutical products with the goal to maximize its economic value. The sacha inchi plant may become a valuable resource for high value-added compounds used in many diverse food and non-food products.

De novo transcriptome assembly of the eight major organs of Sacha Inchi (Plukenetia volubilis) and the identification of genes involved in α-linolenic acid metabolism

Background

Sacha Inchi (Plukenetia volubilis L.), which belongs to the Euphorbiaceae, has been considered a new potential oil crop because of its high content of polyunsaturated fatty acids in its seed oil. The seed oil especially contains high amounts of α-linolenic acid (ALA), which is useful for the prevention of various diseases. However, little is known about the genetic information and genome sequence of Sacha Inchi, which has largely hindered functional genomics and molecular breeding studies.

Results

In this study, a de novo transcriptome assembly based on transcripts sequenced in eight major organs, including roots, stems, shoot apexes, mature leaves, male flowers, female flowers, fruits, and seeds of Sacha Inchi was performed, resulting in a set of 124,750 non-redundant putative transcripts having an average length of 851 bp and an N50 value of 1909 bp. Organ-specific unigenes analysis revealed that the most organ-specific transcripts are found in female flowers (2244 unigenes), whereas a relatively small amount of unigenes are detected to be expressed specifically in other organs with the least in stems (24 unigenes). A total of 42,987 simple sequence repeats (SSRs) were detected, which will contribute to the marker assisted selection breeding of Sacha Inchi. We analyzed expression of genes related to the α-linolenic acid metabolism based on the de novo assembly and annotation transcriptome in Sacha Inchi. It appears that Sacha Inchi accumulates high level of ALA in seeds by strong expression of biosynthesis-related genes and weak expression of degradation-related genes. In particular, the up-regulation of FAD3 and FAD7 is consistent with high level of ALA in seeds of Sacha Inchi compared with in other organs. Meanwhile, several transcription factors (ABI3, LEC1 and FUS3) may regulate key genes involved in oil accumulation in seeds of Sacha Inchi.

Conclusions

The transcriptome of major organs of Sacha Inchi has been sequenced and de novo assembled, which will expand the genetic information for functional genomic studies of Sacha Inchi. In addition, the identification of candidate genes involved in ALA metabolism will provide useful resources for the genetic improvement of Sacha Inchi and the metabolic engineering of ALA biosynthesis in other plants.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (10.1186/s12864-018-4774-y) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Nitrogen balance after a single oral consumption of sacha inchi (Plukenetia volúbilis L.) protein compared to soy protein: a randomized study in humans

Sacha inchi is a seed produced in the Peruvian Amazonian and its oil is recognized by the lowering lipids effect in humans. The remaining material transformed to flour has a higher amount of protein, but, the nitrogen balance once ingested orally has not been studied. The present study was designed to evaluate the nitrogen balance after single consumption of 30 g of sacha inchi flour and compared with that obtained after consumption of 30 g soybean flour in adult men and women. This was a double-blind cohort study in 15 men and 15 women between 18 and 55 years old. Fifteen subjects received soy meal and 15 subjects received sacha inchi meal. Group receiving sacha inchi flour has comparable initial parameters as those receiving soybean flour (p > 0.05). Blood samples at different times were obtained. Urine for 24 h was collected to calculate nitrogen balance, p < 0.05 was considered significant. Plasma insulin levels increased post-prandial with a peak at 30 min. Thereafter, a reduction occurred. The magnitude of changes in insulin levels was similar in sacha inchi and soybean groups (p < 0.05). Lipid profile and inflammatory marker, C-reactive protein (CRP) and interleukin 6 (IL6) was not different at 0 or 24 h after sacha inchi or soy flour administration. The nitrogen balance was negative in the study but similar between both groups (p > 0.05). In conclusion, protein consumption of sacha inchi flour has the same nitrogen balance as soybean flour, shows acceptability for a single consumption and does not present serious adverse effects.